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697 451 1938
HEATING VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
GUIDE 1938
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HEATING VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
GUIDE
1938
AN INSTRUMENT OF SERVICE PREPARED FOR THE PROFESSION — CONTAINING A
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OF REFERENCE MATERIAL ON THE DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION OF HEATING,
VENTILATING AND AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS — BASED ON THE TRANS-
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MODERN EQUIPMENT
ALSO
The Roll of Membership of the Society
WITH
Complete Indexes
TO TECHNICAL AND CATALOG DATA SECTIONS
Vol. 16
$5.00 PER COPY
Copyright, 1938
AND
PUBLISHED ANNUALLY BY
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS
51 MADISON AVENUE .'. NEW YORK, N. Y.
"TO THE isth EDITION
J^HE acceptance of the HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR
CoxDiTi6>'i>:Gt GUIDE as an authoritative source of scientific infor-
mation on all engineering phases of the industry, has imposed each year
since 1922 more and greater responsibilities on the Guide Publication
Committee. Although extensive new material has been added to this
edition, the ideals of the founders have been carefully preserved by pre-
senting only authentic and current investigative results which have been
tried and accepted in practice.
The sequence and arrangement of the various chapters have been
changed to provide for a more logical grouping according to related
subject matter, and a visual chapter index has been added. Probably,
the greatest changes that have been made in the text are those relating
to cooling phases of the industry. The chapters on Refrigerants and Air
Drying Agents, Cooling Load, Central Systems for Cooling and Dehu-
midifying and Cooling and Dehumidification Methods have been entirely
revised to bring them up-to-date and to correlate them more closely.
One entirely new chapter on Air Conditioning in the Treatment of
Disease was introduced in this edition which outlines many of the appli-
cation requirements found in the medical field. Some minor changes were
made in the chapters on Heat Transmission Coefficients, Air Leakage,
Heat and Fuel Utilization, Heating Boilers and Steam Heating Systems.
The chapters have been rewritten which deal with Air Pollution,
Automatic Fuel Burning Equipment, Hot Water Heating Systems and
Piping, Spray Equipment for Humidification and Dehumidification, Air
Cleaning Devices, Railway Air Conditioning, Industrial Air Conditioning,
Piping and Duct Insulation, Electrical Heating and Radiant Heating.
The Catalog Data Section of the GUIDE is receiving more recognition
as each issue appears for the valuable product data contained therein.
As usual, the manufacturers have cooperated in accomplishing the dual
purpose of this part of the GUIDE; to provide authoritative and condensed
catalog information for the Guide user, and to develop an effective and
productive advertising medium for the manufacturer.
In offering the 16th edition of the HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CON-
DITIONING GUIDE, the Committee wishes to acknowledge not only the
editorial assistance unselfishly given by many whose aid is specifically
accredited elsewhere, but also the valuable suggestions offered by the many
readers and users of other editions. It is hoped that improvements
and additions will be suggested to future Committees by readers of
this volume, particularly, as perfection is not of human attainment.
Without the publication of previous editions, the issuance of the
HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938 in this fairly
complete state m so short a time would be practically impossible. It is
the Committee s^hope that the same enthusiastic reception* given to
earlier volumes will be accorded this edition of 15,500
:V, Chairman
#
GUIDE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE
CONTENTS
HEATING • VENTILATING • AIR CONDITIONING • GUIDE 1938
PAGE
TITLE PAGE i
PREFACE.- ii
CONTENTS iii-v
EDITORIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS vi
INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA vii
TECHNICAL DATA SECTION 1-840
CATALOG DATA SECTION 841-1162
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS 843
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT „ 1165
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP. 1-80
SECTION I. PRINCIPLES
Chapter 1. Air, Water and Steam... 1
Chapter 2. Refrigerants and Air Drying Agents 35
Chapter 3. Physical and Physiological Principles of Air Conditioning.... 51
Chapter 4. Air Pollution... _ 79
SECTION II. BASIC DATA AND COMPUTATIONS
Chapter 5. Heat Transmission Coefficients and Tables..™ 89
Chapter 6. Air Leakage. 121
Chapter 7. Heating Load 133
Chapter 8. Cooling Load 147
SECTION III. COMBUSTION AND UTILIZATION OF FUELS
Chapter 9. Fuels and Combustion 165
Chapter 10. Chimneys and Draft Calculations 179
Chapter 11. Automatic Fuel Burning Equipment 201
Chapter 12. Heat and Fuel Utilization 229
SECTION IV. STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
Chapter 13. Heating Boilers 243
Chapter 14. Radiators and Gravity Converters... „ 263
Chapter 15. Steam Heating Systems 276
Chapter 16. Piping for Steam Heating Systems.- 301
Chapter 17. Hot Water Heating Systems and Piping 331
Chapter 18. Pipe, Fittings and Welding 35£
(Continued on Page V)
EDITORIAL ACKNOWLEDGMENT
T70R 16 years the HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE
I/ has been published by the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND
VENTILATING ENGINEERS and it retains its leadership asjthe authoritative
reference volume of the profession and its allied industries. Its users are
legion and they have adopted The Guide as their standard reference
source because they recognize that the data are unbiased, up-to-date and
readily usable. This has been made possible because of the willingness of
hundreds of technical experts to contribute freely from their knowledge
and practical experience for the advancement of the profession.
To the following individuals the Guide Publication Committee is
profoundly grateful for their assistance in the production of the 1938
edition, and also to those former contributors who have previously
prepared a firm foundation for the addition of new material.
H. E. ADAMS
T. N. ADLAM
. C. ALBRIGHT
!. L. ALT
0. W. ARMSPACH
C. L. ARNOLD
C. M. ASHLEY
PROF. LL. BEAL
F, R. BICHOWSKY
J. L. BLACKSHAW
M. G. BLUTH
C. A. BOOTH
C. J. BRAATZ
C. E. BRONSON
PROF. A. I. BROWN
C A. BULKELEY
W. H. CARLTON
P. D. CLOSE
SABIN CROCKER
R. C. CROSS
D. N. CROSTHWAIT, JR.
PHILIP DRINKER
G. G. EARLY, JR.
E. V. ERICKSON
C. E. ERNST
JOHN EVERETTS, JR.
PROF. M. K. FAHNESTOCK
W. L. FLEISHER
W. G. FRANK
J. E. GODFREY
C D. GRAHAM
W. A. GRANT
'. R. HERTZLER
:. G. HILLIER
F. C. HOUGHTEN
PROF. C. M. HUMPHREYS
H. F. HUTZEL
L. P. HYNES
A. J. JOHNSON
E. F. JONES
C. F. KAYAN
R. T. KERN
R. E. KEYES
PROF. V. O. KNUDSEN
PROF. S. KONZO
PROF. A. P. KRATZ
PROF. G. L. LARSON
L. L. LEWIS
S. R. LEWIS
H. A. LOCKHART
ARTHUR MCCUTCHAN
PROF. L. G. MILLER
PROF. P. E. MOHN
L. L. MUNIER
,H. C. MURPHY
PROF. D. W. NELSON
P. NICHOLLS
R. F. NORRIS
A. J. OFFNER
0. W. OTT
k:
:S. PARKINSON
. G. RAPPOLT
PROF. T. F. ROCKWELL
J. 0. Ross
S. I. ROTTMAYER
PROF. F. B. ROWLEY
. S. SANDFORT
:OF. W. M. SAWDON
PROF. L. E. SEELEY
LESTER SEELIG
C. G. SEGELER
A. M. SELVEY
C. D. SHIELDS
R. W. SHIELDS
A. L. SIMISON
D. C. SIMPSON
T. H. SMOOT
A. E. STAGEY, JR.
D. J. STEWART
C. A. THINN
R/ J. THOMPSON
W. W. TIMMIS
PROF. G. L. TUVE
. H. VAN ALSBURG
'. 0. URBAN
A. R. WALKER
J. H. WALKER
PROF. G. B. WILKES
M. S. WUNDERLICH
PROF. C. P. YAGLOU
The members of the Society are especially indebted to these engineers
who have aided in the preparation of this volume and the Guide Publi-
cation Committee hereby expresses its appreciation for the loyal coopera-
tion of the many contributors to this 16th edition.
GUIDE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE
ALBERT BUENGER, Chairman
S. H. DOWNS
C. H. B. HOTCHKISS
E. N. MCDONNELL, Advisory
S. S. SANFORD
W. H. SEVERNS
JOHN JAMES, Technical Assistant
CONTENTS (Concluded)
SECTION V. AIR SYSTEMS PAGE
Chapter 19. Gravity Warm Air Furnace Systems 377
Chapter 20. Mechanical Warm Air Furnace Systems 393
Chapter 21. Central Systems for Heating and Humidifying 409
Chapter 22. Central Systems for Cooling and Dehumidifying 423
Chapter 23. Unit Heaters, Ventilators, Air Conditioning, Cooling Units 435
Chapter 24. Cooling and Dehumidification Methods „ 469
Chapter 25. Spray Equipment for Humidification and Dehumidification,. 499
Chapter 26. Air Cleaning Devices 519
Chapter 27. Fans 531
Chapter 28. Air Distribution 547
Chapter 29. Air Duct Design.- 563
Chapter 30. Sound Control 583
SECTION VI. GENERAL
Chapter 31. Air Conditioning in the Treatment of Disease 597
Chapter 32. Railway Air Conditioning 60S
Chapter 33. Industrial Air Conditioning 62]
Chapter 34. Industrial Exhaust Systems 63c
Chapter 35. Drying Systems 64'
Chapter 36. Natural Ventilation.- 669
Chapter 37. Automatic Control 683
Chapter 38. Motors and Controls 703
Chapter 39. Piping and Duct Insulation 719
Chapter 40. Electrical Heating 741
Chapter 41. Radiant Heating 753
Chapiei" 42 District Heating™ 765
Chapter 43. Water Supply Piping and Water Heating 783
Chapter 44. Test Methods and Instruments.. 807
Chapter 45. Terminology 819
CODE of ETfflCS for ENGINEERS
ENGINEERING work has become an increasingly important factor
in the progress of civilization and in the welfare of the community.
The engineering profession is held responsible for the planning, construc-
tion and operation of such work and is entitled to the position and
authority which will enable it to discharge this responsibility and to
render effective service to humanity.
That the dignity of their chosen profession may be maintained, it is
the duty of all engineers to conduct themselves according to the principles
of the following Code of Ethics:
1 — The engineer will cany on his professional work in a spirit of fairness
to employees and contractors, fidelity to clients and employers, loyalty
to his country and devotion to high ideals of courtesy and personal
honor.
2-— He will refrain from associating himself with or allowing the use of his
name by an enterprise of questionable character.
3 — He will advertise only in a dignified manner, being careful to avoid
misleading statements.
4 — He will regard as confidential any information obtained by him as to
the business affairs and technical methods or processes of a client or
employer.
5 — He will inform a client or employer of any business connections, in-
terests or affiliations which might influence his judgment or impair the
disinterested quality of his services.
6 — He will refrain from using any improper or questionable methods of
soliciting professional work and will decline to pay or to accept com-
missions for securing such work.
7 — He will accept compensation, financial or otherwise, for a particular
service, from one source only, except with the full knowledge and
consent of all interested parties.
8 — He will not use unfair means to win professional advancement or to
injure the chances of another engineer to secure and hold employment.
9 — He will cooperate in upbuilding the engineering profession by exchang-
ing general information and experience with his fellow engineers and
students of engineering and also by contributing to work of engineering
societies, schools of applied science and the technical press.
10— He will interest himself in the public welfare in behalf of which he will
be ready to apply his special knowledge, skill and training for the use
and benefit of mankind.
INDEX
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING
GUIDE 1938
Technical Data Section
Chapters 1-45 and Pages 1-840
Abbreviations, 831
Absolute humidity, 8, 819
Absolute pressure, 807, 819
Absolute temperature, 819
Absolute zero, 819
Absorption, (sec also Regain)
agents, 44
as means of dehumidification, 492
by building materials, 155
of solar radiation by glass, 152
of sound, 592
system, 492, 493
Acceleration, 819
due to gravity, 819
Acclimatization, 56
Acoustics, acoustical, 583
treatment, 591
Activated alumina, 39
Adiabatic saturation, 11, 495, 502, 819
driers, 649
Adjustable speed motor, 704, 709, 710
Adsorption, 819
agents, 37
as means of dehumidification, 490
systems
alumina, 491
silica gel, 491
Air
adiabatic saturation of, 11
amount per person, 70
atmospheric, 1
changes of, indoors, 51, 129
cleaning devices, 519, 819
A.S.H.V.E. code for, 519
requirements of, 519
types of, 520
composition of, 1, 51
density of, 6
distribution of, 72, 397, 547
balancing, system, 560
for comfort, 69
effect of turning blades, 554
factors in room cooling, 552
factors in room heating, 554
grille locations, 547
natural ventilation, 669
railway air conditioning, 560, 610
residence, 397
with unit air conditioners, 455
with unit heaters, 441
with unit ventilators, 446
dry, 1, 4, 8, 59, 822
drying agents, 35, 37
ducts, 563, (see also Ducts, Air)
excess, 168
exfiltration, 121, 413
filtration, 121, 180, 229, 413, 820
Air (continue<f)
flow, 72, 77
control, principles of, 675
formulae, 563
into a hood, 638
loudness chart, 556
natural, measurement of, 678
requirements, 676
through openings, 670, 675
friction of, in pipes, 567, 568
impurities in, 79, 676
size of, 80
ionization of, 75
leakage, 121, 127
minimum outdoor, requirements, 7S
mixtures with water vapor, 12
moist, 68
motion, 72, 74
movement, measurement of, 811
odors in, 51
optimum conditions, 62
indoors in summer, 68
outlet noises, 554
outside, introduced,
fan systems, 414
through cracks, 126, 129
through doors, 127
unit air conditioners, 455
unit ventilators, 447
pollution, 79
abatement of, 84
effect on health, 83
primary, 167
properties of, 3, 4
for combustion, 167, 176
for ventilation, 70, 609
recirculation of, 77
fan systems, 411, 417
unit ventilators, 447
saturated, 1, 5, 10, 827
secondary, 167
space conductances, 93
speeds to convey material, 642
standard, 828
summer, conditions, 68
still, 57
synthetic chart, 829
velocity, (see Velocity, Air)
vitiation, 51
volume, 12
washer, 499, 820, (see also Washer, Air)
operation of, 690
saturation efficiency, 502
weight of, 6
Air conditioning 51, 503, 819, (see also Air)
air change per occupant, 71
chemical factors, 55, 81
comfort chart, 63, 64
in disease treatment, 597
Vil
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Air conditionin
, -V.»7
with, ice, V,,<»}
,
tus for, .503
automatic control. <»83
exhaust aystems, t>33
operation cf, 485
process conditions, G21
unit coolers, 449
objective of, 1
physical factors, 51
redrcalation, 77, 411. 417, 447
symbola, 836
units, 451
Algae formations. 514
Allergic disorders, 004
classification of, 601
treatment cf,
apparatus for, 604
limitations in, 605
Alternating current motor, 703
Altitude. 1S3
Alumina system of adsorption, 30, 491
Aluminum foil, 94
Aluminum oxide, 39
Ammonia, 35, 36, 511
Anemometer, 812. 820
Anesthesia, 597
apparatus, 507
effect of, 598
inflammability, 598
Anthracite, 165, 169, (see also Coal)
stokers, 205
Apartment bouses,
hot water supply to, 797
steam consumption, 234
stokers suitable for, 206
Appendicitis, 599
Artheritis, 607
A.S.H.V.E. Codes and Standards, 247. 281, 518,
534. 680, 839
A.S.M.E. boiler construction code, 257
Artificial fever, 602
conditions for, 603
diseases treated, 603
limits for. 603
production of, 603
Asbestos, 725
Ash*
cared for by stokers, 201
fly, 79
Asphyxia, 605
Asthma, 604, 605
Atelectasis, 605
Atmosphere, standard, 807
Atmospheric steam heating system, (see also
Steam Heating Systems)
Atmospheric water cooling apparatus, 507
design of, 510, 511
efficiency of, 512, 516
Atomization,
for humidifying. 504
of 02, 214
Attic fans. 464
Automatic control, 399, 608. (see also Controls)
Automatic fuel burning equipment, 201
Awnings, 156, 406
Arm! velocity formula, for hoods, 637
B
Babcock's formula for steam flow, 301, 766
Baby care, (see Nurseries)
Baffles, 595, 820
Balancing air distribution system, 560
Barn ventilation 679
Barometer,
aneroid. 808
mercurial, 807
Barometric pressure, 183, 807
Baudelot,
chamber, 502
cooler, 496
Bends, expansion, 362
BET, British equivalent temperature, 356
Biochemical reactions, control of, 628
Bituminous coal, 165, 171
Blast, 820
Blower, blowers, 531, (see also Fans)
standard test code for, 534
Body,
human, surface area, 71
odors, 71
Boiler, boilers, 243, 820
allowances, 252, 802
A.S.H.V.E. test codes, 248, 840
A.S.M.E. construction code, 258
baffles, 395, 820
capacity, 243, 442
care during summer, 261
cast-iron, 243
cleaning, 260
codes, 248
combustion rate, 244
connections, 258, 316
controls, 698
conversion, 218, 256
design of, 246
domestic oil burners, 218
draft loss through, 189
efficiency of , 247, 251 m
for electric steam heating, 745
erection of, 259
fittings, 258
gas-fired, 222, 245, 256
grate area, 255
heat transfer rates, 247
heating, surface, 247, 820
horsepower, 251, 820
installation, 256. 259
insulation. 261
limitations, 257
low pressure, construction code, 258
maintenance, 259
oil burners, 4, 218
operation, 259
output, 250
performance curves, 254
pick up, 252
pipe tax, 253
ratings of, 248, 249
run out sizes, 319
scale in, 260
selection of, 251, 254, 255
settings, 218, 246
for mechanical stokers, 211
special. 245
steel, 243
troubles with, 260
types of, 240
warming-up allowance, 252, 254
water line, 258
Boiling point of water, 27
Booster,
coils, 411
fans, 390, 426
Booths, spray, 640
Bourdon tube, 808
Boyle's law, 7
Brake horsepower, heat equivalent of, 141
Breeching, draft loss through, 193
Brine, 454, 483
British equivalent temperature, 756
British thermal unit, 820
Building, buildings,
absorption coefficients, 155
air velocities in, 569
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Building, buildings (continued)
classification, for district heating, 777
construction, heat transmission of, 91, 97
district heating, 770
fuel requirements of, 229
hot water supply to, 794, 797
intermittently cooled, 149
intermittently heated, 141
load factors, 240
materials, heat transmission of, 97
noise in, 5S7
saving of steam in 771
steam consumption, 234
tall, infiltration in, 128
water supply to, 783
Burner, burners,
automatic equipment, 201
coal, 201
conversion, 224
gas, 221
oil, 213
By-pass method, 425, 820
Cabinets, (see Enclosures)
Calorie, 820
Calorific values,
coal, 166
gas, 176
oil, 174
Capacitor motor, 706
Capillary moisture, 651
Carbon dioxide, 36
concentration in air, 72
as corrosion agent, 374
as an Index of,
combustion, 168, 176, 212, 220, 224
draft loss, 192
odors, 52
measurement of 815
as a refrigerant, 38
Carbon monoxide,
in air, 84
in garages, 681
produced by gas, 224
produced by oil burners, 220
produced by stokers, 212
Carnot cycle, 475
Cattle, heat and moisture produced by, 678
Ceilings, heat transmission, 111
Central air conditioning systems, 423
classification of, 423
cooling cycle control for, 691
design of, 427
location of apparatus, 428
ratings of, 429
spray type, 424
zoning, 428
Central fan heating systems, 409, 688, 820
computations for 413
design of, 413
electrical, 744
heating cycle control for, 688
heating requirements of, 412
Characteristics of motors, 708
Charles* law, 7
Chemical reactions, control of, 628
Chimney, chimneys, 179
areas of, 187, 189, 191
characteristics, 182
construction of, 195
effect, 129, 670, 672
for gas heating, 196
gas temperature, 184
performance, 186
sizes, 187, 189, 191, 198
Venturi, 180
Chorea, 603
Cleaners, air, (see Air, Cleaning Devices)
Clearance, window sash, 124
Climatic conditions, 138
Coal, (see also Anthracite, Coke, Lignite)
air speed for conveying, 642
analysis of, 165
bituminous, 165, 171
burning rate chart, 238
calorific value, 166
classification of, 165
dust, disposal of, 79
dustless, 172
pulverized, 172
semi-bituminous, 165, 172
size of, 169
Coal burning systems,
automatic control of, 699
automatic firing equipment, 201
boilers, 243
combustion rate, 394
draft required for, 192
fuel requirements, calculation, 230
furnace requirements, 395, 400
hand-fired, 173
stokers, 201
Codes,
A.S.H.V.E. codes and standards, 839
for grinding, polishing, and buffing wheels, 636
for proportioning warm air heating plants, 222
for rating air conditioning equipment, 435, 462
for use of refrigerants, 426
Coefficients of heat transmission, (see Heat Trans-
mission, Coefficients)
Coils,
booster, 411
cooling, 406, 453
evaporator, 406
heating, 404, 411
hot water, 404
pipe. 323
preheater, 411
radiator, 263
reheater, 411
steam, 411
tempering, 411
Coke. 166, 210, 411
combustion of, 172
Cold, effects on human body, 55
Collectors, dust, 643
Column radiator, 821
Combined system,
air conditioning equipment, 423
central fan, 409
Combustion, 165 •
air required for, 167, 168, 176
constants, 659
of different coals, 169, 171, 209
in driers, 655
of gas, 176, 224
of oil, 219
rates for heating boilers, 244
smokeless, 247
with various stokers, 209
Comfort, 57
chart, 64
conditions of, 147
effective temperature, 60, 61, 62
heating for. 753
level, 267
line, 63. 66, 821
for men working, 66
optimum air conditions for, 62
school children, 65
zone, 62, 821, (see also Zone, Comfort)
Compensated cooling control, 693
Composition of water, 27
Compound wound motor, 703
Compressed air, 504
Compressors, 470
control of, 701
reversed refrigeration 495, 749
types of, 471
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Condensation,
4>n balidin* surface*, 1*1
metew, 773
prevention of, 141, 734
rate in radiators, 267
return pumps, 2tal
in steam beating systems, 275, 301
Condenser, 48 1
design data, 481, 511
performance of, 481
turbine, 507
types cf, 481
water temperatures, 511
Conditioning and drying, 627, (s« also Atr Condt-
tionint)
Conductance, 90, 92, 821
of air maces, 90, 93
of building materials, 97
of insulation. 97, 723
surf ace. 92
Conduction, 263, 821
drying by, 647
beater. 742
Conductivity, 90. 92. 821
Conductor, 821
Conduit, 707
Constant relative humidity. 821
Constant speed motor, 704, 70S, 709
Constant temperature drier, 650
Construction code for low pressure boilers, 258
Contours, velocity, 637
Control, controls, 683 821
of air conditioning equipment. 485. 683, 688, 700
combined system, 688
split system. 689
apparatus, 684
automatic, 399. 683. 697. 698
gas burner. 698
oil burner, 698
stoker, 699
compensated cooling. 693
of cooling; units. 695
domestic hot water, 700
of draft, 181
of electric motors, 711
electric system, 686
of electrical heating. 750
of fans, 541
modulating, 687, 745
moisture content. 625
of natural ventilation, 399, 673
of noise, 584
of ofl burning; equipment, 698
pneumatic system, 686
positive acting, 686
pressure, 685
railway systems. 612, 613
rate of biochemical reactions 628
rate of chemical reaction, 628
rate of crystallization, 629
" " " " quipment, 701
of refrigeration equi
compressor, 701
vacuum, 701
weft water, 702
of regain, 624
of relative humidity, 685
residential, systems, 699
room, 687
self-contained, system. 686
of sound, 583
of steam V^t*"g gys^rns, 291
of temperature, 220, 683, 750
types of, 686
wut. 220.683, 750
of vacuum pomps, 295
rone, 291, 688
Convection, 821
Gosmctor*, 263, 268, 821
A^H.V.E* code for, 271
connections for, 322
correction rating factors, 271
design of, 269
drying by. 649
Convectors (continued)
gravity, 263
heat emission by, 270
heating capacity. 270 .
performance characteristics, 270
selection, 270
Conversion burners, 224
Conversion equations, 833
Coolers,
surface, 431
types of 483
unit, 435, 449
Cooling, 11, 24
with central fan heating systems, 406, 423, 485
design, system. 407, 427
effect, 10
effective temperatures for, 68
by electric refrigeration, 470. 749
equipment, design of, 507
evaporative, 423, 483, 501
of fluids, 511
of human body, 147
load, 147
with mechanical warm air systems, 407
methods, 406, 423, 469
ponds, 512
railway air conditioning, 411
relative humidities for, 68
spray, 469
surface, 469
towers, 482, 512
units, thermostatic control, 695
water, 507
Copper pipe, 356
heaUoss, 721
Corrosion,
of boilers, 261
of industrial exhaust systems, 645
protective materials, 646
inhibitors, 375
of pipe, 374
tester, 375
Costs,
of attic fans, 460
of district heating service, 778
of railway air conditioning, 617
of unit conditioners, 464
Crack, window, 124
Crystallization, control of, 629
Cyclone dust collector, 643
Dalton, law of partial pressures, 1
Damper, dampers,
apparatus which operates, 683
control, 673
in duct systems, 398
motors, 685
types of, 398
Decibel, 583, 822
Definitions, 68
Defrosting coils, 450
Degree-day, 822
base temperature for, 234
methods of estimating fuel consumption, 231
records for cities, 232
Degrees, perspiration, 73, 75
Dehumidification, 11. 419, 469, 822
by absorption. 492
by adsorption, 490
effective temperatures for, 66
methods of, 423, 453, 490
by refrigeration, 469
relative humidities for, 68
Dehumidifier, dehumidifiers, 169
alumina, 491
in central air conditioning systems, 424
in industrial air conditioning, 503
silica gel, 491
types of, 453, 507
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Density, 3, 822
of air, 6
of saturated vapor, 12
specific, 3
of water, 27
Dennatitus, 604
Design conditions in industrial conditioning, 621
Design temperature,
dry-bulb, 138, 147
wet-bulb, 147, 511
Dew-point, 822
relation to relative humidity, 9
temperature, 2
Diameter, circular equivalents of rectangular
ducts, 572
Diarrhea, 600, 601
Dichlorodifluoromethane, 35, 40, 473, 511
Diffuser, 822
Diphtheria, 52
Direct current motor, 703
Direct-indirect heating unit, 822
Direct radiator, 822
Direct return system, 332, 822
Dirt pockets, 328
Disc fans, test code for, 524
Disease treatment,
air conditions for, 599, 600, 603
allergic disorders, 604
anesthesia, 597
artificial fever, 602
classification of diseases, 602, 605
diseases treated, 52, 599, 600, 603, 604, 605, 607
explosion hazard, 597
fever therapy, 602
filtering in, 600
hospital air conditioning, 597, 607
nurseries, 600
operating rooms, 597
oxygen therapy, 605
premature infants, 600
satisfactory air conditions, 599, 600. 603
sterilization of air, 650
ventilation rates, 598, 602
Distribution of air, 547, (see also Air, Distribution}
District heating, 765
building connections, 770
conduits, 767
economies in, 770
meters, 774, 775
pipe, (see also Piping}
distribution, 765
returns, 767
sizing, 766
rates, 778
steam consumption, 777
tunnels, 769
Diverter, back draft, 196
Domestic oil burners, 215
Domestic stokers, 204
Domestic supply,
hot water, 747, 799
control, 700
load, 253
water, 783
Doors,
air leakage through, 127
coefficients of transmission of, 117
natural ventilation through, 672
Down-feed piping systems, (see Steam Healing
Systems)
Draft, 179
available, 182, 186
back, diverter, 196
dimensions, 196
calculations, 179
capacity, 181
control, 181
equation, 187
Draft (continued)
mechanical, 180
natural, 179
requirements, 169
theoretical, 182
Drain connections, 259
Drawing, symbols for, 836
Drip, 822
Dripping of steam pipes, 327
Drum driers, 648
Dry air, 822
Dry-bulb temperature, (see Temperature, Dry-bulb)
Dry return, 823
Driers, 648, 649
adiabatic, 649
agitated, 648
batch, 648
compartment, 648
continuous, 648
cylinder, 648
design, 658
drum, 648
festoon, 648
high temperature, 663
induction, 648
intermittent, 648
rotary, 648
spray, 648
tower, 648
tunnel, 648
vacuum, 648
Drying, 627, 647, (see also Regain)
adiabatic temperature, 649
air circulation in, 653
combustion, 655
by conduction, 649
constant temperature, 650
by convection, 649
design, 658
direct contact, 649
equipment for, 653
estimating method, 665
factors influencing, 651
gas combustion constants for, 659
high temperature, 652, 663
humidity in, 652
humidity chart, 654, 655
industrial, 627, 647
low temperature, 652
mechanism of, 650
methods of, 647
moisture in, 651
omissions in the cycle, 650
by radiation, 647
rules for, 652
stages of moisture diffusion, 650
constant rate period, 650
falling rate period, 650
sun, 647
temperature in, 652
time of, 653
materials, 656
ventilation phase, 661
Duct, ducts
air, 398, 563
design of, 563
equal friction method, 569, 575
velocity method, 569
for air distribution, 547
air velocities in, 401, 642
circular equivalents, 572
construction details, 580, 641
' ' of duct systems, 398, 569, 578, 634, 640,
head, 822
intensity required, 167, 190
losses, 190
in chimneys, 192
through fuel bed, 190
heat loss from, 732
humidity measurement in, 814
insulation of, 719, 732
lining factor for sound, 592
noise transmission through, 592
pressure loss in, 564
elbows, 564, 642
for recirculated air, 381
resistance, 643
sheet metal for, 580, 642
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Duct, ducts •coxiinutft
suca of, 367, 571, 633
temperature lose in, 415
temperature measurement in, 809
velocity measurement in, 811
Duit, 7W, 823
air speeds to convey, 635, 642
catching devices, So
collectors, 643
concentration in air, 82, 815
counter, SIo
disposal of, SO
Industrial exhaust systems, 633
measurement cf, 815
Dynamic equilibrium, Carrier's equation for, 2
Dynamic head. 823
Dysenterfa, 52
E
Eczema, 604
EDR, equivalent direct radiation, 828
Effective temperature, (see Temperature, Effective)
Ether, 81, 579
Elbow, elbows,
design of. 367, 398
equivalents, 340
Ion of pressure in, 564
resistance in, 643
sheet metal used in, 641
welding of. 368
Electric, electrical,
automatic, control system, 686
central fan heating systems* 744
control, motor, 703
current, as corrosion agent, 374
heat equivalent, 141, 160. 750
heating, 741
auxiliary, 749
cost of .750
of hot water, 747
industrial, 748
heaters, 742
conduction, 742
gravity convection, 743
radiant, 743
heating elements. 252, 742, 743
with unit heaters, 743
lamp bulbs, heat from, 160
motors, 703
resistors, 742
Eliminator plates and baffles, 499
Enthalpy, 22, 823
Entropy, 473, 478, 823
tables, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44
Equations, conversion, 833
dynamic. 2
hygroscopic, 626
Equipment noise, 586
Equipment room, design of, 591
Equivalent, equivalents,
circular, 572
direct radiation, 304, 601, 828
tiljow, 340
evaporation, 251, 823
heat, 823
of air infiltration, 140
of brate horsepower. 141
electrical, 833
mechanical, 826
length of run, 305
square feet, 264
Kitfimated design load, 823
Estimated marmiTTTn load, 823
Estimating driers, 665
Estimating fuel consumption, 229
Etfaytene. 567
Eupatheoecope, 762, 817
Evaporation, 516
equivalent, 251
from human body, 54, 74
from water pans, 268
Evaporative condensers, 483
Evaporative cooling, 423, 483, 495, 501
Evaporators, 483
Exfiltration, 121, 229, 413
Exhaust systems, 633
classification of, 633
collectors, 643
corrosion, protection against, 645
design procedure for, 634
ducts for,
construction of, 641
design of. 640
resistance in, 643, 644
efficiency of, 645
fans for, 645
filters for, 644
flexible, 640
hoods for, 637
air flow in, 638
axial velocity formula for, 637
chemical laboratory, 640
large open, 639
velocity contours in, 637
industrial. 633
lateral, 637
motors for, 645
spray booth, 640
suction requirements, 635
velocity requirements, 635, 642
Expansion,
of joints, 315, 767
of pipe, 315, 359, 767
in steam piping, 767
tanks, 349
Explosion hazard,
inflammability of gases, 81
in operating rooms, 597
Exposure factors, 140
Extended heating surface, 823
Extended surface heating unit, 823
F
Fan, fans, 531
A.S.H.V.E. test code for, 534
attic, 464
booster, equipment, 390, 426
control of, 541
designation of, 543
drives, arrangement of, 542
for drying, 540
for dust collecting, 541, 645
dynamic efficiency of, 533
efficiency of, 533
in electrical heaters, 744
furnaces, 393
for gas-fired furnaces, 222
induced draft, 180
for industrial exhaust systems, 645
mechanical draft, 180
mechanical efficiency of, 533
motive power of, 543, 706
control of, 703
operating characteristics, 180, 533
operating velocities. 539, 540
performance of, 531, 539
quietness of, 442
ratings of, 538
selection of, 396, 538, 541, 543, 645
static efficiency of, 533
system characteristics, 537
systems of heating, 409
tip speeds, 538
total efficiency of, 533
types of, 393, 531, 535, 539
in unit conditioners, 455
in warm air systems, 390, 396
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Fatigue* human, 56
Fever therapy, (see Artificial Fever)
Filter, filters, 521
automatic, 523
cloth, 644
design of, 521
dry air, 524
hay fever air, 604
installation of, 525
resistance of, 396
for sound, 392
unit type, 521
viscous type, 521
Fire walls, 640
Firing rate, 169, 171
Fittings, 355, (see also Connections, Pipe)
areas of, 364
boiler, 258
copper, 365
flanged, 366, 723
lift, 287
screwed, 364
welding, 366, 370
Flame, with oil burners, 214, 219
Flanges, welding neck, 371, 372
Flexible materials, 589
Floors, heat transmission through, 111
~~ is analysis, 816
fluids,
of, 511
for flow of, 563
774
moisture of, 626
gages,
Force, 824
Forced-air heating system, design, 3
Forge shops, heat given off in, 675
Formulae,
conversion, 833
heat transmission, 91
Foundries, heat given off in, 675
of cooling water, 517
insulation against, 733
Friction,
of air, in pipes, 566, 567
in chimneys, 185
coefficients, 567
factors, 393
heads in pipes, 336
in heating units, 412
losses in ducts, 565, 567, 571
in water pipes, 791
Fuel, fuels, 165, (see also Anthracite, Coal, Coke,
Gas, Lignite. Oil)
bed. draft loss through, 189
burning equipment, automatic, 201
burning rate charts, 238
consumption. 229, 236
oil gages, 221
oil, heating value, 174, 660
oil specifications, 174
requirements,
of buildings, 236
degree-day method. 231
theoretical method, 230
utilization of, 229
Fumes, 79, 824
industrial exhaust systems, 633
toxicity of, 83
Fundamentals of heating and air conditioning, 1
Furnace, furnaces, 824
capacity, 383
design of, 173, 211, 246, 377, 383. 394, 400
door slot openings, 486
gas-fired, 222
hand-fired, 173
performance curves of, 385
types of, 221, 393, 403
volume, 824
for warm air systems, 393
Furnacestat, 399
fuel oil, 221
pressure, 824
steam, 258
vacuum, 808
Galvanometer, 809
Garage, garages,
air flow necessary in, 676
A.S.H.V.E. ventilation code, 679
heaters, for, 224
Gas, gases,
burner control, 698
burning rate chart, 239
calorific value. 141, 176
hi chimneys, 183
combustion constants, 659
constant for dry air, 8
flue, analysis, 816
fuel,
manufactured. 176
natural, 176
properties of, 176
inflammability, 81
requirements per degree day, 237
scrubbers, 86
toxicity of, 83
Gas-fired appliances, 221
automatic control of, 225, 698
boilers, 222, 245, 456
carbon monoxide produced by, 224
chimneys for, 196
classification, 221
combustion in, 224
conditioning unit, 462
control of, 225, 698
conversion burners, 224
furnace requirements for, 394, 900
heat from, 160
rate of gas consumption, 395
ratings of, 226
sizing, 225
types of space heaters, 223
used with unit heaters, 443
warm air furnaces, 222
Gaskets, 366
Glass,
heat transmitted through. 117, 152
solar radiation through, 152
Globe thermometer, 762
Glossary of terms, 819
Goitre, 599
Gonorrhea, 603
Grates, 824
areas of, 249, 255, 383, 402, 421, 824
of furnaces, 249, 255, 383, 402, 421
of stokers, 201
Gravity,
circulation, 345
converters, 263, 743
heat emission of, 263
gravity-indirect heating systems, 272
pressure heads, 344
specific, 3
steam heating systems, 275, (see also Steam
Heating Systems)
warm air heating systems, design of, 377
Grille, grilles, 824, (see also Registers)
anemometer readings through, 812
for concealed heaters, 270
redrculating, 381
of roof ventilators, 672
velocity through, 401
for warm air systems, 381, 397
Hartford return connection, 258, 278, 318
Hay fever, 604
Hazard of explosion, in operating rooms, 597
HEATING VEWTILATINO AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Health. Sd, 8!M», f see also Disease Treatment)
Heart trouble, 605
Heat, 824
absorbed by bonding structure, 141
of adsorption. 43 f M
air infiltration equivalent of, 130
capacity, 155, 823
of leader pipe*, 378
of condensation, 45
conduction, 821
consumption, 224
content,
of air and water vapor. 2
of coal, 166
of dry air. 22
of gase*, 661
of saturated water vapor, 23
convection, 821
conversion equations, 833
demand, factors governing, 133, 241
effects on human body, 54
electrical equivalents of, 750, 834
of convectors, 263, 270
by radiation, 756
of radiators, 263, 270
equivalent, equivalents, 834
of air infiltration, 130
of brake horsepower. 140
electrical, 350. 834
exchanger. 507. 506
shell and tube, 481
flow meter, 817
gain*
from fixtures and machinery, 160
for insulated pipe, 735
from outside air, 158
to be removed. 430
infiltration equivalent of, 130
latent, 31, 828,
loss, 73, 76
of the liquid, 28, 825
loss,
from bare pipe, 719, 721
computation of, S9, 142, 750. 758
cost of. 720
determination of, 133, 140, 229, 753
from ducts, 730
effect of insulation on, 737
from human body, 73, 753, 755
by infiltration, 130, 229
latent, 73, 76
from piping of gas-fired furnaces, 225
by radiation, 61, 753
sensible, 73. 755
to unbeated rooms, 118
•vtvntjfaf \nf\i 675
mftTftTiiyp^ probable demand, 133, 241
of mixing. 47
Tru^f^r^fg] eQuivalent of, 826
produced by cattle, 679
produced by human body, 53
pump, 472, 749
radiant, 753
calculation of, 758
measurement of, 761
types of. 756
radiation, 743. 753
regulation in p*?", 53, 57
requirements, 229
sensible, 147. 827
of air, 12
loss, 73, 756
of water, 31
solar, 151
sources of, 745, 754
other than heating plant, 140, 149
specific, 31
total, 22. 829
of saturated steam, 28
transfer, 89
coefficients, 90
rate, 247
Heat (continued)
transmission, 89, 754
through air spaces, 91
through building materials, 91
calculations, 89
coefficients, 89, 96
of ceilings, 111
combined, 118
of copper pipe, 721
of doors, 117
of floors. 111
of glass walls, 117
of insulation, 97, 821
of partition walls, 110
of roofs, 114
of skylights, 117
of surface conductance, 92
of walls, 104
of windows, 117, 151
convection equation, 754
definition of terms used, 90
effects of solar radiation on, 151
formulae, 91
through glass, 116, 151
measurement of, 817
in surface coolers, 431
by surfaces not exposed to the sun, 149
symbols used in formulae, 90
tables, 89, 97
through ducts, 730
time lag, 155
utilization, 229
Heaters,
direct-fired, 443
for domestic hot water, 799
electric, 741
capacity of, 750
conduction, 743
convection, 743
radiant, 223. 743
space, 223
unit. 437, 743
wall, 222
Heating, (see also Heaf)
auxiliary, 749
district, 765
effect of radiators, 266
electrical, 741
elements, electric, 742
fundamentals of, 1
load, 133
medium, 825
radiant, 743, 753
railway air conditioning, 611
by reversed refrigeration, 472, 749
surface, 247, 825
square foot of, 828
symbols, 836
systems,
district, 765
electrical, 741
fan, 409
gravity warm air furnace, 377
hot water, 331, 825
mechanical warm air furnace, 393
radiant, 743, 753
steam, 275, 745
units,
blow-through, 411
central fan, 744
draw-through, 411
value, fuel oil, 660
water, 783
Henry and Dalton, law of, 375
Hoods,
axial velocity formula, 637
canopy, 639
for chemical laboratories. 640
design of, 634
for exhaust systems. 637
of furnaces, 395 •
open, 639
suction pressures at, 635
velocity pressures at, 637
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Horsepower, 825
boiler, 251
brake, heat equivalent of, 140
Hospital air conditioning, (sec Disease Treat-
ment)
Hot box, 817
Hot plate, 817
Hot water, domestic
control of, 700
load, 253
' supply, 797
Hot water heaters, 245, 799
Hot water heating systems, 331, 825
electric, 720
forced circulation, 331, 337
gravity circulation, 331
installation of, 351
mechanical circulation, 333
Hot water piping, 331
Hotels,
steam consumption, 234
stokers suitable for, 201
temperatures of, in winter, 134
water supply, 783
Humidificatfon, 10, 499, 825
apparatus for, 503
atomization for, 504
effective temperatures for, 65
methods of, 452
relative humidities for, 68
for residences, 403
systems of, 503
with washer, 501
Humidifier, humidifiers, 466
atomizing, 504
with fan systems, 419
high-duty, 504
self-contained, 505
spray, 505
types of, 466, 503
Humidistat, 400, 825
Humidity, 8, 825
absolute, 8, 819
control, 685
railway air conditioning, 612
in drying, 652
in hospitals, 597
for industrial processing, 622, 623
measurement of, 814
optimum, 68
relative, 9, 827, (see also Relative Humidity)
in comfort zone, 63
effect on moisture regain, 625
relation to dew-point, 9
specific, 8, 825
Hygroscopic materials, 626
moisture content, 625
processing of, 627
regain, 626
Hygrostat, 825
Hypertension, 607
Hyperthyroidism, 607, 699
Ice, in air conditioning, 407, 454, 496
control of, 701
Inch of water, 825
Induction motor, 707, 710, (see also Motors)
Industrial,
air conditioning, 621
apparatus for, 449, 503
calculations, 629
air pollution, 79
control,
biochemical reactions, 628
chemical reactions, 628
crystallization, 629
moisture content, 625
of regain, 624
Industrial (continued)
cooling systems, 469
design conditions, 621
drying, 540, 627
electrical heating systems, 748
exhaust systems, 633, (see also Exhaust Systems)
general requirements, 624
heat sources, 141
temperatures and humidities for processing, 622,
623
unit heaters, 444
Infants, premature, 63, 65, 600
Infiltration, 121
average, 126
fuel utilization, 229
heat equivalent, 130
through shingles, 123
through walls, 122
through windows, 124
Inflammability of gases, 81
Institutions, water supply to, 804
Instruments, 807
[nsulation, 825
asbestos type,
corrugated, 725, 726
laminated, 727, 728
of boilers, 261
bright metal foil, 94, 95
building, 751
characteristics of, 97, 723
of conduits, 738
of ducts, 732
economical thickness, 736
with electrical heating, 715
heat transmission through, 97, 723
for low temperatures, 733
magnesia type, 724
of piping, 719
to prevent condensation, 141, 734
to prevent freezing, 733
reflective type, 94, 95
rock wool type, 729
of sound, 587
tables, 97, 724
thickness needed, 736
underground, 737
of vibration, 587
lonization of air, 75
Isobaric, 825
Isothermal, 7, 826
J-K
Joints, expansion, 315, 767
Kata thermometer, 811
Lag in heat transmission, 155
Latent heat, 31, 826
loss, 72
of water vapor, 12
Lateral exhaust system, 637
Leader pipes, 378
heat carrying capacity of, 379
size of, 379, 389
Leakage of air, 121, (see also Infiltration)
Lignite, 166
Liquid, heat of the, 28, 825
Lithium chloride system of adsorption, 46, 492, 493
Load,
building factors, 240
cooling, 147
design, 251, 823
heating, 133
hot water supply, 825
maximum, 824
radiation, 824
Low temperature insulation, 733
XV
HEATING VENTHATINO AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
M
Machinery,
as heat scarce. 140, 159
mountings vibration, 587
sound insulation of, 587
Magnesia insulation, 724
Manometer, 811, 826
Manual control, (see Controls')
Masonry materials, heat transmission through, 97
Mass. 826
Mb, 331, 826
Mbh, 331, 820
Mean radiant temperature, 754, 758
Mechanical,
draft towers, 515
equivalent of heat. 82G, 834
fuel burning equipment, 201
refrigeration, 35
ventilation, 77
warm air furnace systems, 391
air distribution, 397
design of, 400
register and grille locations, 397
Medical treatment, (see Diseases)
Mental trouble, 605
Mercurial thermometer, 809
Metabolism, 53, 73
Meters,
choice of .774
condensation, 771
fluid. 774
NichoUs heat flow, 817
steam flow, 776
types of, 774
water, disc, 789
Methyl chloride, 37, 42, 511
Metric units, 835
Micromanometers, 808
Micron, 79. 826
Mixture, air and water vapor, 12
Modulating control, 687
Moisture,
content,
of air, 72, 147. 503, 625
capillary or free, 651
of hygroscopic materials, 626, 651
loss by human body, 76
from outside air, 158
produced by cattle, 679
regain. fi9o>
Mol, 826
Monitor openings, 672
Monofluorotxichloromethane, 37, 44
Motive power. 703
Motors, electric, 703
adjustable speed. 704, 709
adjustable varying speed, 704
alternating current, 705
application of, 708
capacitor type, 706
characteristics of, 708
classification of, 708
compound round, 703
constant speed, 704, 708
control equipment for, 711
automatic, 712
manual, 711
multispeed, 714
pflot, 712
single phase, 716
slip ring, 715
damper, 685
direct current, 703
control of, 713
speed characteristics, 704, 708
as heat source, 159
induction,
automatic start, 710
capacitor start, 706
repulsion, 705
repulsion start, 707
slip;ring -wound rotor, 710
sQuirrd cage, 707
Motors, electric (continued)
polyphase, 707
selection of, 645
series wound, 703
shunt wound, 703
single phase. 706
special applications, 711
split phase, 707
synchronous, 711
varying speed, 705
MRT, mean radiant temperature, 754, 758
N
Natural draft towers, 515
Natural ventilation, 72, 669
Nervous instability, 607
Neurosyphilis, 603
Nicholls heat flow meter, 817
Noise, (see also Sound)
air outlet, 554
in buildings, 584, 587
control of, 584
through ducts, 592
through room wall surface, 591
with warm air systems, 396
equipment, 586
kinds of, 586
level,
acceptable, 585
of compressors, 471
of fans, 539
of unit heaters, 442
measurement of 584
through building construction 587
Nozzle, 499
air spray, 499
oil atomizer, 214
water spray, 499
Nurseries, 600
equipment for, 602
requirements for, 601
ventilation rate, 602
Odors, 69
of human origin, 51
concentration 70
removed by outside air, 71
Off peak heating, 748
Oil, oils,
atomization of, 507
burner, burners,
air for combustion, 214
air supply for, 214, 219
boilers, 216. 218
burning rate chart, 238
classification, 215
combustion, 218
for commercial use, 216
control of, 220, 698
design considerations, 219
for domestic use, classification, 214
efficiency of combustion, 220
flame with, 214
furnace requirements, 246, 394
ignition, 214
oil consumption, 229, 238
operation, 214
Orsat test, 220
specifications, 173
types of, 215
calorific value of, 174
classifications, 171
as corrosion inhibitor, 375
cost of, 175
gages, 221
ignition of, 174, 214
preheating, 217
specifications, 174
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
One-pipe steam heating systems, 275, 826
Steam Heating Systems)
Openings, 670
air inlet, 672
monitor, 672 . .
for natural ventilation,
location of, 675
resistance offered to flow, 676
size of, 669
types of, 670
Operating rooms,
Anesthesia, 597
explosion hazard, 597
humidification, 598
static electricity, 598
ventilation. 598
Orifice, orifices,
friction heads, 612
seam,
Orsat test apparatus, 212, 220, 224, 816
Outlets, (see also Registers, Grilles')
design and location of, 559
Oxygen, 375, 559
Oxygen therapy,
diseases treated, 605
oxygen chambers, 606
oxygen tents, 605
Ozone, 77
Paint,
effect on radiators, 265
soray booths, 640
temperatures and humidities for processing, 623
Panel radiation, 826
Panel warming, 827
Partial pressures, Dalton's law of, 1
Perspiration, 51, 54, 73, 75
Petterson-Palmauist apparatus, 815
Pipe, piping, 355
bare, heat loss from, 719
bends, 315, 362
capacities, (see Pipe, Sizes)
coil radiators, 263
conduit, 738, 767
connections, 316, 770, (see also Connections)
copper, 356
corrosion, of, 374
district steam, 765 .
dimensions of, 359 (see also Pipe Sizes)
expansion of, 315, 359, 767
fittings, 364, (see also Connections, Fittings)
for water supply, 788
welding fittings, 366
flanges, 370, 723
flexibility of, 359
freezing,
prevention of, 733
friction, 791
of air in, 566, 567
heads in, 336
gaskets, 366
hangers, 364
heat loss from 225, 719
for hot water heating systems, 331, 351
insulation of, 719
joints, 315, 769
leaders, 378
radiating surface, 722
radiators, 263
refrigerant, 484
scale in, 374
sizes,
for boiler runouts, 318, 766
for central fan systems, 323
for convector connections, 322
dimensions, 356, 359
for district heating, 766
for domestic hot water, 795
Pipe, piping, sizes (continued)
elbow equivalents, 340
equivalent length of run, 305
friction head, 337, 791
of orifices in unions, 343
for Hartford return connection, 318
for hot water heating systems, 335
for black iron, 337, 338
for copper tube, 337, 339
forced circulation systems, 337
gravity circulation systems, 345
for indirect heating units, 325
mains, 790
for pipe coil connections, 323
for radiator connections, 320
refrigerant, 484, 486
return, capacity of, 308. 767
steam, 302, 306, 307
underground, 767
tables. 306, 655
tees, 364
for underground steam, 767
for water supply, 787
weights, 361
steam, capacity of, 304
for steam heating systems, 275, 301, (see also
Steam Heating Systems)
supports, 364
sweating, 734
tax, 253
tees, dimensions of, 367
threads, 363, 365
tunnels, 767
types of, 355
underground,
insulation of, 737
steam, 767
for unit heaters, 442
valves, 370
water supply, 783
weights of, 356
welding, 366
Pitot tube, 811 . . . . im
Plastering materials, heat transmission through, 101
Plenum,
chamber, 827 nnn
systems, automatic control of, 688
Plumbing fixtures, 377
Pneumatic control system, 286
Pneumonia, 52, 599, 605, 607
Pollen, 605
Pollution of air, 83
Polyphase motors, 707
Ponds, cooling, 512
Positive acting control, 686
Post-operative pneumonia, 599
Potassium permanganate, 514
Potentiometer, 827
Power, 827
conversion equations, 833
electric, 750
supply for controls, 686
Precipitators, dust, 527
Premature infants, 600
humidity of, 601
mortality of, 602
requirements of, 601
Pressure, pressures,
absolute, 819
air
in heating unit, 412
measurement of, 811
atmospheric, 807, 820
for atomization, 504
automatic control, 685
barometric, 183, 807
basic, 3
controllers, 685
conversion equations, 833
drop, 566, 791
drop through refrigerant pipe, 486
dynamic. 823
loss throug
r pipe, 339, 486
ducts, 563, 643
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Pressure, pressure \.&
i ,
jurtial, Da I ton* a law of, 1
rcfnxeratintf piant, 4S*t>
of saturated vapor, 12
static, 421, 82$
steam,
in direct beating, 760
drop, 278, 302, 307
initial, 302
in oriiice systems, 290
saturated, 28
in sub-atmospheric systems, 2S9
total, 829
vapor, 31, 830
velocity, 83O
water, 27, 789
Prime surface, 827
Processing, 621
cooling systems, 469, 621 .
industrial, temperatures and humidities for, 622
of textiles, 626
unit heaters, 444
Propeller fans, test code for, 534
Psychrometer, 827
sling, 811
Psycfarometric,
chart, 25, 60, 61, 62, (back ewer)
for drier, 654
explanation, 25
tests, 59
Pulmonary disturbances, 605
Pump, pumps,
centrifugal, 334
characteristics, 181
circulating, 333
condensation return, 292
heat, 472, 749
vacuum, 293
Pyrometer, 810, 827
mercurial. 810
optical, 810
radiation, 810
thermo-electric, S10
0-R
Quality,
of air, 69, 70, 71
impaired by rerirculation 83
Quantity,
of air,
measurement of, 811
necessary for ventilation, 70. 71, 72, 158,
609, 675
of cooling water, 511
Radiant heaters, 743
Radiant heating, 753
physical and physiological factors, 753
Radiation, 827
by black body, 759
drying with, 647
equivalent direct, 304, 828
heat loss by, 63, 76, 754
by human body, 63, 76, 754
load, 252
ofjwpe,722
by radiators, 263
solar. 151, (see also Solar Heat)
occlusion of , 84
through glass, 152
through walls, 152
ultra-violet. 75, 82
Radiator, radiators, 263, 827
A^,H.V.E. code for, 271
column, 821
concealed, 821
condensation rate in, 267
connections. 320, 348
control of, 687
correction rating factors, 271
effect of saperheated steam, 265
enclosed, 267
gas-fired, 223
Radiator, radiators (continued)
heat emission of, 263, 270
heating capacity of, 270
heating effect of, 266
for hot water systems, 346
output of, 264
paint, effect of, 265
panel, 827
pipe coil, 203
ratings of, 264
recessed, 827
selection, 270
tube, 829
types of, 263
wall, output, 264
warm air, 223
Railway air conditioning, 609
air distribution, 560, 610
cleaning, 611
cooling equipment, 611
calculation of, load, 619
capacity, 612
costs, 617
heating, 611
humidity control, 612
power requirements, 613
tractive resistance, 615
temperature control, 613
ventilation, 609
Raoults law, 493
Receivers, alternating, 299
Refrigerants, 35, 827
ammonia, 36
carbon dioxide, 38
codes for use of, 426
dichlorodifluoromethane, 40
lithium chloride, 46, 47
methyl chloride, 42
monofluorotrichlorometbane, 44
water, 45
Refrigerating, capacity, 429, 475
Refrigerating plant, 24, 469
centrifugal, 478
compressor, 470, 512
operating methods, 485
size of, 429, 475. 485
steam jet system, 477, 512
types of, 471
Refrigeration,
characteristics, 481
curves, 480, 481
coefficient of performance, 475
carnot cycle, 475
compression ratio, 477
control of, equipment, 701
dehumidification by, 470
efficiency,
cycle, 475
ejector, 479
mechanical, 477 .
losses. 476
mechanical, 472
pipe sizing, 484
discharge, 486
liquid, 487
suction, 488
practical cycle, 475
reverse cycle, 749
limiting factors, 749
systems,
absorption, dosed, 493
centrifugal, 479
mechanical, 496
steam ejector, 477
various types, 469
theoretical mechanical cycle, 473
theoretical work per pound, 474
ton of, 429, 475, 829
ton days of, 829
unit of, 429, 475
Regain,
control of, 624
of hygroscopic materials, 626
Registers, 827, (see also Grilles)
with gas-fired furnaces, 223
with gravity furnace systems, 381
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Registers (.continued') .
with mechanical warm air furnace systems, 397
selection of, 381
sizes, 381, 389
temperature, 401
velocity through, 401
Reheater, 424, 432
Relative humidity, 9, 826
apparatus sensitive to, 684
in comfort zone, 64, 68
relation of dew-point to, 9
control of, 684
in industrial plants, 622, 624
for processing, 622
in public buildings, 67
in residences, 403
from water pans, 403
Relays, 685
Relief valves, 350
Repulsion motors, 706, 707
Research residence, 388, 406
Residences,
air distribution in, 397
automatic fuel burning equipment, 201
conditioning units, 291, 460
control systems, 399, 699
gas heat, 221
humidification of, 403
oil burners for, 213
requirements in, 405
steam consumption, 234
stokers for, 204
Resistance,
of bright metallic surfaces, 94
of building materials, 97
in ducts, 565, 643
of exhaust systems, 643
of niters, 396
of insulators, 97
thermal, 829
thermometer, 810
Resistor, 742
Respiratory diseases, 607
Restaurants,
tobacco smoke, in, 70
water supply to, 804
Return,
dry, 823
mains, 827
pipe, capacity, 308
Reverse cycle of refrigeration, 495, 749
Reversed return system, 332
Reynolds number, 184
Ringelmann chart, 816
Rock wool insulation, 100, 729
Roof, roofs, f ««,
coefficients of transmission of, 114
conductivities of, 101
solar radiation on, 152, 153, 154
ventilator, 672, 827
Room absorption correction charts, 557
Room control, 687
S
Salts in cooling water, 509
Saturated air, 827
Saturation, fiber point, 651
Scale,
in boilers, 260
Centigrade, 809
on equipment, 509
Fahrenheit, 809
in pipe, 374
Reaumur, 809
School, schools,
air flow necessary in, 70
optimum air conditions, 65
stokers suitable for, 201
temperature of, in winter, 134
ventilation in, 70
Scrubbers, 499, 528
Self-contained control system, 686
Sensible heat, 147, 827
of air, 12
loss, 73
of water, 31
Series wound motor, 703
Service connections, 770
Sheet metal, for ducts, 580, 641
Shingles air leakage through, 123
Shunt wound motor, 703
Skin diseases, 607
Silica gel
with oxygen chambers, 606
regain of moisture of, 626
silicon dioxide, 41
equilibrium conditions, 43
system of adsorption, 39, 41, 491
Single phase motor, 706
Sizes of pipe, (see Pipe Sizes)
Skylights, 117, 671
Sling psychrometer, 814
Slip-ring wound motors, 710
Smoke, 79, 827
abatement of, 84
measurement of, 816
recorders, 816
tobacco, 70
Smokeless arch, 828
Solar heat, 151
absorption coefficients, 155
effect of,
awnings, 155
latitude, 152
intensity chart, 150
occlusion of, 84
radiation,
factors, 154
through glass, 152
through walls. 152
time lag, 155
Solenoid valves, 685
Sound, 583, (see also Noise)
absorption coefficients, 589
control, 583
duct lining factor, 593
effect on duct design, 567
insulation of, 589
intensity, 335
measurement of, 584
in steam heating systems, 303
unit of, 583
Specific density, 3
Specific gravity, 2, 828
of fuel gas, 176
Specific heat, 3, 828
of air, 5
mean, of water vapor, 3
of water, 31
• Specific humidity, 8
Specific volume, 3, 828
of saturated steam, 31
Split phase motor, 707
Split system, 828
air conditioning equipment, 461
automatic control of, 689
central fan, 409
unit ventilators, 445
Pbooths for painting, 640
wiuls. 513
efficiency of, 512
towers, 514
distribution of, 504
generation of, 504
humidifiers, 505
type of central station system, 423
water coolers, 482, 512
Square foot of heating surface, 828
Squirrel cage motors, 707
Stack, stacks, 378, 689
effect, 670
* 675
wall, 380
Stairways, 129
HEATING VENTHJITING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Standards,
air, 82fe
air conditioning, 51
A.S.H.V.E. codes and standards, 248, 271, 839
for fuel oil, 173
for pipe, 350
for radiators. 271
for welding, 368
Static pressure, 828
Steam, 828
coils, 452
condensing rates, 266
consumption for buildings, 234
flow, Babcock's formula, 502
heat content of, 23
heating systems, 275, 828
air-vent, 276, 270. 309, 310
atmospheric, 283, 313, 321
classification, 275
condensation return pumps, 292
connections, (see Connections, Fittings)
corrosion of, 374
design of, 275, 301
dirt pockets, 328
district heating, 765
dripping of, 327
electric, 745
equivalent length of run. 305
gravity systems, 275
one-pipe, 275, 270, 309, 321
two-pipe, 279, 310, 321
with high-pressure steam, 313
mechanical, 275
orifice, 200, 303, 313, 321
pipe, 301. (set also Pip*)
sizes,*
pressure drop in. 278
sub-atmospheric, 287, 293, 303, 313, 321
types of, 275
vacuum, 285, 293, 295, 312, 830
vapor, 303, 321, 830
one-pipe, 280, 826
two-pipe, 281, 282, 311, 829
water hammer in, 303
zone control, 291
high pressure, 313
jet apparatus, 477
meters for, 774
pressure, 313
properties of, 28
requirements of buildings, 234, 777
saturated, properties of, 31
savings in use of, 770
superheated, 265, 828
trap, 828
tunnels, 769
underground, 767
in unit heaters, 440
Sterilization of air, 600
Stokers,
apartment house, 206
automatic control of. 399, 699
classes of , 204
combustion process, 209
adjustments. 212
efficiency, 212
commercial, 206. 208
controls, 213
design of, 201
economy, 201
household, 204
mechanical, 201
operating requirements, 205
overfeed flat grate, 201
overfeed inclined grate, 202
heating boilers, setting heights, 211
types of, 201
underfeed, 201, 829
underfeed rear cleaning, 203
underfeed side cleaning, 202
of hoi water, 798, SQ2
temperatures and humidities for,622
Storm sash, 125
Streptococcus, 52
Stroke, heat, 599
Sub-atmospheric systems, (see also Steam Healing
Systems)
Suction,
static in exhaust systems, 635
Summer,
care of heating boilers, 261
comfort zone, 64, 66
conditioning, apparatus for, 423, 451, 499
desirable indoor conditions in, 66
wind velocities and directions, 148
Sun,
effect on heating requirements, 291
factor of cooling load, 151
Supply outlets,
selection of, 381
types of, 389
Surface,
conductance, 828
cooling, 431
equipment, 431
air conditioning, 423
ratings, 429
extended, gravity-indirect heating systems, 272
heating, 829
square foot of, 828
radiant heating, 759
Sweating of pipe, 734
Swimming pool, 804
Symbols,
for drawings, 836
for heat transmission formulae, 90
Synchronous motor, 711
Synthetic air chart, 829
Systems of control, 686
Tank, tanks,
for domestic water supply, 798, 802
expansion, 349
flush, 790
Tees, dimensions of, 367
Temperature,
absolute. 819
of air leaving outlets, 428, 549
apparatus sensitive to, 684, 819
atmospheric, 184
of barns, 697
base, for degree-day, 231, 234, 235
basic, 3
body, 53, 54. 754
changes, effect on human beings, 55
of chimney gases 184
in cities, 138, 148, 232
of city water main, maximum, 508
control of, 213, 220, 225, 684, 750
railway air conditioning, 613
of cooling water, 482
dew-point, 3, 822
difference,
between floor and ceiling, 136, 226, 439
desired, determination of, 674
in stacks and leaders. 378. 673
dry-bulb, 2, 68, 823
maximum design, 148
specified in winter, 134
for drying, 652
effect on moisture regain, 622
effective, 58, 68, 135, 147, 823
chart, 58, 60, 61, 62, 64
for maximum comfort, 64, 756
optimum, 62
scale, 59
of gas flame, 176
in industrial ]
I processing, 722, 723
inside, 63. 64, 134, 412
surfaces, 758
low, insulation for, 723
of mean ulterior surface, 758
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO TECHNICAL DATA SECTION
Temperature (continued)
mean radiant, 754, 758
measurement of, 679, 683, 809
in occupied space, 68
outside, 136, 148
radiation-convection, 762
range of cooling equipment, 511
records of cities, 138, 148
at registers, 428, 649
room, 10, 231, 820
sensations, 57
surface,
of man, 755
mean interior, 758
systems for control of, 213, 220, 225, 684, 750
thermo-equivalent conditions, 59
•water main, maximum, 508
of well water, 506
wet-bulb, 11, 814, 830
average, 511
design, 147, 511
as index of air distribution, 72
maximum, 511
Terminology, 819
Test codes, 248
Test instruments, 807
Test methods, 807
Textile, textiles,
fibers, regain of moisture, 621
temperatures and humidities for processing, 623
Theaters, temperatures of, 67, 134
Therm, 829
Thermal resistance, 829
Thermal resistivity, 829
Thermocouples, 807
Thermodynamics, 829
of air conditioning, 1
laws of, 826
Thermo-equivalent conditions, 59
Thermometer, 809, 810, 811
Thermocouple, 809
Thermopile, 810
Thermostat, thermostats, 684, 829
differential, 10, 683
with gas-fired furnaces, 225
immersion, 684
insersion, 684
location of, 399
with oil burners, 220
pilot, 690
with radiant heaters, 750
room, 684
surface, 684
types of, 673, 684
Time lag, 155
Tobacco smoke, 70
Ton of refrigeration, 475, 829
Ton-day of refrigeration, 829
Total heat, 829
Total pressure, 829
Towers, cooling, 482, 512, 514, 515
return, automatic, 298, 299
with steam heating systems, 281, 295
types of, 295
Tube,
Bourdon, 808
Pitot, 811
shell and tube heat exchanger, 483
Tuberculosis, 83, 608
Tubing, copper or brass, 365
Tunnels, for steam pipe, 769
Turbines, with unit heaters, 444
Two-pipe steam heating systems, (see also Steam
Heating Systems)
Two position controls, 686
Typhosus, 52
Ultra-violet light, 75, 84
Underfeed distribution system, 829
Underfeed stoker, 229
Underground piping, 767
Underwriters' loop, 276, 318
Unit air conditioners, 435, 451, 829
air distribution, 455
classification, 436
controls for, 466
cooling, 453
dehumidification, 453
filtering, 454
heating, 452
humidifying, 452
location of, 455
residential, 460
types of, 436, 456
Unit coolers, 435, 449
control of, 695
design of, 450
frost removal from, 450
Unit equipment, 435
advantages, 435
controls, 694
miscellaneous, 464
Unit heaters, 435, 744, 829
air temperatures, 439
control of, 695
direction of discharge, 441
piping connections, 442
ratings of, 441
Unit ventilators, 435, 444, 445, 446, 447, 829
control of, 696, 830
Unwin pressure drop formula, 766
Up-feed piping systems, 275, 830, (see also Steam
Heating Systems)
Vacuum gage, 808
Vacuum pumps, 292
Vacuum refrigeration, 477
control of, 701
Vacuum system of steam heating, (see also Steam
Heating Systems)
Valve, valves, 370
apparatus which operates, 683
on boilers, 258, 316
connections for, 770
control, 685
with steam heating systems, 315, 370
with high pressure steam, 313
pressure-reducing, 314, 770
ratings of, 313
for radiators, 277, 581
relief, 350
roughing-in dimensions, 373
solenoid, 685
sub-atmospheric system, 587
on traps, 596
types of, 370
for water supply, 788
Velocity, 830
81 m ducts of buildings, 401, 569, 579
in exhaust systems, 635, 642
through heating units, 411
measurement of, 811
*i openings, 698
sU towers, 515
sound effect of, 579
chimney gas, 187
draft loss, 192
contours, 637
in ducts, 401, 635, 642, 811
of fans, 539
head, of fluids, 563
meter, 813
steam,
through an orifice. 313
in underground pipes. 765
water, in pipes, 336, 338, 339
wind,
choosing, 126
measurement of, 678
on natural draft equipment, 515
in natural ventilation, 669
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
\Vnt, vents,
on traps, 2$C
in unit ventilators, 446
Ventilation, 51, 609, 830, (see also Air Dis-
tribution)
of barns, 679
in drying, Ml
of Ranges, 680
in hospitals, 598, 902
mechanical, 77
with roof ventilators, 672
natural, 77
air changes per hour, 127
control of, 073
general rules for, 677
heat to be removed by. 675
openings,
doors, *57I
formula to determine size of, 009
location of, 675
skylights, 671
types of, 670
windows, 671
for public buildings, 70, 575
purpose of, 675
quantity of air necessary for, 70
railway air conditioning, 609
by registers, 673
for schools, 70
by stacks, 670, 673
symbols, 836
Ventilator, ventilators,
resistance of, 672
roof. 672, 827
unit, 235, (see also Unit Ventilators}
Venturi chimney, 180
Vibration of machine mountings, 587
Vitiation of air, 51
Volume,
of air and saturated vapor, 12
conversion equations, 834
furnace, 824
specific, 3
of saturated steam, 28
of water, 27
W-Z
Wall, walls.
absorption of heat. 155
ah- leakage through, 122
of chimneys, 195
condensation onr 141
fire, 640
heat transmission coefficients for, 89. 90, 97, 104,
106, 108
radiators, output, 264
solar radiation on, 152, 153
time lag through, 155
Warm air heating systems, 830
gas-fired furnaces for, 222
gravity, 377
mechanical, 393
Washers, air, 396, 49ft, 524, 525, 820
Water,
boiling point of, 27
circulating, temperature of, 512. 724
from city main*, 482, 508
cooling,
eojoipment, 507
quantity. 509
temperature, 606, 508
composition of , 27
demand, 785, 804
density of, 27
domestic supply, 783, 797
evaporation of. 516
factor of usage, 785, 804
flow from fixtures, 784, 785
freezing, 733
friction losses through pipes, 791
hammer, 303
heaters, 411, 799
heating, 783
Water (continued)
hot,
domestic supply, 783, 797
boilers, 799
demand for, 803
electric heating of, 747
pipe sizes for, 798
storage of, 798, 802
heating systems, 331, (see also Hot Water Heat-
ing Systems')
indies of water, 825
line,
in boilers, 258, 259, 275
in water supply systems, 790
make-up, 516
meters, disc, 789
pans, for humidification, 403
pipe, 787
pressures, 27
probable usage, 785, 804
properties of, 27
as a refrigerant, 37, 45
replacement of, 516
supply piping, 783
down-feed systems, 786
mains, 790
up-feed systems, 788
temperature, maximum main, 508
from wells, 506
thermal properties of, 27
vapor, 5, 10, 12
given off in combustion of gas, 175
heat content, 12, 23
mean specific heat of, 3
weight of saturated, 12
Weatherstripping, 126
Weight,
of air, 6
conversion equations, 834
of steam, 28
of vapor, 12
of water, 27
Welding, 355, 366
neck flanges, 371, 372
Well water refrigeration control of, 702
Well water temperature, 506
WeUbulb temperature, (see Temperature, Wet-bulb)
Wet return, 830
Wind,
in cities, 138, 148
effect on heating requirements, 137
forces in natural ventilation, 121, 669, 675
prevailing, direction of, 127, 148
records of velocity and direction, 138, 148
velocity on natural draft equipment, 515
average, 127, 137, 148, 669
equivalent, hi tall buildings, 128
used in calculations, 127
Window, windows, 671, 673
air leakage through, 124, 126
clearance of sash, 125
coefficients of transmission of, 117
comparison of various shades for, 156
crack, 124
measurement of, 124
solar radiation through, 152
storm sash, 125
Winter,
comfort zone, 63, 64
conditioning, apparatus for, 393, 409
cooling in, 147
humidification in, 63, 68, 403
inside temperature, 134
relative humidity in, 68
temperatures, 138
wind velocities and directions, 138
Zero, absolute, 819
Zone, zoning,
"for air conditioning systems, 428
automatic control, 688
comfort, 63, 64, 66, 821
control of steam heating systems, 291
for large heating systems, 351
neutral, 826
water supply systems, 783
HEATING VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
Vol. 16 • v 1938
Chapter 1
AIR, WATER AND STEAM
Dalton's Law, Temperatures, Air Properties, Humidity, Rela-
tive Humidity, Specific Humidity, Relation of Dew Point to
Relative Humidity, Adiabatic Saturation of Air, Total Heat
and Heat Content, Enthalpy, Psychrometric Chart, Properties
o£ Water, Properties of Steam, Rate of Evaporation
A IR conditioning has for its objective the supplying and maintaining,
,/JL in a room or other enclosure, of an atmosphere having a composition,
temperature, humidity, and motion which will produce desired effects
ugon the occupants of the room or upon materials stored or handled in it.
Dry air is a mechanical mixture of gases composed, in percentage of
volume, as follows1: nitrogen 78.03, oxygen 20.99, argon 0.94, carbon
dioxide 0.03, and small amounts of hydrogen and other gases.
- j ^Atmospheric air at sea level is given in percentage by volume as: N2
77.08, O2 20.75, water vapor 1.2, A 0.93, C02 0.03 and H? 0.01. The
amount of water vapor varies greatly under different conditions and is
frequently one of the most important constituents since it affects bodily
comfort and greatly affects all kinds of hygroscopic materials.
DALTON'S LAW
A mixture of dry gases and water vapor, such as atmospheric air, obeys
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures; each gas or vapor in a mixture, at a
given temperature, contributes to the observed pressure the same amount
that it would have exerted by itself at the same temperature had no other
gas or vapor been present. If p = the observed pressure of the mixture
international Critical Tables.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and pi, fa, pt, etc. = the pressure of the gases or vapors corresponding to
the observed temperature, then
P-#i + fc + />a, etc. (1)
TEMPERATURES
Air is said to be saturated at a given temperature when the water vapor
mixed with the air is in the dry saturated condition or, what is the equiva-
lent, when the space occupied by the mixture holds the maximum pos-
sible weight of water vapor at that temperature. If the water vapor
mixed with the dry air is superheated, i.e., if its temperature is above the
temperature of saturation for the actual water vapor partial pressure, the
air is not saturated.
The starting point of most applications of thermodynamic principles to
air conditioning problems is the experimental determination of the dry-
bulb and wet-bulb temperatures, and sometimes the barometric pressure.
The dry-bulb temperature of the air is the temperature indicated by any
type of thermometer not affected by the water vapor content or relative
humidity of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is determined by a thermo-
meter with its bulb encased in a fine mesh fabric bag moistened with clean
water and whirled through the air until the thermometer assumes a
steady temperature. This steady temperature is the result of a dynamic
equilibrium between the rate at which heat is transferred from the air to
the water on the bulb and the rate at which this heat is utilized in evapora-
ting moisture from the bulb. The rate at which heat is transferred from
the air to the water is substantially proportional to the wet-bulb depres-
sion (t — /l), while the rate of heat utilization in evaporation is propor-
tional to the difference between the saturation pressure of the water at
the wet-bulb temperature and the actual partial pressure of the water
vapor in the air (e} — e). Carrier's equation for this dynamic equilibrium
is
1-c B -j
t - /' 2800 - 1.3*'
In the form commonly used,
where
e — actual partial pressure of water vapor in the air, inches of mercury.
c1 = saturation pressure at wet-bulb temperature, inches of mercury.
B = barometric pressure, inches of mercury.
/ = dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
t* = wet-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
Formula 2b may be used to determine the actual partial pressure of the
water vapor in a dry air-water vapor mixture. Then, from Dalton's Law
of Partial Pressures, Equation 1, it follows that the partial pressure of the
dry air is (B - e).
If a mixture of dry air and water vapor, initially unsaturated, be cooled
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
at constant pressure, the temperature at which condensation of the water
vapor begins is called the dew-point temperature. Clearly the dew-point
is the saturation temperature corresponding to the actual partial pressure,
e, of the water vapor in the mixture.
AIR PROPERTIES
Density is variously defined as the mass per unit of volume, the weight
per unit of volume, or the ratio of the mass, or weight, of a given volume
of a substance to the mass, or weight, of an equal volume of some other
substance such as water or air under standard conditions of temperature
and pressure. The term specific gravity is more commonly used to express
the latter relation but, when the gram is taken as the unit of mass and the
cubic centimeter as the unit of volume, density and specific gravity have
the same meaning. The term specific density is sometimes used to dis-
tinguish the weight in pounds per cubic foot; and as here used, density is
the weight in pounds of one cubic foot of a substance.
The density of air decreases with increase in temperature when under
constant pressure. The density of dry air at 70 F and under standard
atmospheric pressure (29.921 in. of Hg) is approximately 0.075 Ib (see
Table 1), while that of a mixture of air and saturated water vapor at the
same temperature and barometric pressure is only about 0.0742 Ib. In
the mixture the density of the dry air is 0.07307 and that of the vapor is
0.00115 Ib (see Table 2).
In order to make comparisons of air volumes or velocities it is necessary
to reduce the observations to a common pressure and temperature basis.
The basic pressure is usually taken as 29.921 in. of Hg, but no basic tem-
perature is universally recognized. Common temperatures for this
purpose are 32 F, 60 F, 68 F, and 70 F. Since 70 F is the most commonly
specified temperature to which rooms for human occupancy must be
heated, it is usually understood, when no other temperature is specified,
that 70 F is the basic temperature for measuring the volume or the
velocity of air in heating and ventilating work.
The specific volume of air is the volume in cubic feet occupied by one
pound of the air. Under constant pressure the specific volume varies
inversely as the density and directly as the absolute temperature.
The specific heat of air is the number of Btu required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 Ib of air 1 F. Distinction should always be made between
the instantaneous specific heat at any existent temperature and the mean
specific heat, which is the average specific heat through a given tempera-
ture range. The mean specific heat is the value required in most calcu-
lations. The specific heats at constant pressure, Cp, and the specific
heats, Cv, at constant volume are different. The specific heat at constant
pressure is commonly used and it varies, under a pressure of one atmos-
phere, from a minimum at 32 F from which it increases with either increase
or decrease of temperature. The value of 0.24, as the mean specific heat
at constant pressure, is sufficiently accurate for use at ordinary tem-
peratures. Values for instantaneous and mean specific heats are given
in Table 3.
The mean specific heat of 'water vapor at cqnstant pressure is taken as
0.45 for all general engineering computations.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF DRY AiRa
Barometric Pressure 29.921 In. of Hg
TaMWRATTRE WEIGHT POUNDS
DIG F PBB Cc FT
i
RATIO OF
VOLUME TO
VOLTME AT 70 F
BTTJ ABSORBED BY
ONE CTT FT DRY
Am PEE DEQ F
Cu FT DRY
AIR WARMED
ONE DEG
PER BTTJ
0
0.08633
0.8678
0.02077
48.15
10
0.08449
0.8867
0.02030
49.26
20
0.08273
0.9056
0.01986
50.35
30 0.08104
0.9245
0.01944
51.44
40
0.07942
0.9433
0.01905
52.49
50
0.07785
0.9624
0.01868
53.36
60
0.07636
0.9811
0.01832
54.44
70
0.07492
1.0000
0.01798
55.62
80
0,07353
1.0189
0.01765
56.66
90
0.07219
1.0378
0.01733
57.70
100
0.07090
1.0567
0.01702
58.75
110
0.06966
1.0755
0.01672
59.81
120
0.06845
1.0946
0.01643
60.86
130
0.06729
1.1133
0.01616
61.88
140
0.06617
1.1322
0.01589
62.93
150
0.06509
1.1510
0.01563
63.98
160
0.06403
1.1701
0.01538
65.02
180
0.06203
1.2078
0.01490
67.11
200
0.06015
1.2456
0.01446
69.24
220
0.05838
1.2832
0.01403
71.27
240
0.05671
1.3211
0.01364
73.31
260
0.05514
1.3587
0.01326
75.41
280
0.05365
1.3965
0.01291
77.46
300
0.05223
1.4344
0.01257
79.55
350
0.04901
1.5287
0.01181
84.67
400
0.04615
1.6234
0.01114
89.67
450
0.04362
1.7176
0.01054
94.87
500
0.04135
1.8119
0.01001
99.01
550
0.03930
1.9064
0.00953
104.93
600
0.03744
2.0011
0.00908
110.13
700
0.03422
2.1893
0.00833
120.05
800
0.03150
2.3784
0.00769
130.04
900
0.02911
2.5737
0.00713
140.25
1000
0.02718
2.7564
0.00668
149.70
H> Sev5M- b38ed on the instantaneous specific heats of air.
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
TABLE 2. PROPERTIES OF SATURATED AiRa
Weights of Air, Vapor and Saturated Mixture of Air and Vapor at 29.921 In. of Hg
TEMP.
DsoF
WEIGHT IN A CUBIC FOOT OP MEKTUBE
BTU
ABSORBED
BY ONE
CUBIC
FOOT
SAT. Am
PER DEO F
CUBIC
FEET
SAT. Am
WARMED
ONE DEO
PEE BTU
SPECIFIC
HEAT BTU
PER POUND
OP
MIXTURE
Weight of
Dry Air
Pounds
Weight of
Vapor
Pounds
Total Weight
ofMirture
Pounds
0
0.08622
0.000068
0.08629
0.02078
48.12
0.2408
10
0.08431
0.000111
0.08442
0.02031
49.24
0.2406
20
0.08244
0.000177
0.08262
0.01987
50.33
0.2405
30
0.08060
0.000278
0.08088
0.01946
51.39
0.2406
40
0.07876
0.000409
0.07917
0.01908
52.41
0.2410
50
0.07692
0.000587
0.07751
0.01872
53.42
0.2415
60
0.07503
0.000828
0.07586
0.01838
54.41
0.2423
70
0.07307
0.001151
0.07422
0.01805
55.40
0.2432
80
0.07099
0.001578
0.07257
0.01775
56.34
0.2446
90
0.06877
0.002134
0.07090
0.01747
57.24
0.2464
100
0.06634
0.002851
0.06919
0.01721
58.11
0.2487
110
0.06361
0.003762
0.06737
0.01696
58.96
0.2517
120
0,06057
0.004912
0.06548
0.01675
59.70
0.2558
130
0.05712
0.006344
0.06346
0.01657
60.35
0.2611
140
0.05317
0.008116
0.06129
0.01642
60.91
0.2679
150
0.04863
0.010284
0.05891
0.01630
61.35
0.2767
160
0.04339
0.012919
0.05631
0.01624
61.58
0.2884
170
0.03733
0.016092
0.05342
0.01621
61.69
0.3034
180
0.03033
0.019888
0.05022
0.01624
61.58
0.3234
190
0.02228
0.024384
0.04666
0.01633
61.24
0.3500
200
0.01298
0.029700
0.04268
0.01649
60.64
0.3864
210
0.00230
0.035932
0.03616
0.01672
59.81
0.4624
212
0.00000
0.037286
0.03729
0.01818
55.01
0.4875
^Compiled by W. H. Severns, based on the instantaneous specific heats of air.
TABLE 3. SPECIFIC HEATS OF DRY AiRa
Constant Barometric Pressure of 29.921 In. of Hg
TEMPERATURE
DE0F
INSTANTANEOUS
OSTBUB
SPECIFIC HEAT
TEMPERATUBE
RANGE
DBGF
MEAN
SPECIFIC
HEAT
-301.0
0.2520
32 to 212
0.2401
-108.4
0.2430
32 to 392
0.2411
32.0
0.2399
32 to 752
0.2420
212.0
0.2403
32 to 1112
0.2430
392.0
0.2413
752.0
0.2430
1112.0
0.2470
•Compiled by W. H. Severna, based on data given in the International Critical Tables.
5
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
Table 4 is intended to aid in determining the density of moist air,
taking into account its temperature, pressure, and moisture content.
Example 1. To show the use of Table 4: Given air at 83 F dry-bulb and 68 F wet-
bulb (or a depression of 15 deg) with a barometric pressure of 29.40 in. of mercury.
What will be the weight of this air in pounds per cubic foot?
Solution. From Table 4 the weight of saturated air at 80 F and 29.00 in. barometer is
found to be 0.07034 Ib per cubic foot. There is a decrease of 0.00015 Ib per degree dry-
bulb temperature above 80 F. There is an increase of 0.00025 Ib for each 0.1 in. above
29.00 in. From the last column of Table 4 it is found that there is an increase of approxi-
mately 0.000035 Ib per degree wet-bulb depression when the dry-bulb is 83 F. Tabu-
lating the items:
0.07034 = weight of saturated air at 80 F and 29.00 bar.
- 0.00045 « decrement for 3 deg dry-bulb, 3 X 0.00015.
+ 0.00100 = increment for 0.4 in. bar., 4 X 0.00025.
+ 0.00053 = increment for 15 deg wet-bulb depression, 15 X 0.000035.
0.07142 = weight in pounds per cubic foot of air at 83 F dry-bulb, 68 F wet-bulb,
29.40 in. bar.
It is usual to assume that dry air, moist air, and the water vapor in the
air follow the laws of perfect gases. This assumption while not absolutely
true, especially with saturated vapor at temperatures much above 140 F,
is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes and it greatly simplifies
computations.
Boyle's Law refers to the relation between the pressure and volume of a
gas, and may be stated as follows : With temperature constant, the volume of
a given weight of gas varies inversely as its absolute pressure. Hence, if
PI and P2 represent the initial and final absolute pressures, and V\ and
F2 represent corresponding volumes of the same mass, say one pound of
•FT -p
gas, then^~ = -=2, or Pi Vi = P2 F2, but since Pi 7i for any given case is
V2 Jri
a definite constant quantity, it follows that the product of the absolute
pressure and volume of a gas is a constant, or PV = C, when T is kept
constant. Any change in the pressure and volume of a gas at constant
temperature is called an isothermal change.
Charles1 Law refers to the relation among pressure, volume, and tem-
perature of a gas and may be stated as follows : The volume of a given
weight of gas varies directly as the absolute temperature at constant pressure,
and the pressure varies directly as the absolute temperature at constant
volume. Hence, when heat is added at constant volume, Fc, the resulting
•p *p
equation is ^ = -=r, or, for the same temperature range at constant pres-
"\ -LI
Vz T*
sure, PC, the relation is « = TF-
1/1/1
In general, for any weight of gas, T7, since volume is proportional to
weight, the relation among P, F, and T is
PV = WRT (3)
where
P «= the absolute pressure of the gas, pounds per square foot.
V = the volume of the weight W, cubic feet.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
W = the weight of the gas, pounds. »
R * a constant depending on the nature of the gas. The average value of R for air
is 53.34.
T « the absolute temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
This is the characteristic equation for a perfect gas, and while no gases
are perfect in this sense, they conform so nearly that Equation 3 will
apply to most engineering computations.
HUMIDITY
Humidity is the water vapor mixed with dry air in the atmosphere.
Absolute humidity has a multiplicity of meanings, but usually the term
refers to the weight of water vapor per unit volume of space occupied,
expressed in grains or pounds per cubic foot. With this meaning, absolute
humidity is nothing but the actual density of the water vapor in the
mixture and might better be so called. A study of Keenan's Steam
Tables2 indicates that water vapor, either saturated or super-heated,^ at
partial pressures lower than 4 in. of mercury may be treated as a gas with
a gas constant R of 1.21 in the characteristic equation of the gas pV —
wR (t + 460). Within such limits, the density (d) of water vapor is
1.2! (-f 460)
5785 e
(Pounds *** cubic foot)
460
(grains per cubic foot) (4b)
where
e — actual partial pressure of vapor, inches of mercury.
t — dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
Specific Humidity
It simplifies many problems which deal with mixtures of dry air and
water vapor to express the weight or the mass of the vapor in terms of the
weight or the mass of dry air. If the weight of the water vapor in a
mixture be divided by the weight of the dry air, and the weight of dry air
be made unity, we have an expression of the weight of water vapor carried
by a unit weight of dry air. This relation has no generally accepted name.
It has been variously called: mixing ratio, proportionate humidity, mass
or density ratio, absolute humidity, and specific humidity. Of all these
terms specific humidity is the most suggestive of the meaning which it is
desired to express and it has found considerable use in this sense even
though it is defined in International Critical Tables as the ratio of the
mass of vapor to the total mass. It will be understood here that specific
humidity refers to the weight of water vapor carried by one pound of
dry air.
The gas constant for dry air, when the partial pressure of the air is
expressed in inches of Hg, is 0.753; so that the specific humidity, if
represented by W, is
"Published by American Society of Mechanical Engineers, see abstract in Table 8.
8
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
W -
B-e
1.21 (t + 460)
= 0.622 -
0.753 (t + 460)
(pounds)
(5a)
(5b)
-4354 (£) (grains)
where
e = actual partial pressure of vapor, inches of mercury.
B = total pressure of mixture (barometric pressure), inches of mercury.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity ($) is either the ratio of the actual partial pressure,
e, of the water vapor in the air to the saturation pressure, et, at the dry-
bulb temperature, or the ratio of the actual density, d, of the vapor to
the density of saturated vapor, dt, at the dry-bulb temperature. That is:
The relative humidity of a given mixture at a.giyen temperature is not
the same as the specific humidity, W, of the mixture divided by the
specific humidity, Wt, of saturated vapor at the same temperature, for
from Equations 5a and 6
Wt - °-622
0.622
(-=*-)
\ B-et )
B —
(7)
The specific humidity of an unsaturated air-vapor mixture cannot,
therefore, be accurately found by multiplying the specific humidity of
saturated vapor by its relative humidity; although the error is usually
small especially when the relative humidity is high.
With a relative humidity of 100 per cent, the dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and
dew-point temperatures are equal. With a relative humidity less than
100 per cent, the dry-bulb exceeds the wet-bulb, and the wet-bulb exceeds
the dew-point temperature.
RELATION OF DEW POINT TO RELATIVE HUMIDITY
A peculiar relationship exists between the dew-point and the relative
humidity and this is found most useful in air conditioning work. This
relationship is, that for a fixed relative humidity there is substantially a
constant difference between the dew-point and the dry-bulb temperature
over a considerable temperature range. Table 5, giving the dry-bulb and
dew-point temperatures and the dew-point differentials for 50 per cent
relative humidity, illustrates this relationship clearly.
TABLE 5. TEMPERATURES FOR 50 PER CENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Dry-bulb temperature..—... ..
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
85.0
90.0
Dew-point temperature.
45.8
50.5
55.25
59.75
64.25
68.75
Difference between dew-point and dry-
bulb temperature
19.2
19.5
19.75
20.25
20.75
21.25
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
It will be seen from an inspection of this table that the difference
between the dew-point temperature and the room temperature is approxi-
mately 20 deg throughout this range of dry-bulb temperatures or, to
be more exact, the differential increases only 10 per cent for a range of
practically 25 deg.
This principle holds true for other humidities and is due to the fact
that the pressure of the water vapor practically doubles for every 20 deg
through this range.
The approximate relative humidity for any difference between dew-
point and dry-bulb temperature may be expressed in per cent as:
100
2^ W
where
/I = dew-point temperature.
This principle is very useful in determining the available cooling effect
obtainable with saturated air when a desired relative humidity is to be
maintained in a room, even though there may be a wide variation in room
temperature. This problem is one which applies to certain industrial con-
ditions, such as those in cotton mills and tobacco factories, where re-
latively high humidities are carried and where one of the principal prob-
lems is to remove the heat generated by the machinery. It also permits
the use of a differential thermostat, responsive to both the room tempera-
ture and the dew-point temperature, to control the relative humidity
in the room.
Table 6 gives, for different temperatures, the density of saturated vaporr—
dt, the weight of saturated vapor mixed with 1 lb of dry air, Wt, (at a
relative humidity of 100 per cent and a barometric pressure, B, of 29.92 in.
of^mercury), the specific volume of dry air, and the volume of an air-vapor
mixture containing 1 Ib of dry air (at a relative humidity of 100 per cent
and a pressure of 29.92 in. of mercury). The preceding equations or the
data from Table 6 may be conveniently used in solving the following-
typical problems: 5
*& » to be maintained at 70 F with a relative
= 04) when the outside air is at 0 F and 70 per cent
a baro<netric Press^' *> of 29.92 in. of mercury Fmd
t0 *"* V*™* °f dry air and *** dew'P°int temperature
Solution. From Equation 5a and Table 6,
Wl = 0.622 (29.92-0.0264) " °-000548 lb P«r Pound of dry air.
W, - 0.622 ( 29.92X-° olfg ) = °'00618 lb *>* P°und of dry air.
An approximation of the same result from Table 6 is
Wk -• 0.4 X 0.01574 = 0.006296 lb per pound o?dry ai?
10
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
The water vapor added per pound of dry air is approximately 0.00574636 Ib and the
dew-point temperature is approximately 45 F. The degree of approximation is evident.
Example 8. Dehumidifying and Cooling. Air with a dry-bulb temperature of 84 F,
a wet-bulb of 70 F, or a relative humidity of 50 per cent ($ = 0.5), and a barometric
pressure, B, of 29.92 in. of mercury is to be cooled to 54 F, Find the dew-point tem-
perature of the entering air and the weight of vapor condensed per pound of dry air.
Solution. From Equation 5a and Table 6,
wl - 0.622 - " °'01248 lb per pound of dry air*
°'622 " " °-00887 Ib Per P°Und
Since W\ — Wt when t — 63.4 F, this is the dew-point temperature of the entering air.
The weight of vapor condensed is (Wi — W^ or 0.00361 lb per pound of dry air.
An approximate result is
Wi - 0.5 X 0.02543 - 0.012715 lb per pound of dry air.
Wt = 1 X 0.008856 = 0.008856 lb per pound of dry air, since the exit air is saturated.
Since W\ — Wt at t — 64 F, this is the dew-point temperature of the entering air.
The weight of vapor condensed is 0.003859 lb per pound of dry air. The degree of approxi-
mation is again evident.
ADIABATIC SATURATION OF AIR
The process of adiabatic saturation of air is of considerable importance
in air conditioning. Suppose that 1 lb of dry air, initially unsaturated but
carrying W lb of water vapor with a dry-bulb temperature, /, and a wet-
bulb temperature, f, be made to pass through a tunnel containing an
exposed water surface. Further assume the tunnel to be completely in-
sulated, thermally, so that the only heat transfer possible is that between
the air and water. As the air passes over the water surface, it will gradu-
ally pick up water vapor and will approach saturation at the initial wet-
bulb temperature of the air, if the water be supplied at this wet-bulb tem-
perature. During the process of adiabatic saturation, then, the dry-bulb
temperature of the air drops to the wet-bulb temperature as a limit, the
wet-bulb temperature remains substantially constant, and the weight of
water vapor associated with each pound of dry air increases to Wv, as a
limit, where Wv is the weight of saturated vapor per pound of dry air for
saturation at the wet-bulb temperature.
Example 4- If air with a dry-bulb of 85 F and a wet-bulb of 70 F be saturated adia-
batically by spraying with recirculated water, what will be the final temperature and the
vapor content of the ah-?
Solution. The final temperature will be equal to the initial wet-bulb temperature or
70 F, and since the air is saturated at this temperature, from Table 6, W - 0.01574 lb
per pound of dry air.
In the adiabatic saturation process, since the heat given up by the dry
air and associated vapor in cooling to the wet-bulb temperature is utilized
in evaporation of water at the wet-bulb temperature, W» H. Carrier has
pointed out8 that the equation for the process of adiabatic saturation, and
hence for a process of constant wet-bulb temperature, is:
'Rational Psychrometric Formulae, by W. H. Carrier (A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 33, 1911, p 1005.)
11
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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CHAPTER 1. Am, WATER AND STEAM
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Via (Wv - W) = c^ (t - *') + c»sW (t - *') (9a)
and using cPa « 0.24 and c^ = 0.45
fcff8 (Wti - WO - (0.24 + 0.45J7) (/ - *•) (9b)
where
A!fg « latent heat of vaporization at t\ Btu per pound.
(Wt*f— W} = increase in vapor associated with 1 Ib of dry air when it is saturated
adiabatically from an initial dry-bulb temperature, tt and an initial vapor content, W.
pounds.
Knowing any two of the three primary variables, t, t', or W, the third
may be found from this equation for any process of adiabatic saturation.
TOTAL HEAT AND HEAT CONTENT
The total heat of a mixture of dry air and water vapor was originally
defined by W. H. Carrier as
S - c^(t - 0) + W [A'fg + c^(t - /')] (10)
where
S = total heat of the mixture, Btu per pound of dry air.
£pa ™ raean specific heat at constant pressure of dry air.
Cpg — mean specific heat at constant pressure of water vapor.
/ = dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
t1 = wet-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
W = weight of water vapor mixed with each pound of dry air, pounds.
#fg = latent heat of vaporization at t1, Btu per pound.
Since this definition holds for any mixture of dry air and water vapor,
the total heat of a mixture with a relative humidity of 100 per cent and at
a temperature equal to the wet-bulb temperature (/') is
By equating Equation lOto Equation 11, the equation for the adiabatic
saturation process, Equation 9a, follows. This demonstrates that the
adiabatic saturation process at constant wet-bulb temperature is also a
process of constant total heat. In short, the total heat of a mixture of dry
air and water vapor is the same for any two states of the mixture at the
same wet-bulb temperature. This fact furnishes a convenient means of
finding the total heat of an air-vapor mixture in any state.
Enthalpr
T, J?iS to.tal.heat of J^ air-vapor mixture is not exactly equal to the true
heat content;or enthalpy of the mixture since the heat content of the
liquid is not included in Equation 10. With the meaning of hea? content
m agreement with present practise in other branches of liermodynamics
the true heat content of a mixture of dry air and water vapor (SthTp
?oSr ?he S&ol^ and the "^^ *** at 32 F « tie datum
22
CHAPTER 1, AIR, WATER AND STEAM
h « cPa (t - 0) -f W h9 = 0.24 (* - 0) + W ks (12)
where
h — the heat content of the mixture, Btu per pound of dry air.
t = the dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
W = the weight of vapor per pound of dry air, pounds.
hs = the heat content of the vapor in the mixture, Btu per pound.
The heat content of the water vapor in the mixture may be found in
steam charts or tables when the dry-bulb temperature and the partial
pressure of the vapor are known. Or, since the heat content of steam at
low partial pressures, whether super-heated or saturated, depends only
upon temperature, the following empirical equation, derived from Proper-
ties of Saturated Steam by J. H. Keenan, Table 8, may be used:
hs - 1059.2 + 0.45 /' (13)
Substituting this value of h& in Equation 12, the heat content of the
mixture is
h = 0.24 (t - 0) + W (1059.2 + 0.45 *!) (14)
Example 5. Find the total heat of an air-vapor mixture having a dry-bulb tem-
perature of 85 F and a wet-bulb temperature of 70 F.
Solution. From Table 6, for saturation at the wet-bulb temperature, W£ = 0.01574,
and from Equation 14,
h = 0.24 (70-0) + 0.01574 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 70)] = 33.96 Btu per pound dry air.
By considering the temperatures in Table 6 to be wet-bulb readings, the
enthalpy of any air-vapor mixture may be obtained from the last column
in the table.
An energy equation can be written that applies, in general, to various
air conditioning processes, and this equation can be used to determine the
quantity of heat transferred during such processes. In the most general
form, this equation may be explained with the aid of Fig. 1 as follows.
The rectangle may represent any apparatus, e.g., a drier, humidifier, dehumidifier,
cooling tower, or the like, by proper choice of the direction of the arrows.
In general, a mixture of air and water vapor, such as atmospheric air, enters the
apparatus at 1 and leaves at 3. Water is supplied at some temperature, &. For the flow
of 1 Ib of dry air (with accompanying vapor) through the apparatus, provided there is no
appreciable change in the elevation or velocity of the fluids and no mechanical energy
delivered to or by the apparatus,
h + £h + (W, - W,) A, = h, + Re
or
Eh - RC - h, - A, - (W, - W,) A,' (15)
where
Eh = the quantity of heat supplied per pound of dry air, Btu.
RC — the quantity of heat lost externally by heat transfer from the apparatus.
Btu per pound of dry air.
Wi = the weight of water vapor entering, per pound of dry air.
Wz — the weight of water vapor leaving, per pound of dry air.
}i* =» the heat content of the water supplied at h, Btu per pound.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Aa — hi = the increase in the heat content of the air-water vapor mixture in passing
through the apparatus, Btu per pound of dry air
- 0.24 (/, - ft) + Wi (1059.2 + 0.45 /») - Wi (1059.2 + 0.45fc)
The net quantity of heat added to or removed from air-water vapor
mixtures in air conditioning work is frequently approximated by taking
the differences in total heat at exit and entrance.
For example, in Fig. 1, an approximate result is
£h - -Re = Sa - Si (16)
where
Sj « the total heat of the air- vapor mixture at exit, Btu per pound of dry air.
Si •• the total heat of the air-vapor mixture at entrance, Btu per pound of dry air.
Wi Ib, Water Vapor
lib. Dry Air
W3 Ib. Water Vapor
lib. Dry Air
r?r
<W5-H$)lb. Water
FIG. 1. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING ENERGY EQUATION 15
From the definitions of total heat and heat content, it may be demon-
strated that Equation 16 is exactly equivalent to Equation 15, when, and
only when, t\ = t\ = fa; i.e., when the initial and final wet-bulb tempera-
tures and the temperature of the water supplied are equal. The one pro-
cess that meets these conditions is adiabatic saturation, and either
equation will give a^result of zero; for other conditions, Equation 16 is
approximate but satisfactory for many calculations.
The following problems illustrate the application of these principles:
&cample 6. Heating (data from Example 2). Assuming the water to be supplied at
60 F, the net quantity of heat supplied is, from Equation 15,
£h - Re - 0.24 (70 - 0) + 0.000548 X 0.45 (70 - 0) + 0.005632
[1059.2 + 0.45 X 70 - (50 - 32)] - 22.90 Btu per pound of dry air.
Cooling (data from Example 3). If the condensate is removed at 54 F
— * removed is found from Equation 15, by proper regard to the arrow
£fa + #c - 0.24 (84 - 54) + 0.00887 X 0.45 (84 - 54) + 0 00361
[1059.2 + 0.45 X 84 - (54 - 32)] - 11. 24 Btu per pound of dry air.
«*«-> — the wet-bulb
fr°-m ^K6' since ** «£t air is saturated, 22.55 Btu per
quantity of heat removed is, approximately
f dry air< The degree °f appr-mat- ^
24
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
The revised Bulkeley Psychrometric Chart4, will be found attached to
the inside back cover. It shows graphically the relationships expressed
in Equations 9a and 9b. It also gives the grains of moisture per pound of
dry air for saturation, the grains of moisture per cubic foot of saturated
air, the total heat in Btu per pound of dry air saturated with moisture,
and the weight of the dry air in pounds per cubic foot. Fig. 2 shows the
procedure to follow in using the Bulkeley Chart. The directrix curves
above the saturation line are as follows:
A is the total heat in Btu contained in the mixture above 0 F, and is to be referred
to the column of figures at the left side of the chart. Heat of the liquid is not included.
A, B, C, D, E, FaDirectrix lines
D. B. L»Dry bulb line
D. P. L=Dew point line
R. H. L=Relative humidity line
W.B.1_= Wet bulb line
Sl= Saturation line
G. P. Lb» Grains moisture sat mixture per Ib dry air R. D. D. S.= Relative density dry air per cu ft saturated
T. H.=Total heat sat mixture per Ib dry air W. P. C. F. S.= Weight per cu ft in Ibs saturated
V. P.»Vapor pressure in mm mercury R. D. S.*Relative density per cu ft saturated
G. P. C. F. S.=Grains moisture per cu ft sat air W. P. C. F. D.» Weight per cu ft in Ibs dry
W. D. A. C. F. S.=Weight dry air per cu ft in Ibs saturated R. D. D.=Relative density per cu ft dry
W. P. C. F. x
R. D.x
- w- p- c- F- * parta' MturaBon
FIG. 2 DIAGRAMS SHOWING PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW IN USING BULKELEY CHART
B is the grains of moisture of water vapor contained in each pound of the saturated
mixture and is to be referred to the figures at the left side of the chart.
C is the grains of moisture of water vapor per cubic foot of saturated mixture, and is
to be referred to the figures at the left side of the chart which are to be divided by 10.
D is the weight in decimal fractions of a pound of dry air in one cubic foot of the
saturated mixture, and is referred to the first column of figures to the right of the satura-
tion line between the vertical dry-bulb temperature lines 170 and 180 F. The relative
density of the mixture is read in a similar manner from the same curve by the column of
figures between the vertical dry-bulb temperature lines 180 and 190 F.
E is similar to D but is for one cubic foot of the saturated mixture.
«The Bulkeley Psychrometric Chart was presented to the Society in 1926. (See A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 32, 1926, p. 163.) Single copy of the chart can be furnished at a cost of $ .25.
HEATING VENTIUITING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
F is similar to D but is for dry air, devoid of all moisture or water vapor. For con-
venience, the approximate absolute temperature of 500 F is given at 40 F on the satura-
tion line for the purpose of calculating volume, weight per cubic foot, and relative density
at partial saturation.
METHOD OF USING THE CHART
Relati
__., line, t
as 46 per cent.
Example 8. Relative Humidity: At the intersection of the 78 F wet-bulb line and the
95 F dry-bulb line, the relative humidity is read directly on the straight diagonal lines
as 46 per cent.
Example 9. Dew Point: At the intersection of the 78 F wet-bulb line, the dew-point
temperature is read directly on the horizontal temperature lines as 70.9 F.
Example 10. Vapor Pressure: At the intersection of the 78 F wet-bulb line and the
95 F ^dry-bulb line, pass in a horizontal direction to the left of the chart and on the
logarithmic scale read the vapor pressure as 19.4 millimeters of mercury. (Divide by
25.4 for inches.)
Example 11. Total Heat Above 0 F in Mixture per Pound of Dry Air Saturated with
Moisture: From where the wet-bulb line joins the saturation line, pass in a vertical
direction on the 78 F dry-bulb line to its intersection with curve A and on the logarithmic
scale aMhe left of the chart read 40.6 Btu per pound of mixture. The use of this curve
to obtain the total heat in the mixture at any wet-bulb temperature is a great con-
venience, as the number of Btu required to heat the mixture and humidify it, as well as
the refrigeration required to cool and dehumidify the mixture, can be obtained by
taking the difference in total heat before and after treatment of the mixture.
Example 12. Grains of Moisture per Pound of Dry Air Saturated with Moisture:
From 70.9 F dew-point temperature on the saturation line, pass vertically to the inter-
section with curve B and on the logarithmic scale at the left read 114 grains of moisture
per pound.
Example 1$.^ Grains of Moisture per Cubic Foot of Mixture, Partially Saturated: From
/0.9 F dew-point temperature on the saturation line proceed in a vertical direction to
curve C, and on the logarithmic scale to the left read 83.3 which, divided by 10 gives
S.d3 grains. A temperature of 70.9 F is equal to an absolute temperature of 530.9, and
95 F equals 555, absolute temperature. Therefore, ^ x 8>33 . 7 97 gr^n& pcf
cubic foot of partially saturated mixture.
Example 14. Grains of Moisture per Cubic Foot of Saturated Air: Starting at the
saturation line at the desired temperature, pass in a vertical direction to curve C and on
the logarithmic scale at the left, read a number which, divided by 10, will give the
answer.
Example IS. Weight per Cubic Foot of Dry A ir and Relative Density: From the point
±^rr3mTKe'vhe 1? F< vertical dry'bulb Iine intersects curo £- Pass to rightP° We
and read 0.075 Ib; if cubic feet per pound are desired, divide 1 by this amount The
relative density is read immediately to the right as 1.00. <"«UUni. me
i" per C^Foot °f Saturated Mixture and Relative
Vn t r,v '-f°r exafflP'e, the 70 F vertical line intersects the curve
£ £4,7"* per cublc foot as °-07316
Partially
si
Therefore, ^ = 0.851. The weight of 1 cu ft of air at 50 F dry-bulb and 46 F wet-bulb
x °'851 = a°6675- and the relative dens*v » 1-046
26
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Composition of Water. Water is a chemical compound (H2O) formed by
the union of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen, or two
parts by weight of hydrogen and 16 parts by weight of oxygen.
Density of Water. Water has its greatest density at '39.2 F, and it
expands when heated or cooled from this temperature. At 62 F a U. S.
gallon of 231 cu in. of water weighs approximately 8% Ib, and a cubic foot
of water is equal to 7.48 gal. The specific volume of water depends on the
temperature and it is always the reciprocal of its density. (See Table 7.)
TABLE 7. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
TEMPERATURE
DEGF
SAT. PRESS.
LB PER SQ IN.
VOLUME Cu FT
raaLs
WEIGHT LB PER
CuFi
SPECIFIC
HEAT
32
0.0887
0.01602
62.42
1.0093
40
0.1217
0.01602
62.42
1.0048
50
0.1780
0.01602
62.42
1.0015
60
0.2561
0.01603
62.38
0.9995
70
0.3628
0.01605
62.31
0.9982
80
0.5067
0.01607
62.23
0.9975
90
0.6980
0.01610
62.11
0.9971
100
0.9487
0.01613
62.00
0.9970
110
1.274
0.01616
61.88
0.9971
120
1.692
0.01620
61.73
0.9974
130
2.221
0.01625
61.54
0.9978
140
2.887
0.01629
61.39
0.9984
150
3.716
0.01634
61.20
0.9990
160
4.739
0.01639
61.01
0.9998
170
5.990
0.01645
60.79
1.0007
180
7.510
0.01650
60.61
1.0017
190
9.336
0.01656
60.39
1.0028
200
11.525
0.01663
60.13
1.0039
210
14.123
0.01669
59.92
1.0052
212
14.696
0.01670
59.88
1.0055
220
17.188
0.01676
59.66
1.0068
240
24.97
0.01690
59.17
1.0104
260
35.43
0.01706
58.62
1.0148
280
49.20
0.01723
58.04
1.0200
300
67.01
0.01742
57.41
1.0260
350
134.62
0.01797
55.65
1.0440
400
247.25
0.01865
53.62
1.0670
450
422.61
. 0.01950
51.30
1.0950
500
681.09
0.02050
48.80
1.1300
550
1045.4
0.02190
45.70
1.2000
600
1544.6
0.02410
41.50
1.3620
700
3096.4
0.03940
25.40
Water Pressures. Pressures are often stated in feet or inches of water
column. At 62 F, with h equal to the head in feet, the pressure of a
column of water is 62.383fe Ib per square foot, or 0.433fe Ib per square inch.
A column of water 2.309 ft (27.71 in.) -high exerts a pressure of one pound
per square inch at 62 F.
Boiling Point of Water. The boiling point of water varies with the
pressure; it is lower at higher altitudes. A change in pressure will always
be accompanied by a change in the boiling point, and there will be a cor-
27
HEATING
VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 8. PROPERTIES OF
Specific Volume
££/*!?&. SS'F. l££id Erap. V?^r
p t Vf Vfc vg
WH* 58.83 0.01603 1256.9 1256.9
SATURATED STEAM:
Total Heat
Sat. Sat.
Liquid Evap. Vapor
hf hfg tr«
26.88- 1058.8 1085.7
PRESSURE TABLE*
Entropy
Liquid Evap. Vapor Lb./Sq. JS£
8f * Sfg Sg p
0.0533 2.0422 2.0955 WH*
%"H& 70.44
0.01605
856.5
856.5
38.47
10523
1091.0
0.0754
1.9856 2.0609
%"Hff
l"Hj
r 79.06
0.01607
652.7
652.7
47.06
1047.8
1094.9
0.0914
1.9451
2.0365
l"Hff
V&" Hi
r 91.75
0.01610
4453
4453
59.72
1040.8
1100.6
0.1147
1.8877
2.0024
WHff
2"H* 101.17
0.01613
339.5
3393
69.10
1035.7
1104.8
0.1316
1.8468
1.9784
2" Hi
2'4"Hfi
r 108.73
0.01616
2752
2752
76.63
10313
1108.1
0.1450
1.8148
1.9598
2i/2;;Hff
3"Hgr 115.08
0.01618
231.8
231.8
82.96
1027.9
1110.8
0.1561
1.7885
1.9446
1.0
101.76
0.01614
333.8
333.9
69.69
10353
1105.0
0.1326
1.8442 1.9769
1.0
2.0
126,10
0.01623
173.94
173.96
93.97
1021.6
1115.6
0.1750
1.7442
1.9192
2.0
3.0
141.49
0.01630
118.84
118.86
10933
1012.7
1122.0
02009
1.6847
1.8856
3.0
4.0
152.99
0.01636
90.72
90.74
120.83
1005.9
1126.8
02198
1.6420
1.8618
4.0
5.0
16225
0.01641
7339
73.61
130.10
1000.4
1130.6
02348
1.6088
1.8435
5.0
6.0
170.07
0.01645
62.03
62.05
137.92
995.8
1133.7
02473
13814
1.8287
6.0
7.0
176.85
0.01649
53.68
53.70
144.71
991.7
1136.4
0.2580
13582
1.8162
7.0
8.0
182.87
0.01652
4738
4739
150.75
988.1
1138.9
02674
1.5379
1.8053
8.0
9.0
18828
0.01*656
42.42
42.44
156.19
984.8
1141.0
02758
13200
1.7958
9.0
10.0
19321
0.01658
38.44
3-8.45
161.13
981.8
1143.0
0.2834
13040
1.7874
10.0
11.0
197.75
0.01661
35.15
35.17
165.68
979.1
1144.8
02903
1.4894
1.7797
11.0
12.0
201.96
0.01664
32.40
3Z.42
169.91
9763
1146.4
02968
1.4760
1.7727
12.0
13.0
205.88
0.01666
30.06
30.08
173.85
974.1
1147.9
03027
1.4636
1.7663
13.0
14.0
209.56
0.01669
28.05
28.06
177.55
971.8
11493
03082
1.4521
1.7604
14.0
14,696
212.00
0.01670
26.80
26.82
180.00
9702
1150.2
03119
1.4446
1.7564
14.696
16.0
21632
0.01673
24.75
24.76
18435
967.4
1151.8
03184
1.4312
1.7496
16.0
18.0
222.40
0.01678
22.16
22.18
190.48
9633
1154.0
03274
1.4127
1.7402
18.0
20.0
227.96
0.01682
20.078
20.095
196.09
959.9
1156.0
03356
13960
1.7317
20.0
22.0
233.07
0.01685
18363
18380
20125
956.6
1157.8
03431
13809
1.7240
22.0
24.0
237.82
0.01689
16.924
16.941
206.05
953.4
11593
03500
13670
1.7170
24.0
26.0
242.25
0.01692
15.701
15.718
210.54
950.4
1161.0
03564
13542
1.7106
26.0
28.0
246.41
0.01695
14.647
14.664
214.75
947.7
1162.4
03624
13422
1.7046
28.0
30.0
25034
0.01698
13.728
13.745
218.73
945.0
1163.7
03680
13310
1.6990
30.0
32.0
254.05
0.01701
12.923
12.940
222.50
942.5
1165.0
03732
13206
1.6938
32.0
34.0
36.0
38.0
257.58
260.94
264.16
0.01704
0.01707
0.01710
12209
11.570
10.998
12226
11.587
11.015
226.09
22931
232.79
940.0
937.7
9353
1166.1
11672
11683
03783
03830
03876
13107
13014
12925
1.6890
1.6844
1.6800
34.0
36.0
38.0
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
26724
27021
273.06
275.81
278.45
0.01712
0.01715
0.01717
0.01719
0.01722
10.480
10.010
9.582
9.189
8.829
10.497
10.027
9399
9207
8.846
235.93
238.95
241.86
244.67
24737
9333
9312
9292
9272
925.4
11692
11702
1171.1
1171.9
1172.7
03919
03961
0.4000
0.4039
0.4076
12840
12759
12682
12608
12537
1.6759
1.6720
1.6683
1.6647
1.6613
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
60.0
52.0
54.0
66.0
68.0
281.01
283.49
285.90
28823
290.50
0.01724
0.01726
0.01728
0.01730
0.01732
8.496
8.189
7.902
7.636
7388
8.514
8206
7.919
7.653
7.405
249.98
25232
254.99
25738
259.71
923.5
921.7
920.0
9183
916.6
11733
11743
1175.0
1175.7
1176.4
0.4111
0.4145
0.4178
0.4210
0.4241
12469
12404
1.2340
12279
12220
1.6580
1.6549
1.6518
1.6489
1.6461
50.0
62.0
54.0
56.0
58.0
60.0
62.0
64.0
66.0
68.0
292.71
294.85
296.94
298.98
300.98
0.01735
0.01737
0.01739
0.01741
0.01743
7.155
6.937
6.732
6.539
6357
7.172
6.955
6.749
6356
6375
261.98
264.18
26633
268.43
270.49
915.0
913.4
911.9
910.4
908.9
1177.0
1177.6
11782
1178.8
1179.4
0.4271
0.4300
0.4329
0.4356
0.4384
12162
12107
12053
12001
1.1950
1.6434
1.6407
1.6382
1.6357
1.6333
60.0
62.0
64.0
66.0
68.0
70.0
72.0
74.0
76.0
78.0
302.92
304.82
306.68
30830
31028
0.01744
0.01746
0.01748
0.01750
0.01752
6.186
6.024
5.870
5.723
5384
6203
6.041
5.887
5.741
5.602
272.49
274.45
27637
27825
280.09
907.4
906.0
904.6
9032
901.9
1179.9
1180.5
1181.0
11813
1182.0
0.4410
0.4435
0.4460
0.4485
0.4509
1.1900
1.1852
1.1805
1.1759
1.1714
1.6310
1.6287
1.6265
1.6244
1.6223
70.0
72.0
74.0
76.0
78.0
80.0
82.0
84.0
86.0
88.0
312.03
313.74
315.42
317.06
318.68
0.01754
0.01756
0.01757
0.01759
0.01761
5.452
5325
5204
5.089
4.979
5.470
5343
5222
5.107
4.997
281.90
283.67
285.42
287.13
288.80
900.5
8992
897.9
896.7
895.4
1182.4
1182.9
1183.4
1183.8
11842
0.4532
0.4555
0.4578
0.4599
0.4621
1.1670
1.1627
1.1586
1.1545
1.1505
1.6202
1.6182
1.6163
1.6144
1.6126
80.0
82.0
84.0
86.0
88.0
90.0
92.0
94.0
96.0
98.0
32027
321.83
32337
324.88
32637
0.01763
0.01764
0.01766
0.01768
0.01769
4.874
4.773
4.676
4384
4.494
4.892
4.791
4.694
4.602
4.512
290.45
292.07
293.67
29525
1296.80
8942
893.0
891.8
890.6
889.4
1184.6
1185.0
1185.4
1185.8
1186.2
0.4642
0.4663
0.4683
0.4703
0.4723
1.1465
1.1427
1.1389
1.1352
1.1316
1.6107
1.6090
1.6072
1.6055
1.6038
90.0
92.0
94.0
96.0
98.0
28
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
TABLES. PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURE TABLE — (Continued)
Specific Volume
Total Heat
Entropy
Ab*. Pr*»«.
Lb./Sq. In.
BSfe
Sat. Sat.
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Sat. Sat.
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Ab*. Pr*M.
Lb./Sq. In.
P
t
Vf Vfg Vg
hf hfg hK
Sf Sfg Sff
P
100.0
327.83
0.01771 4.408 4.426
29833 888.2 1186.6
0.4742 1.1280 1.6022
100.0
102.0
329.27
0.01773 4326 4344
299.83 887.1 1186.9
0.4761 1.1245 1.6006
102.0
104.0
330.68
0.01774 4.247 4.265
30130 886.0 11873
0.4779 1.1211 1.5990
104.0
106.0
332.08
0.01776 4.171 4.189
302.76 884.9 1187.6
0.4798 1.1177 1.5974
106.0
108.0
333.44
0.01777 4.097 4.115
304.19 883.8 1188.0
0.4816 1.1144 1.5959
108.0
110.0
334.79
0.01779 4.026 4.044
305.61 882.7 11883
0.4834 1.1111 1.5944
110.0
112.0
336.12
0.01780 3.958 3.976
307.00 881.6 1188.6
0.4851 1.1079 1.5930
112.0
114.0
337.43
0.01782 3.892 3.910
30836 880.6 1188.9
0.4868 1.1048 1.5915
114.0
116.0
338.72
0.01783 3.828 3.846
309.71 879.5 1189.2
0.4885 1.1017 1.5901
116.0
118.0
340.01
0.01785 3.766 3.784
311.05 878.5 1189.5
0.4901 1.0986 1.5887
118.0
120.0
341.26
0.01786 3.707 3.725
31237 877.4 1189.8
0.4918 1.0956 1.5874
120.0
122.0
342.50
0.01788 3.652 3.670
313.67 876.4 1190.1
0.4934 1.0926 1.586Q
122.0
124.0
343.73
0.01789 3.597 3.615
314.96 875.4 1190.4
0.4950 1.0897 1.5847
124.0
126.0
344.94
0.01791 3.542 3.560
316.23 874.4 1190.6
0.4965 1.0868 1.5834
126.0
128.0
346.14
0.01792 3.487 3.505
317.49 873.4 1190.9
0.4981 1.0840 1.5821
128.0
130.0
347.31
0.01794 3.433 3.451
318.73 872.4 1191.2
0.4996 1.0812 1.5808
130.0
132.0
348.48
0.01795 3383 3.401
319.95 871.5 1191.4
0.5011 1.0784 1.5796
132.0
134.0
349.64
0.01796 3335 3353
321.17 870.5 1191.7
0.5026 1.0757 1.5783
134.0
136.0
350.78
0.01798 3.288 3306
32237 869.6 1191.9
0.5041 1.0730 1.5771
136.0
138.0
351.91
0.01799 3.242 3.260
323.56 868.6 1192.2
0.5056 1,0703 1.5759
138.0
140.0
353.03
0.01801 3.198 3.216
324.74 867.7 1192.4
0.5070 1.0677 1.5747
140.0
142.0
354.14
0.01802 3.155 3.173
325.91 .866.7 1192.6
0.5084 1.0651 1.5735
142.0
144.0
355.22
O.Q1804 3.112 3.130
327.06 865.8 1192.9
0.5098 1.0625 1.5724
144.0
146.0
35631
0.01805 3.071 3.089
328.20 864.9 1193.1
0.5112 1.0600 1.5712
146.0
148.0
35737
0.01806 3.031 3.049
32932 864.0 11933
0.5126 1.0575 1.5701
148.0
150.0
358.43
0.01808 2.992 3.0'10
330.44 863.1 1193.5
0.5140 1.0550 1.5690
150.0
152.0
359.47
0.01809 2.954 2.972
331.54 862.2 1193.7
0.5153 1.0526 1.5679
152.0
154.0
360.51
0.01810 2.917 2.935
332.64 8613 1193.9
0.5166 1.0502 1.5668
154.0
156.0
361.53
0.01812 2.882 2.9QO
333.72 860.4 1194.1
0.5180 1.0478 1.5658
156.0
158.0
362.54
0.01813 2.846 2.864
334.80 859.5 11943
0.5193 1.0454 1.5647
158.0
160.0
363.55
0.01814 2.812 2.830
335.86 858.7 1194.5
0.5205 1.0431 1.5636
160.0
162.0
364.54
0.01816 2.779 2.797
336.91 857.8 1194.7
0.5218 1.0408 1.5626
162.0
164.0
365.52
0.01817 2.746 2.764
337.95 857.0 1194.9
0.5230 1.0385 1.5616
164.0
166.0
366.50
0.01818 2.715 2.733
338.99 856.1 1195.1
0.5243 1.0363 1.5606
166.0
168.0
367.46
0.01819 2.683 2.701
340.01 855.2 11953
0.5255 1.0340 1.5596
168.0
170.0
368.42
0.01821 2.653 2.671
341.03 854.4 1195.4
0.5268 1.0318 1.5586
170.0
172.0
369.37
0.01822 2.623 2.641
342.04 853.6 1195.6
0.5280 1.0296 1.5576
172.0
174.0
370.31
0.01823 2.594 2.612
343.04 852.7 1195.8
0.5292 1.0275 1.5566
174.0
176.0
371.24
0.01825 2.566 2.584
344.03 851.9 1196.0
0.5304 1.0253 1.5557
176.0
178.0
372.16
0.01826 2.538 2.556
345.01 851.1 1196.1
0.5315 1.0232 1.5548
178.0
180.0
373.08
0.01827 2.511 2.529
345.99 8503 1196.3
0.5327 1.0211 1.5538
180.0
182.0
374.00
0.01828 2.484 2.502
346.97 849.5 1196.4
0.5339 1.0190 1.5529
182.0
184.0
374.90
0.01829 2.458 2.476
347.94 848.6 1196.6
0.5350- 1.0169 1.5520
184.0
186.0
375.78
0.01831 2.433 2.451
348.89 847.9 1196.8
0.5362 1.0149 1.5511
186.0
188.0
376.67
0.01832 2.407 2.425
349.83 847.1 1196.9
0.5373 1.0129 1.5502
188.0
190.0
377.55
0.01833 2383 2.401
350.77 8463 1197.0
0.5384 1.0109 1.5493
190.0
192.0
378.42
0.01834 2359 2377
351.70 845.5 1197.2
0.5395 1.0089 1.5484
192.0
194.0
379.27
0.01835 2335 2353
352.61 844.7 11973
0.5406 1.0070 1.5475
194.0
196.0
380.13
0.01837 2312 2330
353.53 844.0 1197.5
0.5417 1.0050 1.5467
196.0
198.0
380.97
0:01838 2.289 2307
354.43 843.2 1197.6
0.5427 1.0031 1.5458
198.0
200.0
381.82
0.01839 2.267 2.285
35533 842.4 1197.8
0,5438 1.0012 1.5450
200.0
205.0
383.89
0.01842 2.213 2.231
357.56 840.5 1198.1
0.5465 0.9964 1.5429
205.0
210.0
385.93
0.01844 2.162 2.180
359.76 838.6 1198.4
0.5491 0.9918 1.5409
210.0
215.0
387.93
0.01847 2.113 2.131
361.91 836.8 1198.7
0.5516 0.9873 1.5389
215.0
220.0
389.89
0.01850 2.066 2.084
364.02 835.0 1199.0
0.5540 0.9829 1.5369
220.0
225.0
391.81
0.01853 2.0208 2.0393
366.10 833.2 11993
0.5565 0.9786 1.5350
225.0
230.0
393.70
0.01856 1.9778 1.9964
368.14 831.4 1199.6
0.5588 0.9743 1.5332
230.0
235.0
395.56
0.01859 1.9367 1.9553
370.15 829.7 1199.8
0.5612 0.9702 15313
235.0
240.0
397.40
0.01861 1.8970 1.9156
372.13 827.9 1200.1
0.5635 0.9661 1.5295
240.0
246.0
399.20
0.01864 1.8589 1.8775
374.09 826.2 12003
0,5658 0.9620 1.5278
245.0
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 8. PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM: PRESSURE TABLE— (Concluded)
Specific Volume
Total Heat
Entropy
AW. Pr*«.
T«rop.
Sat. Sat.
Sat. Sat.
Sat. Sat.
Ab«. Pratt.
Lb.,Sq. In.
D*t> F.
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Liquid Evap. Vapor
Lb./Sq. In.
P
t
Vf Vf* Vg
hf hfg hg
Sf Sfg Sg
P
260.0
400.97
0.01867 1.8223 1.8410
376.02 824.5 12003
0.5680 0.9581 1.5261
260.0
260.0
404.43
0.01872 1.7536 1.7723
379.78 821.2 1201.0
0.5723 0.9504 1.5227
260.0
270.0
407.79
0.01877 1.6895 1.7083
383.44 818.0 1201.4
0.5765 0.9430 13194
270.0
280.0
411.06
0.01882 1.6302 1.6490
387.02 814.7 1201.8
0.5805 0.9357 1.5163
280.0
290.0
41454
0.01887 1.5745 13934
390.50 811.6 1202.1
0.5845 0.9287 13132
290.0
300.0
41733
0.01892 1.5225 1.5414
393.90 808.5 1202.4
03883 0.9220 13102
300.0
320.0
42359
0.01901 1.4279 1.4469
400.47 8023 1203.0
0.5957 0.9089 1.5046
320.0
340.0
428.96
0.01910 13439 13630
406.75 796.6 1203.4
0.6027 0.8965 1.4992
340.0
360.0
434.39
0.01918 15689 15881
412.80 790.9 1203.7
0.6094 0.8846 1.4940
360.0
380.0
439.59
0.01927 15015 15208
418.61 7853 1203.9
0.6157 0.8733 1.4.891
380.0
400.0
444.58
0.0194 1.1407 1.1601
4245 779.8 1204.1
0.6218 0.8625 1.4843
400.0
420.0
44938
0.0194 1.0853 1.1047
429.6 774.5 1204.1
0.6277 0.8520 1.4798
420.0
440.0
454.01
0.0195 1.0345 1.0540
434.8 7693 1204.1
0.6334 0.8420 1.4753
440.0
460.0
458.48
0.0196 0.9881 1.0077
439.9 764.1 1204.0
0.6388 0.8322 1.4711
460.0
480.0
462.80
0.0197 0.9456 0.9633
444.9 759.0 1203.9
0.6441 0.8228 1.4670
480.0
600.0
466.99
0.0198 0.9063 0.9261
449.7 754.0 1203.7
0.6493 0.8137 1.4630
600.0
620.0
471.05
0.0198 0.8701 0.8899
454.4 749.0 1203.5
0.6543 0.8048 1.4591
520.0
640.0
474.99
0.0199 0.8363 0.8562
459.0 744.1 12035
0.6592 0.7962 1.4554
640.0
660.0
478.82
0.0200 0.8047 0.8247
463.6 7393 1202.9
0.6639 0.7878 1.4517
660.0
680.0
482.55
0.0201 0.7751 0.7952
468.0 734.5 1202.5
0.6686 0.7796 1.4482
680.0
600.0
486.17
0.0202 0.7475 0.7677
4723 729.8 1202.1
0.6731 0.7716 1.4447
600.0
620.0
489.71
0.0202 0.7217 0.7419
476.6 725.1 1201.7
0.6775 0.7638 1.4413
620.0
640.0
493.16
0.0203 0.6972 0.7175
480.8 7203 12015
0.6818 0.7562 1.4380
640.0
660.0
496.53
0.0204 0.6744 0.6948
484.9 715.9 1200.8
0,6861 0.7487 1.4348
660.0
680.0
49932
0.0205 0.6527 0.6732
488.9 7113 12005
0.6902 0.7414 1.4316
680.0
700.0
503.04
0.6206 0.6321 0.6527
492.9 706.8 1199.7
0.6943 0.7342 1.4285
700.0
720.0
506.19
0.0206 0.6128 0.6334
496.8 702.4 11995
0.6983 0.7272 1.4255
720.0
740.0
509.28
0.0207 03944 0.6151
500.6 697.9 1198.6
0.7022 0.7203 1.4225
740.0
760.0
51230
0.0208 0.5769 03977
504.4 693.5 1198.0
0.7060 0.7136 1.4196
760.0
780.0
51557
0.0209 0.5602 03811
5085 689.2 1197.4
0.7098 0.7069 1.4167
780.0
800.0
518.18
0.0209 0.5444 03653
511.8 684.9 1196.7
0.7135 0.7004 1.4139
800.0
820.0
521.03
0.0210 03293 03503
5153 680.6 1196.0
0.7171 0.6940 1.4111
S20.0
840.0
860.0
523.83
526.58
0.0211 03149 0.5360
0.0212 03013 03225
519.0 676.4 1195.4
522.6 672.1 1194.7
0.7207 0.6877 1.4084
0.7242 0.6815 1.4057
840.0
860.0
880.0
52959
0.0213 0.4881 03094
526.0 667.9 1194.0
0.7277 0.6754 1.4031
880.0
900.0
920.0
940.0
960.0
980.0
531.95
534.56
537.13
539.66
542.14
0.0213 0.4756 0.4969
0.0214 0.4635 0.4849
0.0215 0.4520 0.4735
0.0216 0.4409 0.4625
0.0217 0.4303 0.4520
5293 663.8 11933
532.9 659.7 1192.6
5365 655.6 1191.8
539.6 651.5 1191.1
542.8 647.5 11903
0.7311 0.6694 1.4005
0.7344 0.6635 1.3980
0.7377 0.6577 1.3954
0.7410 0.6520 1.3930
0.7442 0.6464 1.3905
900.0
920.0
940.0
960.0
980.0
1000.0
1060.0
1100.0
1160.0
1200.0
544.58
55033
55658
561.81
567.14
0.0217 0.4202 0.4419
0.0219 03960 0,4179
0.0222 03738 03960
0.0224 03540 03764
0.0226 03356 03582
546.0 643.5 1189.6
554.0 633.6 1187.6
561.7 623.9 1185.6
5695 6143 1183.5
576.5 604.9 1181.4
0.7473 0.6408 13881
0.7550 0.6273 13822
0.7624 0.6141 1.3765
0.7695 0.6014 13709
0.7764 03891 13656
1000.0
1060.0
1100.0
1160.0
1200.0
1260.0
1300.0
1360.0
1400.0
1460.0
57230
57732
58251
586.96
591.58
0.0228 03187 03415
0.0230 03029 03259
0.0232 05884 03116
0.0235 05748 05983
0.0237 05621 05858
583.6 595.6 1179.2
590.6 5863 1177.0
597.5 5775 1174.7
6043 568.1 1172.4
•611.0 559.1 1170.0
0.7831 03772 13603
0.7897 03654 13552
0.7962 03540 13501
0.8024 03428 1.3452
0.8086 0.5318 13404
1260.0
1300.0
1360.0
1400.0
1460.0
1500.0
1600.0
1700.0
1800.0
1900.0
5964)8
604.74
612.98
620.86
62839
0.0239 05502 05741
0.0244 05284 05528
0.0249 05089 0.2338
0.0254 0.1913 05167
0.0260 0.1754 05014
617.5 5505 1167.6
6305 532.6 1162.7
6423 515.0 1157.5
654.7 4975 115L8
666.8 478.9 1145.7
0.8146 0:5212 13357
0.8262 0.5003 13265
0.8373 0.4801 13174
0.8482 0.4601 13083
0.8589 0.4402 15990
1600.0
1600.0
1700.0
1800.0
1900.0
ooooo
635.6
6495
661.9
673.8
684.9
0.0265 0.1610 0.1875
0.0277 0.1346 0.1623
0.0292 0.1112 0.1404
0.0310 0.0895 0.1205
0.0333 0.0688 0.1021
679.0 460.0 1139.0
703.7 420.0 1123.8
729.4 376.4 1105.8
756.7 327.8 10843
786.7 2723 1058.9
0.8696 0.4200 15896
0.8912 03788 15700
0.9133 03356 15488
0.9364 05892 15257
0.9618 05379 1.1996
2000.0
2200.0
2400.0
2600.0
2800.0
3000.0
3200.0
3226.0
6955
704.9
706.1
0.0367 0,0477 0.0844
O.C459 0.0142 0.0601
0.0522 0 0.0522
823.1 202.5 1025.6
887.0 75.9 962.9
925.0 0 925.0
0.9922 0.1754 1.1676
1.0461 0.0651 1.1112
1.0785 0 1.0785
3000.0
3200.0
3226.0
- 30
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
responding change in the latent heat of evaporation. These values are
given in Table 8.
Specific Heat. The specific heat of water, or the amount of heat (Btu)
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahren-
heit, varies with the temperature, but it is commonly assumed to be
unity at all temperatures. Steam tables are based on exact values,
however. The specific heat of ice at 32 F is 0.492 Btu per pound. The
amount of heat required to raise one pound of water at 32 F through a
known temperature interval depends on the average specific heat for the
temperature range.
Sensible and Latent Heat. The heat necessary to raise the temperature
of one pound of water from 32 F to the boiling point is known as the heat
of the liquid or sensible heat. When more heat is added, the water begins
to evaporate and expand at constant temperature until the water is
entirely changed into steam. The heat thus added is known as the latent
heat of evaporation.
PROPERTIES OF STEAM
Steam is water vapor which exists in the vaporous condition because
sufficient heat has been added to the water to supply the latent heat of
evaporation and change the liquid into vapor. This change in state takes
place at a definite and constant temperature which is determined solely
by the pressure of the steam. The volume of a pound of steam is the
specific volume which decreases as the pressure increases. The reciprocal
of this, or the weight of steam per cubic foot, is the density. (See Table 8.)
Steam which is in contact with the water from which it was generated is
known as saturated steam. If it contains no actual water in the form of
mist or priming, it is called dry saturated^ steam. If this be heated and the
pressure maintained the same as when it was vaporized, its temperature
will increase and it will become super-heated, that is, its temperature will
be higher than that of saturated steam at the same pressure.
REFERENCES
Temperature of Evaporation, by W. H. Carrier (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 24,
1918, p. 25).
The Evaporation of a Liquid into a Gas, by W. K. Lewis (A.S.M.E. Transactions,
Vol. 44, 1922).
The Evaporation of a Liquid into a Gas — a Correction, by W. K. Lewis (Mechanical
Engineering, September, 1933).
Temperature of Evaporation of Water into Air, by W. H. Carrier and D. C. Lindsay
(A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 46, 1924).
A New Psychrometric or Humidity Chart, by C. A. Bulkeley (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 32, 1926, p. 163).
A Review of Psychrometric Charts, by C. O. Mackey (Heating and Ventilating,
June, July, 1931).
Air Conditioning Applied to Cold Storage and a New Psychrometric Chart, by C, A.
Bulkeley (Refrigerating Engineering, February, 1932).
The Psychrometric Chart, by E. V. Hill (Aerologist, April, May, June, 1932).
Air Conditioning Theory, by John A. Goff (Refrigerating Engineering, January, 1933).
Mixtures of Air and Water Vapor, by C. A. Bulkeley (Refrigerating Engineering,
January, 1933).
31
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Basic Theory of Air Conditioning, by Lawrence Washington (Western Conference on
Air Conditioning, San Francisco, Calif., February 9-10, 1933).
The Theory of the Psychrometer, by J. H. Arnold (Physics, July, September, 1933).
Heat Transmission in Cooling Air with Extended Surfaces, by W. L. Knaus (Refrigera-
ting Engineering, Januar>T, February, 1935).
A New Psychrometric Chart, by F. 0. Urban (Refrigerating Engineering, November
1935).
Psychrometric Charts, by Donald B. Brooks (U. S. Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous
Publication No. 143).
The Deviation of the Actual Wet-Bulb Temperature from the Temperature of
Adiabatic Saturation, by David Dropkin (Cornell University Engr. Exp. Station Bui.
No. 23, July, 1936).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Given air at 70 F dry-bulb and 50 per cent relative humidity with a baro-
metric pressure of 29.00 in. Hg, find the weight of vapor per pound of dry air.
Pressure of saturated vapor - et = 0.7387 in. Hg (Table 6).
From Equation 5a,
0.5 X 0.7387 \
- (0.5) X (0.7387)7
W = 0.008024 lb of vapor per pound of dry air at 70 F dry-bulb and 50 per cent
relative humidity.
Approximate Method:
Weight of saturated vapor per pound of dry air = Wt = 0.01574 lb (Table 6). 0.01574
X 0.5 = 0.00787 lb of vapor per pound of dry air at 70 F dry-bulb and 50 per cent relative
humidity.
2 • Given ah- with a dry-bulb temperature of 80 F, relative humidity of 55 per
cent, and a barometric pressure of 28.85 in. Hg, calculate the weight of a cubic
foot of mixture.
Pressure of saturated vapor at 80 F = et = 1.0316 in. Hg (Table 6).
Pressure of the vapor in the mixture - 1.0316 X 0.55 = 0.5676 in. Hg.
Pressure of the dry air in the mixture = 28.85 - 0.5676 = 28.282 in. Hg.
__ 28.282
~ 0.753 X 540 ™ °-06955 lb = weight of dry air in 1 cu ft of the mixture.
Likewise from Equation 4a,
^ = 1.21 X 540 = 0-W0868 lb - weight of vapor per cubic foot at 55 per cent
relative humidity.
Weight of 1 cu ft of the mixture = 0.06955 + 0.000868 = 0.070418 lb. '
3 • Given air with a dry-bulb temperature of 75 F, a relative humidity of 60 per
cent, and a barometric pressure of 28.80 in. Hg, calculate the volume of 1 lb of
ine mixture.
Pressure of saturated vapor at 75 F = et === 0.8745 in. Hg.
Pressure of vapor in the mixture = 0.8745 X 0.6 ~ 0.525 in. Hg.
Pressure of dry air in the mixture « 28.80 - 0.525 - 28.275 in. Hg.
32
CHAPTER 1. AIR, WATER AND STEAM
^ = ______ 28.275 _ = 0.07018 Ib = weight of dry air in 1 cu ft of the mixture.
0.753 X 535
From Equation 4a,
j _ Q*525 _ = 0 000811 Ib = weight of vapor per cubic foot at 55 per cent
** " 1.21 X 535
relative humidity.
Weight of 1 cu ft of the mixture = 0.07018 -f 0.000811 = 0.070991 Ib.
Volume of 1 Ib of the mixture = -Q^ggf = 14-08 cu ft-
4 ® It is desired to maintain a temperature of 80 F and a relative humidity of
^ per cent in a factory where the equipment gives off 6,000 Btu per hour If
th«f entering ah- is at 70 F with an average barometric pressure of 29.92 m. Hg,
determSe the relative humidity, and the pounds of an: required pex -hour *f
there is no heat interchange between the walls, windows, or floors of the
building.
Pressure of saturated vapor at 80 F = 1.0316 in. Hg (Table 6).
Pressure of vapor in the mixture - 1.0316 X 0.5 = 0.5158 in. Hg.
IF = 0-622 ( ^S^ )= 0.01091 Ib.
Pressure of saturated vapor at 70 F « 0,7387 in. Hg.
With the same specific humidity
/ 0.7387 X
0.01091 - 0.622 (29.92 „
$ = 69.8 per cent relative humidity at 70 F. ,
h = 0 24 X 80 + 0.01091 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 80)] = 31.15 Btu per pound, the heat con-
tent of the mixture at 80 F and 50 per cent relative humidity.
h = 0 24 X 70 + 0.01091 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 70)] = 28.70 Btu per pound, the heat con-
tent of the mixture at 70 F and the same specific humidity.
31.15 — 28.70 = 2.45 Btu to be removed per pound of air.
6000 Btu = heat given off by equipment per hour.
6000
2.45
= 2449 Ib of air required per hour.
.
remains constant, what will be the new pressure, P2, in in. Hg?
PV = w£(*
R (for air) = 53.34.
W = 1 Ib.
P = absolute pressure, pounds per square foot.
1 X 53.34 X (78 + 460)
/ " 29.92 X 0.491 X 144
V = 13.57 cu ft = volume of 1 Ib.
P* _ T* p - T*P*
Pi - 3\; 2 Ti
v . (96 + 460) (29.92 X 0.491 X 144) = 3Q M .^ Hg
^2 - (7g + 460) (0.491 X 144)
including the heat content of the liquid above 32 F.
33
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
From Equation 12,
h = 0.24 ft - 0) + Wh+
where
hs « 1059.2 + 0.45*' (Empirical equation derived from Keenan's Steam Tables).
/' = 75 F.
W « 0.01873 Ib of water vapor (Table 6).
h - 0.24 (75 - 0) -f 0.01873 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 75)].
h = 38.46 Btu per pound of dry air.
7 • A building requires 50,000 cu ft of air per hour to be raised from — 10 F
dry-bulb and 75 per cent relative humidity to 72 F dry-bulb and 30 per cent
relative humidity. Determine the amount of heat and the weight of water
which it is necessary to supply per hour if the temperature of the supply water
is 50 F and the barometric pressure is 28.75 in. Hg.
Assume air volume to be dry air at 70 F.
Weight of air « 0.075 X 50,000 - 3750 Ib per hour.
From Table 6,
Pressure of vapor in the mixture, outside air = 0.75 X 0.0221 = 0.0166 in. Hg.
Specific humidity, outside air - 0.622 ( 2g 75° '- cfoiee ) " °-0003589 Ib>
From Table 6,
Pressure of vapor in the mixture, inside air = 0.30 X 0.7906 = 0.2372 in. Hg.
Specific humidity, inside air = 0.622 (2g 75°^ 3Q 237is) = ao05174 lb-
Water to be added = 3750 (0.005174 - 0.0003589 ) = 18.06 lb per hour.
Heat content, inside air = 0.24 X 72 -f 0.005174 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 72)] - 22.925 Btu
per pound.
Heat content, outside air « 0.24 X (-10) -f- 0.0003589 [1059.2 -f (0.45 X -10)] =
-2.021 Btu per pound.
Btu added incident to the water per pound of dry air.
(0.005174 - 0.0003589) (50 - 32) = 0.0867 Btu per pound.
Heat requirement per hour = [22.925 - (-2.021 + 0.0867)] X 3750 = 93,221 Btu.
8 • Determine the amount of heat and water that must be extracted to cool
3750 lb of air (weighed dry) from 95 F and 60 per cent relative humidity to 50 F
and 100 per cent relative humidity with a barometric pressure of 28.75 in. Hg.
Pressure of vapor in the mixture, outside air = 0.6 X 1.659 = 0.995 in. Hg.
Specific humidity, outside air = 0.622 [ no >., ^ Mtf} = 0.0223 lb.
\28.7o — 0.995 /
Specific humidity, inside air - 0.007626 lb.
Weight of water to be extracted per hour = (0.0223 - 0.007626) X 3750 = 55.03 lb.
Heat content, outside air = 0.24 X 95 + 0.0223 [1059.2 -f (0.45 X 95)] - 47.37 Btu
per pound.
Heat content, inside air - 0.24 X 50 -h 0.00764 [1059.2 + (0.45 X 50)] = 20.26 Btu
per pound.
Heat to be extracted = (47.37 - 20.26) X 3750 = 101,662 Btu.
34
Chapter 2
REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
Properties o£ Refrigerant Substances, Selection Fact£r^olid
Adsorbents, Liquid Absorbents, Nature o£ Processes, Tempera-
ture Pressure Concentration Relations
BOTH cooling and dehumidification of air are usually desirable at
certain times. Cooling may be regarded as the extraction of sensible
heat while dehumidification necessitates the removal of patent heat. By
a suitable selection and combination of methods M*^™***^^
processes may be accomplished simultaneously or they ^^6 secured
independent of each other and at different times as desired On occasion
the desired result can be secured by extracting sensible heat only while
in other cases drying alone will produce the end conditions sought.
SuiSble substances must be available for use in every particular case
Generally, when both cooling and dehumidification are fO"^ current
oractice makes use of artificially produced refrigeration in some forrn^
air conditioning work. Little mention is made here °f methods, i y stems
or equipment whereby these substances may be applied, which mtor
mation may be found in Chapter 24.
REFRIGERANTS
Since air cooling and dehumidification are frequently Accomplished by
evaoorating a liquid under circumstances which will permit the neat
necSSrv to be Sracted from the air, the refrigerants are substances
Considerations including availability, cost, safety chemical stability and
adaptability to the type of refrigerating system to be used.
In this chapter detailed consideration is limited to six substances viz
ammonia, carbon dioxide, dichlorodiftuoromethane (P12), methyl
35
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TA.KEN FROM —40 F
T^p< Ln PER Heat Content
t So Is.
Entropy
100 F Superhea
200 F Superheat
i Liquid , Vapor , Liquid
Vapor
Liqui
Vapo
Ht.C
Entro
Ht. C
Entropy
0 , 30.42 0.0241
? 9.116
42
611. i
30.097
1.335
666
1.443
720
1.5317
2 31.92:0.0242
4 8.714
45
612.'
tO. 102
1.331
667
1.440(
721
1.5277
4 j 33 .47,; 0.02430 8.333
47
613. (
)0.106
1.327
668
1.436
722
1.5236
5 34. 27*0.02432 8.150 \ 48
613.;
50.109
1.325
668
1.434
722
1.5216
6 35.09 0.02435 7.971 ! 49
613. <
50.111
1.323
669
1.432
723
1.5196
8 , 36.77 0.02440 7.629
51
614.;
JO. 116
1.319
670
1.428
724
1.5155
10 38.51 0.0244<
S 7.304
53
614. <
J0.120
1.315
670.
1.424
725
1.5115
12 40.3l! 0.0245]
I 6.996
56.
615.*
J0.125
1.311
671.
1.420
725
1.5077
14 42.180.0245'
" 6,703
58.
616.1
0.130C
1.308
672.
1.416
726.
1.5039
16 44.12 0.02462 6.425
60.
616. e
> 0.134
1.304
673.
1.413
727.
1.5001
18
46.13 0.02465
J 6.161
62.
617.2
10.139
1.300
674.
1.409
728.
1 .4963
20
48.2110.02474 5.910
64.
617.
0.143
1.296
675.
1.405
729.
1.4925
22
50.36 0.0247S
> 5.671
66.
618.
0.148
1.293
675.
1.402
730.
1 .4889
24
52.59 0.0248
5.443
69.
618.
0.152
1.289
676.
1.398
731.
1.4853
26
54.90, 0.0249
5.227
71.
619.
0.157
1.286
677.
1.395
732.
1 .4816
28
57.28 0.0249
5.021
73.
619.
0.161
1.282
678.
1.391
733.
1 .4780
30
59.74i 0.0250
4.825
75.
620.
0.166
1.279
678.
1.387
734.
1.4744
32
62.291 0.0250
4.637
77.
621.
0.170
1.275
679.
1.384
735.
1.4710
34
64.91
0.0251
4.459
80.
621.
0.175
1.272
680.
1.381
736.
1.4676
36
67.63
1 0.0252
4.289
82.
622.
0.179
1.268
681.
1.377
736.
1.4643
38
70.4310.0252
4.126
84.
622.
0.184
1.2652
681.
1.374
737.
1.4609
39 71.8710.0253
4.048
85.
622.
0.186
1.2635
682.
1.372
738.
1.4592
40 j 73.32 0.0253
3.971
86.
623.
0.1885
1.2618
682.
1.3712
738.
1.4575
41
74. 80j 0.0253
3.897
87.
623.
0.1908
1.2602
683.
1.3696
739.0
1.4559
42
76.31
0.02539
3.823
89.0
623.4
0.1930
1.2585
683.4
1.3680
739.5
1.4542
44
79.38
0.02545
3.682
91.2
623.9
0.1974
.2552
684.2
1.3648
740 4
.4510
46
82.55
0.0255
3.547
93.5
624.4
0.2018
.2519
684.9
.3616
741.3
.4477
48
85.82
0.02558
3.418
95.7
624.8
0.2062
.2486
685.6
.3584
742 2
.4445
50
89.19
0.02564
3.294
97.9
625.2
0.2105
.2453
686.4
.3552
743.1
.4412
52
92.66
0.02571
3.176
100.2
625.7
0.2149
.2421
687.1
.3521
744.0
!4382
54
96.23
0.02577
3.063
102.4
626.1
0.2192
.2389
687.8
.3491
744.8
.4351
56
99.91
0.02584
2.954
104.7
626.5
0.2236
.2357
688.5
.3460
745.7
.4321
58
103.7
0.02590
2.851
106.9
626.9
0.2279
.2325
689.2
.3430
746 5
4290
60
62
107.6
111.6
0.02597
0.02604
2.751
2.656
109.2
111.5
627.3
627.7
0.2322
0.2365
.2294
.2262
689.9
690.6
.3399
.3370
747.4
748.2
.'4260
4231
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102 ;
115.7
120.0
124.3
128.8
133.4
138.1
143.0
147.9
153.0
158.3
163.7
169.2
174.8
180.6
186.6
192.7
198.9
205.3
211.9
218.6
0.02611
0.02618
0.02625
0.02632
0.02639
0.02646
0.02653
0.02661
0.02668
0.02675
0.02684
0.02691
0.02699
0.02707
0.02715
0.02723
0.02731
0.02739
0.02747
0.02756
2.565
2.477
2.393
2.312
2.235
2.161
2.089
2.021
1.955
1.892
1.831
1.772
1.716
1.661
1.609
1.559
1.510
1,464
1.419
1.375
113.7
116.0
118.3
120.5
122.8
125.1
127.4
129.7
132.0
134.3
136.6
138.9
141.2
143.5
145.8
148.2
150.5
152.9
155.2
157.6
628.0
628.4
628.8
629.1
629.4
629.8
630.1
630.4
630.7
631.0
631.3
631.5
631.8
632.0
632.2
632.5
632.6
632.9
633.0
633.2
0.2408
.2451
.2494
.2537
.2579
.2622
.2664
.2706
.2749
.2791
.2833
.2875
.2917
.2958
.3000
.3041
.3083
.3125
.3166
.3207
.2231
.2201
.2170
.2140
.2110
2080
2050
2020
1991
1962
1933
1904
1875
1846
1818
1789
1761
1733
1705
1677
691.3
691.9
692.6
693.3
694.0
694.6
695.3
695.9
696.6
697.2
697.8
698.5
99.1
99.7
00.3
00.9
01.5
02.1
02.7
03.3
.3341
.3312
.3283
.3254
.3226
.3199
.3171
.3144
.3116
.3089
3063
3040
3010
2983
2957
2932
2906
2881
2855
2830
749.1
749.9
750.8
751.6
752.4
753.3
754.1
755.0
755.8
756.6
757.4
758.3
759.1
759.9
760.7
61.5
62.2
63.0
63.8
64.6
.4202
.4172
.4143
.4114
.4086
.4059
.4031
.4004
3976
3949
3923
3896
3870
3843
3818
3793
3768
3743
3718
3693
36
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA— (Continued)
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TAKEN FROM -40 F
o.m
ABB
.»
oAT.
TEMP.
F
PRESS.
LB PER
SQlN.
V OLUME
Heat Content
Entropy
100 F Superheat
200 F Superheat
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
104
225.4
0.0276*
1.334
159.9
633.4
0.3248
1.1649
703.8
1.2805
765.3
1.3668
106
232.5
0.02773
1.293
162.3
633.5
0.3289
1.1621
701.3
1.2780
766.1
1.3643
108
239.7
0.02782
1.254
164.6
633.6
0.3330
1.1593
705.0
1.2755
766.9
1.3619
110
247.0
0.02790
1.217
167.0
633.7
0.3372
1.1566
705.5
.2731
767.6
1.3596
112
254.5
0.02799
1.180
169.4
633.8
0.3413
1.1538
706.1
.2708
768.3
1.3573
114
262.2
0.02808
1.145
171.8
633.9
0.3453
1.1510
706.6
.2684
769.1
1.3550
116
270.1
0.02817
1.112
174.2
634.0
0.3495
1.1483
707.2
.2661
769.8
1.3527
118
278.2
0.02827
1.079
176.6
634.0
0.3535
1.1455
707.7
.2636
770.5
1.3503
120
286.4
0.02836
1.047
179.0
634 0
0.3576
1.1427
708.2
.2612
771.3
1.3479
122
294.8
0.02846
1.017
181.4
634.0
0.3618
1.1400
708.6
.2587
772.0
1.3455
124
303.4
0.02855
0.987
183.9
634.0
0.3659
1.1372
709.1
.2563
772.8
1.3431
126
312.2
0.02865
0.958
186.3
633.9
0.3700
1.1344
709.6
1.2538
773.5
1.3407
128
321.2
0.02875
0.931
188.8
633.9
0.3741
1.1316
710.0
1.2513
774.2
1.3383
chloride, water, and monofluorotrichloromethane (Fn), for each of
which a tabl.e is presented. Each table gives the principal physical
properties of the saturated substance,, and all are arranged in uniform
fashion. In each case columns are included which give the heat content
and entropy of the superheated vapor at two selected points. Tables 1,
2, 3 and 4 which include the refrigerants much used in reciprocating and
rotary mechanical compression systems have a 2 F temperature interval.
As water and JPu are much used in centrifugal compression systems the
temperature interval in Tables 5 and 6 is 5 F.
AIR DRYING AGENTS
Moisture may be removed from air, thus accomplishing dehumidi-
fication, by the use of any one of a number of substances if the moist air
and these substances are brought together under suitable circumstances.
One class of these substances are solids at ordinary conditions and have
the power of adsorbing the moisture from the air. Another class of air
drying agents are liquids under ordinary conditions and absorb the mois-
ture from the air. Nearly all the drying agents in frequent commercial
use in air conditioning installations are of one or the other of these two
classes.
Adsorbents
These substances are characterized by a physical structure containing
a great number of extremely small pores but still retaining sufficient
mechanical strength to resist whatever wear and handling to which they
are subjected. To be suitable for air drying purposes they must be widely
available at economical cost, durable in use, stable in form and properties,
and capable of withstanding the re-activation processes by which they are
made ready for repeated use. They must also possess capacity for
adsorbing and holding so sufficient a quantity of moisture that the
dimensions of the beds necessary to accommodate them will be practical.
37
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2, PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TAKEN FROM —40 F
& p*--
^' LB PER
* SQ Is.
VOLUME
Heat Content
Entropy
50 F Superheat
100 F Superheat
Liquid Vapor
Liquid
1
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
0
305.5 0.01570 0.29040
18.8
138.9
0.0418
0.3024
153.7
0.3342
167.5
0.3612
315.9
0.01579 0.28030
19.8
138.8
0.0440
0.3014
153.7
0.3330
167.6
0.3600
4
326.5
0.01588 0.27070
20.8
138.8
0.0461
0.3005
153.7
0.3318
167.7
0.3588
5
332.0
0.0159210.26610
21.3
138.8
0.0472
0.3000
153.7
0.3312
167.7
0.3582
6
337.4
0.01596
0.26140
21.8
138.7
0.0483
0.2994
153.7
0.3306
167.8
0.3576
8
348.7
0.01605
0.25260
22.9
138.7
0.0504
0.2982
153.7
0.3293
167.9
0.3563
10
360.2
0.01614
0.24370
24.0
138.7
0.0526
0.2970
153.7
0.3281
168.0
0.3550
12
371.9
0.01623
0.23540
25.0
138.6
0.0548
0.2958
153.7
0.3270
168.1
0.3538
14
383.9
0.01632
0.22740
26.1
138.6
0.0571
0.2946
153.7
0.3259
168.2
0,3526
16
396.2
0.01642
0.21970
27.2
138.5
0.0593
0.2933
153.7
0.3249
168.3
0.3513
18
408.9
0.01652
0.21210
28.3
138.4
0.0616
0.2921
153.7
0.3238
168.5
0.3501
20
421.8
0.01663
0.20490
29.4
138.3
0.0638
0.2909
153.7
0.3227
168.6
0.3489
22
434.0
0.01673
0.19790
30.5
138.2
0.0662
0.2897
153.7
0.3214
168.7
0.3479
24
448.410.01684
0.19120
31.7
138.1
0.0686
0.2885
153.7
0.3202
168.8
0.3470
26
462.2
0.01695
0.18460
32.9
138.0
0.0710
0.2873
153.7
0.3189
168.9
0.3460
28
476.3
0.01707
0.17830
34.1
137.9
0.0734
0.2861
153.7
0.3177
169.0
0.3451
30
490.8
0.01719
0.17220
35.4
137.8
0.0758
0.2849
153.7
0.3164
169.1
0.3441
32
505.5
0.01731
0.16630
36.7
137.7
0.0781
0.2834
153.7
0.3158
169.2
0.3431
34
522.6
0.01744
0.16030
37.9
137.4
0.0804
0.2820
153.7
0.3151
169.3
0.3421
36
536.0
0.01759
0.15500
39.1
137.2
0.0828
0.2805
153.7
0.3145
169.4
0.3411
38
551.7
0.01773
0.14960
40.4
136.9
0.0851
0.2791
153.7
0.3138
169.5
0.3401
39
559.7
0.01780
0.14700
41.0
136.8
0.0862
0.2783
153.7
0.3135
169.5
0.3396
40 i 567.8
0.01787
0.14440
41.7
136.7
0.0874
0.2776
153.7
0.3132
169.6
0.3391
41
576.0
0.01794
0.14185
42.3
136.5
0.0887
0.2768
153.7
0.3127
169.6
0.3386
42
584.3
0.01801
0.13930
42.9
136.3
0.0899
0.2761
153.7
0.3122
169.7
0.3381
44
601.1
0.01817
0.13440
44.3
136.1
0.0924
0.2745
153.7
0.3112
169.8
0.3371
46
618.2
0.01834
0.12970
45.6
135.7
0.0950
0.2730
153.7
0.3101
169.9
0.3362
48
635.710.01851
0.12500
47.0
135.4
0.0975
0.2714
153.7
0.3091
170.0
0.3352
50
653.6
0.01868
0.12050
48.4
135.0
0.1000
0.2699
153.7
0.3081
170.1
0.3342
52
671.9
0.01887
0.11610
49.8
134.5
0.1027
0.2681
153.7
0.3069
170.2
0.3333
54
690.6
0.01906
0.11170
51.2
133.9
0.1054
0.2663
153.7
0.3057
170.3
0.3324
56
709.5
0.01927
0.10750
52.6
133.4
0.1081
0.2644
153.7
0.3046
170.5
0.3315
58
728.8
0.01948
0.10340
54.0
132.7
0.1108
0.2626
153.7
0.3034
170.6
0.3306
60
748.6
0.01970
0.09940
55.5
132.1
0.1135
0.2608
153.7
0.3022
170.7
0.3297
62
769.0
0.01995
0.09545
57.0
131.3
0.1164
0.2584
153.7
0.3012
170.8
0.3289
64
789.4
0.02020
0.09180
58.6
130.6
0.1194
0.2560
153.7
0.3002
170.9
0.3281
66
810.3
0.02048
0.08800
60.2
129.7
0.1223
0.2535
153.7
0.2991
171.0
0.3273
68
831.6
0.02079
0.08422
61.9
128.7
0.1253
0.2511
153.7
0.2981
171.1
0.3265
70
853.4
0.02112
0.08040
63.7
127.5
0.1282
0.2487
153.7
0.2971
171.2
0.3257
72
875.8
0.02152
0.07654
65.5
126.0
0.1321
0.2450
153.7
0.2962
171.3
0.3250
74
898.2
0.02192
0.07269
67.3
124.5
0.1360
0.2414
153.7
0.2953
171.4
0.3242
76
921.3
0.02242
0.06875
69.4
122.8
0.1398
0.2377
153.7
0.2945
171.5
0.3235
78
944.8
0.02300
0.06473
71.6
120.9
0.1437
0.2341
153.7
0.2936
171.6
0.3227
80
968.7
0.02370
0.06064
73.9
118.7
0.1476
0.2304
153.7
0.2927
171.7
0.3220
82
993.0
0.02456
0.05648
76.4
116.6
0.1578
0.2195
153.7
0.2920
173.8
0.3215
84
1017.7
0.02553
0.05223
79.4
113.9
0.1679
0.2087
153.7
0.2914
176.0
0.3209
86
1043.0
0.02686
0.04789
83.3
110.4
0.1781
0.1978
153.7
0.2907
178.2
0.3204
87.8
1069.9
0.03454
0.03454
97.0
97.0
0.1880
0.1880
153.7
0.2901
180.1
0.3199
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
Aluminum Oxide, (Alumina), in a porous, amorphous form is a solid
adsorbent frequently called by the common name activated alumina, and
containing small amounts of hydrated aluminum oxide, and very small
amounts of soda, and various metallic oxides. A good grade of activated
alumina will show 92 per cent of AkOz, and its soda content will be com-
bined with silica and alumina into an insoluble compound. This substance
also has the property of adsorbing certain gases and certain vapors other
"80 I2D 160 200"
ENTERING AIR TEMPERATURE, °F
FIG. 1. TEMPERATURE— VAPOR PRESSURE— CONCENTRATION RELATION FOR A
SILICA GEL BED AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
than water vapor— a property which is sometimes useful in air condi-
tioning installations. It is available commercially in granules ranging
trom a fine powder to pieces approximately 1.5 in. in diameter. It has
iiigh adsorptive capacity per unit of weight, and is non-toxic. It may be
repeatedly re-activated after becoming saturated with adsorbed moisture
without practical loss of its adsorptive ability. In the grade frequently
US!i °or^dTng £e re-activati<>n may be accomplished at temperatures
under 350 F. Specific gravity is 3.25 and the pores are reported to occupy
58 per cent of the volume of each particle. For most estimating purposes
39
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. PROPERTIES OF DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE(FIO)
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TAKEN FROM -40 F
rlS; *•*
T|SP' LBMB
h SQ!N.
VOLUME
1 Heat Content
Entropy
25 F Superheat
50 F Superheat
Liquid Vapor Uquid 1 Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
0 i 23.870.0110J 1.637 8.25
78.21
0.01869
0.17091
81.71
0.17829
85.26
0.18547
2 24 890.01101 1.5741 8.67
78.44
0.01961
0.17075
81.94
0.17812
85.51
0.18529
4
25.960.0111 1.514 9.10
i 78.67
0.02052
0.17060
82.17
0.17795
85.76
0.18511
5 26. 510.0111! 1.485! 9.32 78.79
0.02097
0.17052
82.29
0.17786
85.89
0.18502
6 ! 27.050.0111 1.457
9.53
78.90
0.02143
0.17045
82.41
0.17778
86.01
0.18494
8 ' 28.180.0111J 1.403 9.96
79.13
0.02235
0.17030
82.66
0.17763
86.26
0.18477
10 : 29.350.0112 1.3511 10.39
79.36
0.02328
0.17015
82.90
0.17747
86.51
0.18460
12 ; 30.560.0112 1.301
10.82
79.59
0.02419
0.17001
83.14
0.17,733
86.76
0.18444
14 31.800.0112 1.253
11.26
79.82
0.02510
0.16987
83.38
0.17720
87.01
0.18429
16 ! 33.0810. 0112
1.207
11.70
80.05
0.02601
0.16974
83.61
0.17706
87.26
0.18413
18 j 34.400.01131 1.163
12.12
80.27
0.02692
0.16961
83.85
0.17693
87.51
0.18397
20 35. 75 0.0113| 1.121
12.55
80.49
0.02783
0.16949
84.09
0.17679
87.76
0.18382
22 ! 37.150.0113 1.081
13.00
80.72
0.02873
0.16938
84.32
0.17666
88.00
0.18369
24 38.580.0113
1.043
13.44
80.95
0.02963
0.16926
84.55
0.17652
88.24
0.18355
26 40.070.0114
1.007
13.88
81.17
0.03053
0.16913
84.79
0.17639
88.49
0.18342
28 41.590.0114
0.973
14.32
81.39
0.03143
0.16900
85.02
0.17625
88.73
0.18328
30
43.160.0115
0.939
14.76
81.61
0.03233
0.16887
85.25
0.17612
88.97
0.18315
32
44.77
0.0115
0.908
15.21
81.83
0.03323
0.16876
85.48
0.17600
89.21
0.18303
34
46.420.0115
0.877
15.65
82.05
0.03413
0.16865
85.71
0.17589
89.45
0.18291
36 48. 13)0.0116
0.848
16.10
82.27
0.03502
0.16854
85.95
0.17577
89.68
0.18280
38 49.88^0.0116
0.819
16.55
82.49
0.03591
0.16843
86.18
0.17566
89.92
0.18268
39 50.780.0116
0.806
16.77
82.60
0.03635
0.16838
86-29
0.17560
90.04
0.18262
40 ; 51.680.0116
0.792
17.00
82.71
0.03680
0.16833
86.41
0.17554
90.16
0.18256
41 ; 52.70:0.0116
0.779
17.23
82.82
0.03725
0.16828
86.52
0.17549
90.28
0.18251
42 53.510.0116
0.767
17.46
82.93
0.03770
0.16823
86.64
0.17544
90.40
0.18245
44
55.40)0.0117
0.742
17.91
83.15
0.03859
0.16813
86.86
0.17534
90.65
0.18235
46
57.35
0.0117
0.718
18.36
83.36
0.03948
0.16803
87.09
0.17525
90.89
0.18224
48
59.35
0.0117
0.695
18.82
83.57
0.04037
0.16794
87.31
0.17515
91.14
0.18214
50
61.390.0118 0.673
19.27
83.78
0.04126
0.16785
87.54
0.17505
91.38
0.18203
52
63.49
0.0118
0.652
19.72
83.99
0.04215
0.16776
87.76
0.17496
91.61
0.18193
54
65.63jO.0118
0.632
20.18
84.20
0.04304
0.16767
87.98
0.17486
91.83
0.18184
56
67.8410. 0119
0.612
20.64
84.41
0.04392
0.16758
88.20
0.17477
92.06
0.18174
58
70.100.0119
0.593
21.11
84.62
0.04480
0.16749
88.42
0.17467
92.28
0.18165
60 72.41jO.0119
0.575
21.57
84.82
0.04568
0.16741
88.64
0.17458
92.51
0.18155
62 i 74.77
0.0120
0.557
22.03
85.02
0.04657
0.16733
88.86
0.17450
92.74
0.18147
fri
77.20
0.0120
0.540
22.49
85.22
0.04745
0.16725
89.07
0.17442
92.97
0.18139
66 79.67
0.0120
0.524
22.95
85.42
0.04833
0.16717
89.29
0.17433
93.20
0.18130
68 82.24
0.0121
0.508
23.42
85.62
0.04921
0.16709
89.50
0.17425
93.43
0.18122
70
84.82
0.0121
0.493
23.90
85.82
0.05009
0.16701
89.72
0.17417
93.66
0.18114
72 ! 87.50
0.0121
0.479
24.37
86.02
0.05097
0.16693
89.93
0.17409
93.99
0.18106
74 90.20
0.0122
0.464
24.84
86.22
0.05185
0.16685
90.14
0.17402
94.12
0.18098
76 93.00
0.0122
0.451
25.32
86.42
0.05272
0.16677
90.36
0.17394
94.34
0.18091
78 95.85
0.0123
0.438
25.80
86.61
0.05359
0.16669
90.57
0.17387
94.57
0.18083
80 98.76
0.0123
0.425
26.28
86.80
0.05446
0.16662
90.78
0.17379
94.80
0.18075
82 1101.70
0.0123
0.413
26.76
86.99
0.05534
0.16655
90.98
0.17372
95.01
0.18068
84 il04.S
0.0124
0.401
27.24
87.18
0.05621
0.16648
91.18
0.17365
95.22
0.18061
86 i!07.9
0.0124
0.389
27.72
87.37
0.05708
0.16640
91.37
0.17358
95.44
0.18054
88
111,1
0.0124
0.378
28.21
87.56
0.05795
0.16632
91.57
0.17351
95.65
0.18047
90
114.3
0.0125
0.368
28.70
87.74
0.05882
0.16624
91.77
0.17344
95.86
0.18040
92
117.7
0.0125 0.357
29.19
87.92
0.05969
0.16616
91.97
0.17337
96.07
0.18033
94
121.0
0.0126 0.347
29.68
88.10
0.06056
0.16608
92.16
0.17330
96.28
0.18026
96
124.5
0.0126
0.338
30.18
88.28
0.06143
0.16600
92.36
0.17322
96 50
0.18018
98 128.0
0.0126
0.328
30.67
88.45
0.06230
0.16592
92.55
0.17315
96.71
0.18011
100 J131.6
0.0127
0.319
31.16
88.62
0.06316
0.16584
92.75
0.17308
96.92
0 18004
102
135.3
0.0127
0.310
31.65
88.79
0.06403
0.16576
92.93
0.17301
97.12
0.17998
40
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
TABLE 3. PROPERTIES OF DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE (Fi2) — Continued
SAT.
TEMP.
F
ABS
PRESS.
LB PER
SQ!N.
VOLUME
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TAKEN FBOM —40 F
Heat Content
Entropy
25 F Superheat
SO F Superheat
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht Ct.
Entropy
104
139.0
0.0128
0.302
32.15
88.95
0.06490
0.16568
93.11
0.17294
97.32
0.17993
106
142.8
0.0128
0.293
32.65
89.11
0.06577
0.16560
93.30
0.17288
97.53
0.17987
108
146.8
0.0129
0.285
33.15
89.27
0.06663
0.16551
93.48
0.17281
97.73
0.17982
110
150.7
0.0129
0.277
33.65
89.43
0.06749
0.16542
93.66
0.17274
97.93
0.17976
112
154.8
0.0130
0.269
34.15
89.58
0.06836
0.16533
93.82
0.17266
98.11
0.17969
114
158.9
0.0130
0.262
34.65
89.73
0.06922
0.16524
93.98
0.17258
98.29
0.17961
116
163.1
0.0131
0 254
35.15
89.87
0.07008
0.16515
94.15
0.17249
98.4810.17954
118
167.4
0.0131
0.247
35.65
90.01
0.07094
0.16505
94.31
0.17241
98.66
0.17946
120
171.8
0.0132
0.240
36.16
90.15
0.07180
0.16495
94.47
0.17233
98.84
0.17939
122
176.2
0.0132
0.233
36.66
90.28
0.07266
0.16484
94.63
0.17224
99.01
0.17931
124
180.8
0.0133
0.227
37.16
90.40
0.07352
0.16473
94.78
0.17215
99.18
0.17922-
126
185.4
0.0133
0.220
37.67
90.52
0.07437
0.16462
94.94
0.17206
99.35
0.17914
128
190.1
0.0134
0.214
38.18
90.64
0.07522
0.16450
95.09
0.17196
99.53
0.17906
130
194.9
0.0134
0.208
38.69
90.76
0.07607
0.16438
95.25
0.17186
99.70
0.17897
132
199.8
0.0135
0.202
39.19
90.86
0.07691
0.16425
95.41
0.17176
99.87
0.17889
134
204.8
0.0135
0.196
39.70
90.96
0.07775
0.16411
95.56
0.17166
100.04
0.17881
136
209.9
0.0136
0.191
40.21
91.06
0.07858
0.16396
95.72
0.17156
100.22
0.17873
138
215.0
0.0137
0.185
40.72
91.15
0.07941
0.16380
95.87
0.17145
100.39
0.17864
140
220.2
0.0138
0.180
41.24
91.24
0.08024
0.16363
96.03
0.17134
100.56
0.17856
the volume-weight relation on a dry basis may be taken as 50 Ib per cubic
foot although in the smaller sizes the packed weight may be as much as
64 Ib per cubic foot.
Silicon Dioxide, (Silica), in a special form obtained by suitably mixing
sulphuric acid with sodium silicate, is another solid adsorbent and is
commonly called silica gel. Its capillary structure is exceedingly small,
so small that its exact structure has to be deduced rather than observed.
The gel is available commercially in a wide variety of sizes of granules
ranging from 4 to 300 mesh. It has high adsorptive capacity per unit
of weight and is non-toxic, may be repeatedly re-activated without
practical deterioration. Re-activation may be accomplished at tem-
peratures of air up to 600 F although it is frequently accomplished with
air or other gases at temperatures not over 350 F. Volume of the capillary
pores is reported to be from 50 to 70 per cent of the total solid volume.
For most estimating purposes the volume-weight relation can be assumed
as from 38 to 40 Ib per cubic foot on a dry basis.
Other substances having properties which make them available as
solid adsorbents include lamisilate and charcoal but details of their
physical properties are not available.
Nature of Adsorption Process
Adsorption is accomplished without chemical change between the air
and the adsorbent substance. The adsorbent does not go into solution but
water vapor is extracted from the air-vapor stream passing through the
bed of adsorbent material and is caught and retained in the capillary
pores. The exact nature of the process which goes on during adsorption
41
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 4. PROPERTIES OF METHYL CHLORIDE
HEAT CONTEST AND ENTROPY TAKEN FROM -40 F
F SslN?
I
VoL-nos •
I Heat Content ' Entropy
100 F Superheat
200 F Superheat
Liquid ;' Vapor Liquid Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
0 18.73 0.0162 : 5.052 14,4 192.4
0.0328
0.4197
215.6
0.467
237.2
0.507
2 19.60 0.0162 4.856 15.1 i 193.1
0.0344
0.4196
216.2
0.466
237.7
0.505
4 I 20.47 0.0163 , 4.661 15.8
193.80.0360
0.4195
216.7
0.465
238.2
0.504
5 i 20.91:0.0163
4.563 16.2
194.1
0.0368
0.4195
217.0
0.464
238.5
0.503
6
21. 39; 0.0163 4.476 16.6
194.4
0.0376
0.4194
217.3
0.464
238.8
0.502
8
22. 34' 0.0164
4.303 17.3
195.1
0.0391
0.4193
217.9
0.463
239.4
0.501
10
23.30 0.0164
4.129 18.1
195.8
0.0407
0.4192
218.5
0.463
240.0
0.500
12
24.38 0.0164 ' 3.984 18.8
196.3
0.0423
0.4184
219.0
0.462
240.5
0.499
14
25.46 0.0164 3.839 19.6
196.7
0.0439
0.4176
219.5
0.462
241.0
0.498
16
26.55 0,0165 3.693
20.3
197.2
0.0454
0.4168
220.0
0.461
241.5
0.498
18
27. 63' 0.0165
3.548
21.1
197.6
0.0472
0.4160
220.5
0.461
242.0
0.497
20
28. 71! 0.0166
3.403
21.8
198.1
0.0486
0.4152
221.0
0.460
242.5
0.496
22
29.98 0.0166
3.288
22.5
198.5
0.0501
0.4148
221.5
0.459
243.0
0.495
24
31.25 0.0166
3.172
23.3
198.9
0.0516
0.4143
222.0
0.459
243.6
0.495
26
32.53 0.0167
3.057
24.0
199.3
0.0532
0.4139
222.4
0.458
244.1
0.494
28
33. 801 0.0167
2.941
24.8
199.7
0.0547
0.4134
222.9
0.458
244.7
0.494
30
35. 0/1 0.0168
2.826
25.5
200.1
0.0562
0.4130
223.4
0.457
245.2
0.493
32 36.55
0.0168
2.734
26.2
200.5
0.0577
0.4124
223.9
0.456
245.7
0.492
34
38.03 0.0169
2.642
27.0
200.9
0.0592
0.4118
224.3
0.455
246.2
0.492
36
39.5110.0169
2.549
27.7
201.4
0.0607
0.4111
224.8
0.455
246.7
0.491
38
40.99
0.0169
2.457
28.5
201.8
0.0622
0.4105
225.2
0.454
247.2
0.491
39
41.73
0.0170
2.411
28.8
202.0
0.0629
0.4102
225.5
0.453
247.4
0.490
40
42.47
0.0170
2.365
29.2
202.2
0.0637
0.4099
225.7
0.453
247.7
0.490
41
43.33
0.0170
2.328
29.6
202.4
0.0644
0.4096
225.9
0.453
248.0
0.490
42
44.18
0.0171
2.290
29.9
202.6
0.0651
0.4093
226.1
0.452
248.3
0.489
44
45.89
0.0171
2.216
30.7
203.0
0.0666
0.4087
226.6
0.451
248.8
0.489
46
47.61
0.0171
2.141
31.4
203.3
0.0680
0.4081
227.0
0.451
249.4
0.488
48
49.32
0.0172
2.067
32.2
203.7
0.0695
0.4075
227.5
0.450
249.9
0.488
50
51.03
0.0172
1.992
32.9
204.1
0.0709
0.4069
227.9
0.449
250.5
0.487
52
53.00
0.0172
1.931
33.7
204.4
0.0724
0.4063
228.2
0.448
251.0
0.486
54
54.97
0.0173
1.870
34.4
204.7
0.0739
0.4056
228.6
0.448
251.5
0.486
56
56.94
0.0173
1.810
35.2
205.1
0.0754
0.4050
228.9
0.447
252.0
0.485
58
58.91
0.0173
1.749
35.9
205.4
0.0769
0.4043
229.3
0.447
252.5
0.485
60
60.88
0.0174
1.688
36.7
205.7
0.0784
0.4037
229.6
0.446
253.0
0.484
62
63.13
0.0174
1.638
37.4
206.0
0.0798
0.4030
229.9
0.445
253.5
0.483
64
65.37
0.0174
1.588
38.2
206.3
0.0812
0.4024
230.3
0.444
254.0
0.483
66
67.62
0.0175
1.539
38.9
206.6
0.0827
0.4017
230.6
0.443
254.5
0.482
68
69.86
0.0175
1.489
39.7
206.9
0.0841
0.4011
231.0
0.442
255.0
0.482
70
72.11
0.0176
1.439
40.4
207.2
0.0855
0.4004
231.3
0.441
255.5
0.481
72
74.66
0.0176
1.398
41.1
207.5
0.0869
0.3998
231.6
0.440
256.0
0.480
74
77.21
0.0177
1.357
41.9
207.7
0.0883
0.3992
232.0
0.439
256,5
0.480
76
79.76
0.0177
1.315
42.6
208.0
0.0898
0.3985
232.3
0.439
256.9
0.479
78
82.31
0.0178
1.274
43.4
208.2
0.0912
0.3979
232.7
0.438
257.4
0.479
80
84.86
0.0178
1.233
44.1
208.5
0.0926
0.3973
233.0
0.437
257.9
0.478
82
87.74
0.0178
1.199
44.8
208.7
0.0940
0.3967
233.3
0.436
258.4
0.478
84
90.62
0.0179
1.165
45.6
209.0
0.0953
0.3960
233.6
0.435
258.9
0.477
86
93.50
0.0179
1.130
46.3
209.2
0.0967
0.3954
233.9
0.435
259.4
0.477
88
96.38
0.0180
1.096
47.1
209.5
0.0980
0.3947
234.2
0.434
259.9
0.476
90
99.26
0.0180
1.062
47.8
209.7
0.0994
0.3941
234.5
0.433
260.4
0.476
92
102.49
0.0180
1.033
48.6
209.9
0.1008
0.3935
234.8
0.433
260.8
0.476
94
105.72
0.0181
1.005
49.3
210.2
0.1022
0.3929
235.1
0.432
261.2
0.475
96
108.94
0.0181
0.9764
50.1
210.4
0.1035
0.3922
235.4
0.432
261.6
0.475
98
112.17
0.0182
0.9478
50.8
210.7
0.1049
0.3916
235.7
0.431
262 0
0.474
100
115.40
0.0182
0.9193
51.6
210.9
0.1063
0.3910
236.0
0.431
262.4
0^474
102
119.00
0.0183
0.8952
52.3
211.1
0.1076
0.3903
236.4
0.430
262.8
0.474
42
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
TABLE 4. PROPERTIES OF METHYL CHLORIDE — (Continued)
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTBOPY TAKES FBOJI — 40 F
O.m
ABS
VOTTTMTS
TEMP.
F
PRESS.
LB PER
SQ IN.
Heat Content
Entropy
100 F Superheat
200 F Superheat
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
HtCt
Entropy
104
122.60
0.0183
0.8712
53.1
211.3
0.1090
0.3897
236.8
0.430
263.2
0.473
106
126.20
0.0184
0.8471
53.8
211.4
0.1103
0.3890
237.1
0.429
263.5
0.473
108
129.80
0.0184
0.8231
54.6
211.6
0.1117
0.3884
237.5
0.429
263.9
0.472
110
133.40
0.0185
0.7990
55.3
211.8
0.1130
0.3877
237.9
0.428
264.3
0.472
112
137.42
0.0185
0.7786
56.1
212.0
0.1144
0.3871
238.1
0.427
264.6
0.471
114
141.44
0.0185
0.7583
56.8
212.2
0.1157
0.3864
238.3
0.427
264.8
0.470
116
145.46
0.0186
0.7379
57.6
212.4
0.1171
0.3858
238.6
0.426
265.1
0.470
118
149.48
0.0186
0.7176
58.3
212.6
0.1184
0.3851
238.8
0.426
265.3
0.469
120
153.50
0.0187
0.6972
59.1
212.8
0.1198
0.3845
239.0
0.425
265.6
0.468
is not known but it is stated that the action is brought about by surface
condensation, and also by a difference between the vapor pressure of the
water condensing inside the pores and the partial pressure of the water
vapor in the air-vapor mixture. The adsorbing process in the bed can
continue until the vapor pressures come into equilibrium. The amount
of vapor adsorbed will depend on the adsorbent substances being used
but for any single substance the amount depends on the temperature of
the bed as well as on the partial pressure of the air-vapor mixture being
passed over it.
As the process of adsorption goes on heat is liberated in the bed. The
heat so liberated is the latent heat of the water vapor condensed together
with the so-called heat of wetting. For a pound of water vapor at 60 F
the latent heat released by condensation is approximately 1057 Btu.
The heat of wetting for silica gel, for example, is about 200 Btu, making a
total heat of adsorption of approximately 1257 Btu per pound of water
adsorbed from the air-vapor mixture passing through the silica gel bed.
The heat of wetting varies with the substance being used as the adsorbent
while the latent heat of condensation depends only on the temperature
and pressure of the water vapor.
Temperature-Pressure-Concentration Relations
Since the adsorptive ability of an adsorbent depends on the temperature
of the bed and on the partial pressure difference between the pores and the
air-vapor mixture it is important to know the pressures and temperatures
at which pressure equilibrium is reached.
Evidently the equilibrium conditions represent the limits beyond
which adsorption of vapor cannot continue. The relationship can be
shown graphically and Fig. 1 is such a chart for silica gel. Charts of like
nature can be plotted for other adsorbent materials.
Fig, 1 shows the equilibrium conditions for a gel bed maintained at
constant temperature while the water vapor adsorption is allowed to
continue until pressure equilibrium is reached. Each curve on the chart
show a certain dew-point temperature, and therefore a certain pressure,
of the saturated water vapor.
43
HEATING VENTILATING . AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 5. PROPERTIES OF MONOFLUOROTRICHLOROMETHANE (Fn)
SAT.
Tin*.
F
ABS
PRKS.
LB PIE
Sal*.
i VOLUME
MTCAT UONCTNT AND .ttNTBOPY TAKEN i? BOM —40 JB
i Heat Content
Entropy
25 F Superheat
SO F Superheat
; Liquid j Vapor ! Liquid Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
Ht. Ct.
Entropy
0
2. 59J 0.01020! 13. 700
7.81
90.4
0.0178
0.1975
93.9
0.2049
97.4
0.2120
5 ; 2.9610.01024S12.100
8.81
91.2
0.0200
0.1974
94.7
0.2047
98.2
0.2117
10 : 3. 38 i 0.01028! 10.700
9.82
92.0
0.0222
0.1973
95.5
0.2045
99.0
0.2114
15
3.85
0.010321 9.530
10.80
92.8
0.0243
0.1971
96.3
0.2043
99.8
0.2111
20
4.3610.01036! 8.490
11.90
93.7
0.0264
0.1970
97.2
0.2041
100.7
0.2109
25
4.94
0.01040
7.580
12.90
94.5
0.0286
0.1969
98.0
0.2039
101.5
0.2107
30
5.57
0.01045
6.770
13.90
95.3
0.0307
0.1969
98.8
0.2038
102.3
0.2105
35 6.2710.01049
6.080
14.90
96.1
0.0328
0.1968
99.6
0.2037
103.1
0.2103
40
7.03 0.01053
5.460
16.00
96.8
0.0349
0.1968
100.3
0.2036
103.8
0.2101
45
7.88
0.01057
4.920
17,00
97.6
0.0370
0.1967
101.1
0.2035
104.6
0.2099
50
8.79
0.01062
4.440
18.10
98.4
0.0391
0.1967
101.9
0.2034
105.4
0.2098
55
9.80
0.01066
4.020
19.10
99.2
0.0412
0.1967
102.7
0.2033
106.2
0.2097
60
10.90
0.01071
3.640
20.20
100.0
0.0432
0.1967
103.5
0.2033
107.0
0.2096
65
12.10
0.01076
3.300
21.30
100.8
0.0453
0.1967
104.3
0.2032
107.8
0.2094
70
13.40
0.01081
3.000
22.40
101.5
0.0473
0.1967
105.0
0.2032
108.5
0.2093
75
14.80
0.01086
2.740
23.50
102.2
0.0493
0.1967
105.7
0.2031
109.2
0.2092
80
16.30
0.01091
2.500
24.50
102.9
0.0513
0.1966
106.4
0.2030
109.9
0.2090
85
17.90
0.01096
2.280
25.60
103.6
0.0533
0.1966
107.1
0.2029
110.6
0.2089
90
19.70
0.01101
2.090
26.70
104.4
0.0553
0.1966
107.9
0.2028
111.4
0.2088
95
21.60
0.01106
1.918
27.80
105.1
0.0573
0.1966
108.6
0.2028
112.1
0.2087
100
23.60
0.01111
1.761
28.90
105.7
0.0593
0.1965
109.2
0.2027
112.7
0.2085
105
25.90
0.01116
1.620
30.10
106.4
0.0613
0.1965
109.9
0.2026
113.4
0.2084
As an example in the interpretation of the chart consider the case when
moist air at a temperature of 80 F and a partial vapor pressure of 0.5 in
of mercury flows through a bed of silica gel which is at a temperature of
80 F. The chart indicates that the equilibrium of pressure between the
air-vapor mixture and the bed is reached when the dry bed has adsorbed
moisture to the extent of 31 per cent of the weight when dry. When this
happens the bed can adsorb no more moisture unless its temperature
is changed.
In practice however the adsorbent bed is seldom held at a steady tem-
perature in air conditioning applications and neither is the adsorption
process permitted to continue until moisture equilibrium is reached
Instead, the^bed temperature varies and the bed is re-activated before
equilibrium is approached. While charts of this kind can show the
limiting properties of the substances they are seldom directly applicable
to the solution of air conditioning problems unless considerable additional
information is available. This takes the form of performance data cover-
ing the characteristics of the equipment in which the adsorbent bed is
placed. Such performance data are beyond the scope of this chapter.
Liquid Absorbents
Any absorbent substance may be used as an air drying agent if it has a
JS^wCTSf loW*Vhan. the 7aP°r P«^re in the i-vapor mixture
from which the moisture is to be removed. Absorbents are character-
istically water solutions of materials in which the vapor pressure is
44
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
reduced to a suitable level by governing the concentration of the solution.
In addition to haying a suitable low vapor pressure, a practical absorbent
must also be widely available at economical cost, be non-corrosive,
odorless, non-toxic, chemically inert against any impurities in the air
stream, stable over the range of use and especially it must not precipitate
out at the lowest temperature to which the apparatus is exposed. It must
have low viscosity and be capable of being economically regenerated or
concentrated after having been diluted by absorbing moisture.
Water solutions, or brines, of the chlorides of various inorganic elements
such as calcium chloride and lithium chloride are the absorbents most
frequently used in connection with air conditioning applications and de-
tailed attention is confined to these two in this chapter.
Nature of Absorption Process
The application consists of bringing the air-vapor stream into intimate
contact with the absorbent, permissably by passing the air stream through
a finely divided spray of the brine but more generally by passing the air
over a metal surface coil where the liquid absorbent presents a large
surface to the air stream. The difference in vapor pressures causes some
of the vapor in the air-vapor mixture to migrate into the brine. Here it
condenses into liquid water and decreases the concentration of the absor-
bent. In order that the process be continuous means must be provided
for counteracting the diluting effect of the extracted moisture and also for
maintaining the temperature of the brine sufficiently low to hold the
desired vapor pressure.
As the water vapor is added to the absorbent and condenses, it gives up
its latent heat of condensation which tends to raise the temperature of
both the absorbent and the moist air stream. For every pound of water
absorbed and condensed the heat added to the air stream and the brine
TABLE 6. PROPERTIES OF WATER
SAT.
TEMP.
F
ABS
PRESS.
LB PER
3d IN.
VOLUME
HEAT CONTENT AND ENTROPY TAKEN FBOM -1-32 F
Heat Content
Entropy
50 F Superheat
100 F Superheat
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
HtCt.
Entropy
HtOL
Entropy
32
0.0887
0.01602
3296.0
0.00
1073.0
0.0000
2.1826
1096.9
2.2277
1120.8
2.2688
35
0.1000
0.01602
2941.0
3.02
1074.4
0.0062
2.1724
1098.3
2.2172
1122.2
2.2581
40
0.1217
0.01602
2441.0
8.05
1076.8
0.0163
2.1555
1100.6
2.2000
1124.5
2.2406
45
0.1475
0.01602
2034.0
13.07
1079.2
0.0262
2.1390
1102.9
2.1832
1126.7
2.2234
50
0.1780
0.01602
1702.0
18.08
1081.5
0.0361
2.1230
1105.2
2.1667
1129.0
2.2066
55
0.2140
0.01603
1430.0
23.08
1083.9
0.0459
2.1073
1107.5
2.1506
1131.3
2.1902
60
0.2561
0.01603
1206.0
28.08
1086.2
0.0556
2.0920
1109.8
2.1349
1133.5
2.1742
65
0.3054
0.01604
1021.0
33.08
1088.6
0.0652
2.0771
1112.2
2.1196
1135.8
2.1585
70
0.3628
0.01605
868.0
38.07
1090.9
0.0746
2.0625
1114.5
2.1046
1138.1
2.1432
75
0.4295
0.01606
740.0
43.06
1093.2
0.0840
2.0483
1116.7
2.0900
1140.3
2.1283
80
0.507
0.01607
632.9
48.05
1095.5
0.0933
2.0344
1119.0
2.0758
1142.5
2.1138
85
0.596
0.01609
543.3
53.04
1097.8
0.1025
2.0208
1121.2
2.0619
1144.7
2.0996
90
0.698
0.01610
467.9
58.03
1100.0
0.1116
2.0075
1123.4
2.0483
1146.8
2.0857
95
0.815
0.01612
404.2
63.01
1102.3
0.1206
1.9946
1125.6
2.0350
1148.9
2.0721
100
0.949
0.01613
350.3
68.00
1104.6
0.1296
1.9819
1127.9
2.0220
1151.1
2.0588
105
1.101
0.01615
304.4
72.98
1106.8
0.1384
1.9695
1130.2
2.0093
1153.2
2.0458
For properties of steam at high temperatures, see Page 28.
45
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 7. DEW-POINT OF AIR IN EQUILIBRIUM WITH LITHIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION* IN GRAM MOLS OF LITHIUM CHLORIDE PER 1000 GRAINS WATER
o.o 2.0 , 4.0 6.0
5.0
10.0
12.0 14.0 16.0 , 18.0 ! 20.0 ! 22.0 j 24.0 ! 26.0 J 28.0 , 30.0
320315.2308,7
299.9
290.2
279.7
269.4
259.6251.5244.1236.5,230.0223.8218.6214.5210.3
300295.4289.1
280.5
270.9
260.6
250.5
240.8232.6225.4218.0211.8i205.8200.8196.9,192.8
280;275.6269.5261.1
251.7
241.5
231.6
222.2 214.0206.7,199.7 193.5187.8 183.2179.3)175.2
260255.8250.0241.9
232.6
222.7
212.8
203.5 195.5188.4 181.7:175.41170.0 165.6'162.0 158.4
240236.0230.4222.5
213.5
203.8
194.2
185.0177.1 170.0,163.6157.5'152.21148.3 144.6140.5
220216.2210.8203.2
194.4
184.9
175.5
166.4 158.6 151 .6 145.3139.6 134.6,130.7 127.3124.2
200196.41191-2
183.9
175.4
166.1
156.7
148.0 140.3 133.5,127.3;121.9!117.0113.3 110.1
180 176.6;171.6 164.7
146.4
147.3
138.1
129.6 122.1;115.5 109.4 104.2| 99.6 96.0, i
160:156.8,152.1
;i45.4
137.4
128.6
119.7
111.3103.9, 97.4 91.61 86.61 82.21
140137.0132.6
126.1
118.4
109.9
101.3
93.1
85.9, 79.5 73.8| 69.0' ;
120J117.2 113.0 106.8
99.4
91.1
82.7
74.71 67.8; 61.5! 56.0: ' ; [
110107.3il03.2l 97.2
89.9
81.9
73.5
65.6: 58.8 52.6| 47.1| • !
100
97.4
93.4
87.5
80.5
72.7
64,4
56.6: 49.8 43.7i 38.2! !
90
87.5
83.6
77.9
71.0
63.3
54.2,
47.61 40.8 34.8;' 29.3' • '
|
80
77.6
73.8
68.4
61.6
54.0
46.1
38.5: 31.8! 25,9: 20.6
i
70 67.7
64.0
58.7
52.2
44.8
37.0
29.5
22.91 17.2, 12.0
60| 57.8
54.3
49.1
42.7
35.5
27.9
20.5
14.0; 83
'
40
38.0
34.7
29.9
23.9
16.9
9.6
2.4'-3.9! i
20
15.1
10.7
5.0
-1.7;
-8.7
-15.4! ; 1 : ; ' j
0
-4.5
-8.6
-13.9
-20.2
-27.0
-33.3
|!l;!
;
1 1 1
1
combined is obtainable from steam tables. For instance, at 60 F the
amount of this heat is about 1057 Btu. In addition to this heat there is
involved also the so-called heat of mixing which is frequently considerable.
Temperature-Pressure-Concentration Relations
Since the absorption process can continue only as long as there is a
difference in vapor pressure between the absorbent and the air-vapor
mixture and since at a given temperature of the absorbent the vapor
pressure depends on the concentration of the solution, evidently there
TABLE 8. DENSITY OF LITHIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION
MoLSLiCJPKB
1000 GRAINS
WATER
TEMPERATURE DEQ F
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0
2
1.045
1.037
1.026
1.012
4
1.090
1.085
1.076
1.064
1.052
6
1.124
1.119
1.111
1.100
1.087
8
1.156
1.150
1.143
1.132
1.122
10
1,188
1.181
1.172
1.162
1.152
1.142
12
1,217
1.209
1.199
1.188
1.178
1.168
14
1.242
1.235
1.225
1.214
1.203
1.192
16
1.257
1.248
1.236
1.226
1.215
18
1.279
1.270
1.259
1.248
1.237
20
1.291
1.280
1.279
1.568
22
1.310
1.289
1.278
1.267
24
1.317
1.307
1.296
1.286
26
1.313
1.312
1.302
28
1.338
1.327
1.318
30
1.34
1.33
32
1.35
46
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
TABLE 9. VISCOSITY OF LITHIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS (MILLIPOISE)
TEMP.
DEGF
CONCENTRATION IN JM.OLAL
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
0
56.75
72.44
97.05
136.8
199.5
20
28.91
37.07
47.42
63.09
84.94
123.3
178.6
40
15.45
19.91
25.53
32.58
43.05
58.48
81.10
116.1
165.6
60
11.02
14.26
18.37
23.55
30.90
41.40
56.62
79.80
111.2
156.3
80
8.61
11.19
14.42
18.62
24.32
32.28
43.45
60.26
82.04
113.8
100
6.82
8.89
11.48
14.94
19.36
25.59
33.96
46.13
61.52
84.72
118.3
120
5.60
7.31
9.51
12.30
15.92
20.99
27.67
36.64
48.31
65.77
89.95
140
4.70
6.15
8.07
10.42
13.43
17.66
22.96
30.06
38.99
52.48
71.12
95.94
160
4.01
5.25
6.92
8.93
11.51
15.00
19.36
25.06
32.14
42.76
56.89
75.86
106.2
180
3.48
4.56
6.01
7.78
10.00
12.91
16.56
21.28
27.10
35.48
46.45
60.67
84.33
200
3.05
4.01
5.28
6.86
8.79
11.22
14.32
18.28
23.12
29.92
38.55
50.70
67.92
220
2.72
3.58
4.72
6.14
7.83
9.93
12.59
16.00
20.14
25.64
32.96
43.05
56.49
240
2.43
3.21
4.25
5.50
7.02
8.83
11.12
14.09
17.62
22.18
28.31
36.98
47.42
260
2.19
2.90
3.84
4.94
6.46
7.91
9.91
12.47
15.50
19.36
24.60
31.92
40.55
280
2.00
2.66
3.52
4.51
5.75
7.19
8.97
11.27
14.00
17.22
21.78
28.05
35.56
300
1.86
2.48
3.28
4.17
5.32
6.67
8.28
10.38
12.82
15.70
19.68
25.12
31.92
320
1.74
2.32
3.08
3.89
4.94
6.19
7.73
9.64
11.86
14.45
18.03
22.80
29.11
must be a relation between these quantities which if known would state
the limits of the process. The relationship would also depend on the
absorbent being used, and would have to be determined for each substance
used as an absorbent. Fig. 2 shows this relationship graphically for
lithium chloride. It will be noted that this chart is essentially similar
to that shown in Fig. 1 and its direct usefulness is limited by much the
same considerations.
In order to permit numerical calculations of air conditioning problems
it is desirable to have tables for use instead of a chart like Fig. 2, and
Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10 can be used in making calculations for lithium
chloride.
TABLE 10. PROPERTIES OF LITHIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION
MOLS (42.4 GRAMS
LiCZ PER 1000
GRAINS WATER)
PARTIAL HEAT
OP MIXING AT
0 F BTU PER LB
TEMPERATURE COUP.
OP PARTIAL HEAT
OP MIXING BTTJ PER
LB PER F
SPECIFIC
HEAT AT
70 F
BOILING POINT
F
(AT 760 MM
EG)
FREEZING
POINT
SUBSTANCE THAT
FIRST SEPARATES
Our ON
FREEZING
0
0.0
0.0
0.998
212.0
32
Ice
2
2.04
-0.014
0.901
215.8
16.3
Ice
4
7.24
-0.036
0.831
221.5
-5.8
Ice
6
16.7
-0.069
0.778
228.9
-34.2
Ice
8
31.9
-0.109
0.739
238.1
-69
Ice
10
51.1
-0.143
0.710
248.4
-90
Ice
12
75.7
-0.160
0.687
258.8
-40
IAC13H&
14
90.8
-0.167
0.666
268.9
1
LiCl-3HiO
16
124.8
-0.176
0.647
277.9
36.5
LiCl-2H,0
18
145
-0.186
0.631
285.8
58.1
LiCl-2HzO
20
162
-0.194
0.617
293.2
86.4
LiCl-HzO
22
171
-0.20
0.604
300.2
133
LiCl-HzO
24
177
-0.20
0.59
307
156
UCl-HiO
26
182
-0.21
0.58
313
180
LiCLHlO
28
191
-0.21
0.575
318
190
LiCl-HzO
30
194
-0.21
0.57
323
195
UClr-H£>
32
198
-0.22
0.56
328
280
LiCl .
47
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Instead of tabulating the vapor pressure of the solution of lithium
chloride it ?s SefaSSto tabulate the dew-point of air m equilibrium
Sth lithium Sloridc, since it is easy to interpolate between values of
the dew ££t and not so easy to interpolate accurately between values of
apo pSre The valuesfor dew-point may be converted to vapor
CONCENTRATION, PER CENT
30 40 50
1000
500-
M1XTURE5 OF
SOLUTION AND LiCI-H2O
MIXTURES OF SOLUTION AND
LiCl -2H20
MIXTURES OF SOLUTION AND
LiCI-3H20
0.1
FIG.
10 15 20 25
CONCENTRATION, MOLAL
2. TEMPERATURE — PRESSURE — CONCENTRATIONS FOR LITHIUM CHLORIDE
pressures, relative humidity, and wet-bulb of air in equilibrium by means
of the usual psychrometric chart or formula.
In Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10 the unit of concentration is the mol A 'M'
molal solution is denned as a solution containing M X 42.37 grains of
anhydrous lithium chloride per 1000 grains of water. The formula con-
necting concentration in mols with weight in per cent is equivalent to:
[100 X M X 42.37] -r [1000 + (M X 42.37)].
48
CHAPTER 2. REFRIGERANTS AND AIR DRYING AGENTS
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the heat content above — 40 F of 2.5 Ib of ammonia when under a
pressure of 92.9 Ih per square inch gage and a temperature of 160 F?
First determine the condition of the ammonia at the stated temperature and pressure.
Do this by finding the absolute pressure which in this case is 92.9 Ib gage plus 14.7 or
107.6 Ib per square inch absolute. From Table 1 note that the saturation temperature
at this pressure is 60 F. Therefore, the ammonia is superheated 100 F, and the total heat
per pound can be read directly from the Table as 689.9 Btu. In the 2.5 Ib of ammonia
there are 2.5 X 689.9, or 1724.75 Btu.
2 • "What volume is necessary to accommodate 0.27 Ib of saturated Fi2 vapor
when compressed to 99.6 Ib gage?
The absolute pressure is 99.6 plus 14.7 or 114.3 Ib. In Table 3 find that one pound of
Fi2 vapor saturated occupies 0.368 cu ft. Then the 0.27 Ib would occupy 0.27 X 0.368,
or 0.099 cu ft.
3 • How much heat would be removed from air passing over a coil through
which 2 Ib of methyl chloride per minute is forced? The coil is under a gage
pressure of 64 Ib per square inch and the liquid refrigerant is completely vapor-
ized in passing through the coil.
Find that the absolute pressure is 64 plus 14.7 or 78.7 Ib per sq in. From Table 4 note
that the saturation temperature at this pressure is 75 F (nearly) and that the heat
content per pound of the vapor is 207.8 Btu. Also that the heat content of the liquid is
42.2 Btu per pound. Subtract 42.2 from 207.8 and 165.6 Btu per pound is the heat
necessary to change the liquid refrigerant to a vapor (latent heat). As the heat to
accomplish this change comes from the air around the coil, the heat removed from the
air is 165.6 Btu per pound of methyl chloride evaporated in the coil. When the refriger-
ant is circulated at 2 Ib per minute, 2 X 165.6, or 331.2 Btu per minute are removed from
the air, or refrigerating effect is produced at the rate of 331.2 -5- 200, or 1.65 tons.
4 • Calculate the dew-point, wet-bulb, relative humidity and absolute hu-
midity of air in equilibrium at 100 F with pure lithium chloride solution of
density 1.270.
From Table 8 the concentration of a solution of density 1.270 at 100 F is 18.0 M. From
Table 7 the dew-point of 18 M lithium chloride at 100 F is 43.7 F. From Table 6,
Chapter 1, the partial pressure of water over the solution is 0.2858 in. of Hg, the absolute
humidity is 42.00 grains per pound dry air, and the wet-bulb is 65.8 F. The relative
humidity is 14.0 per cent.
5 • Calculate the boiling point, and freezing point of 18 M lithium chloride
solutions.
From Table 10, boiling point (standard) is 285.8 F, freezing point is 58.1 F. The salt
precipitated on cooling to this temperature has the composition LiCl-2H20.
6 • Calculate the heat of vaporization of 1 Ib of water from a large amount of
lithium chloride solution at the boiling point.
The heat of boiling is equal to the heat of mixing plus the heat of boiling pure water at
the same temperature. The heat of mixing from Table 10 at 18 M and 285.8 F is (145
— 0.186 X 285.8) = 92 Btu per pound. The heat of vaporization of water from steam
tables at 285.8 F is 920 Btu per pound. Therefore the heat of vaporization of water
from the solution is 920 -f 92 = 1012 Btu per pound.
7 • One thousand pounds of air per minute at 100 F dry -bulb with a dew-point
of 70 F and a relative humidity of 39 per cent is passed over 18 M lithium chloride
solution. The rate of flow of the solution is 200 gpm and the entering tempera-
ture is 80 F. The air leaves the absorber at 85 F dry-bulb and dew-point of
35 F. Calculate (a) the heat to be removed from the lithium chloride solution
49
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
to maintain these conditions, and (6) the temperature rise of the solution in
passing through the absorber.
a. The heat content of the entering air: From Table 6, Chapter 1, weight of vapor at
70 F dew-point is 0.01574 ib times heat content of steam at 100 F dry-bulb is 1104.2
(Table 8, Chapter 1) equals 17.41 Btu per pound plus heat content of dry air at 100 F
is 24.0 (Table 6, Chapter 1) resulting in heat content of mixture as 41.41 Btu per pound.
Similarly, the heat content of the leaving air: Weight of vapor at 35 F dew-point is
0.004262 X 1097.5 « 4.68 Btu per pound plus heat content of dry air at 85 F is 20.39
resulting in heat content of mixture as 25.07 Btu per pound.
Heat to be extracted from air is 1000 X (41.41 - 25.07) = 16,340 Btu per minute.
Add to this the heat of mixing of 18M lithium chloride at 80 F equals 145 - (0.186 X
80) = 130 Btu per pound (Table 10) or for 1000 Ib of air X (0,01574 - 0.00426) X 130 =
1494 Btu per minute. Heat to be removed from solution is 16,340 + 1494 = 17,834
Btu per minute.
6. The weight of solution circulated is 200 X 1.275 (Table 8) X 8.33 = 2124 Ib per
minute. Its heat capacity is 2124 X 0.631 (Table 10) = 1340 Btu per minute per degree
Fahrenheit. The temperature rise is 17,834 •*• 1340 = 13.31 F.
Chapter 3
PHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
OF AIR CONDITIONING
Vitiation of Air, Heat Regulation in Man, Effects of Heat,
Effects of Cold and Temperature Changes, Acclimatization,
Effective Temperature Index of Warmth, Optimum Air Condi-
tions, Winter and Summer Comfort Zone, Optimum Humid-
ity, Air Quality and Quantity, Air Movement and Distribution,
Natural and Mechanical Ventilation, Heat and Moisture
Losses, Ultra- Violet Radiation and lonization, Recirculation
and Ozone, Ventilation Standards
VENTILATION is defined in part as " the process of supplying or
removing air by natural or mechanical means to or from any space."
(See Chapter 45,) The word in itself implies quantity but not necessarily
quality. ^ From the standpoint of comfort and health, however, the
problem is now considered to be one of securing air of the proper quality
rather than of supplying a given quantity.
The term air conditioning in its broadest sense implies control of any or
all of the physical or chemical qualities of the air. More particularly, it
includes the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, movement,
and purity of the air. The term is broad enough to embrace whatever
other additional factors may be found desirable for maintaining the
atmosphere^of occupied spaces at a condition best suited to the physio-
logical requirements of the human body.
VITIATION OF AIR
Under the artificial conditions of indoor life, the air undergoes certain
physical and chemical changes which are brought about by the occupants
themselves. The oxygen content is somewhat reduced, and the carbon
dioxide slightly increased by the respiratory processes. Organic matter,
which is usually perceived as odors, comes from the nose, mouth, skin
and clothing. The temperature of the air is increased by the metabolic
processes, and the humidity raised by the moisture emitted from the skin
and lungs. There is also a marked decrease in both positive and negative
ions in the air of occupied rooms but the significance of this factor is
still questionable1.
Contrary to old theories, the usual changes in oxygen and carbon
dioxide are of no physiological concern because they are much too small
even under the worst conditions. The amount of carbon dioxide in air is
Changes in Ionic Content in Occupied Rooms Ventilated, by Natural and MechanicalTMethods by
C. P. Yaglou, L. C. Benjamin and S. P. Choate (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 191).
51
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
often used in ventilation work as an index of odors of human origin, but
the information it affords rarely justifies the labor involved in making the
observation2- 3. Little is known of the identity and physiological effects of
the organic matter given off in the process of respiration. The former
belief that the discomfort experienced in confined spaces was due to some
toxic volatile matter in the expired air is now limited, in the light of
numerous researches, to the much less dogmatic view that the presence of
such a substance has not been demonstrated. The only certain fact is
that expired and transpired air is odorous and offensive, and it is capable
of producing loss of appetite and a disinclination for physical activity.
These reasons, whether esthetic or physiological, call for the introduction
of a certain minimum amount of clean outdoor air to dilute the odoriferous
matter to a concentration which is not objectionable.
A certain part of the dissemination of disease in confined spaces is
caused by the emission of pathogenic bacteria from infected persons.
Droplets sprayed into the air in talking, coughing, sneezing, etc., do not
all fall immediately to the ground within a few feet from the source, as it
was formerly believed. The large droplets do, of course, but minute
droplets less than 0.1 mm. in diameter evaporate to dryness before the}'
fall the height of a man. Nuclear residues from such sources, which may
contain infective organisms drift long distances with the air currents and
the virus may remain alive long enough to be transmitted to other persons
in the same room or building. Wells4 recovered droplet nuclei from
cultures of resistant micro-organisms a week after inoculation into a
tight chamber of 300 cu ft capacity. Typical organisms of infections of
the upper respiratory tract (pneumococcus type I, B. diphtheriae, Strep-
tococcus hemolyticus, and Streptococcus viridans) were found to die
out quite soon when exposed to light and air, and could be recovered from
the air in small numbers only 48 hours after inoculation/ Organisms
typical of the intestinal tract (B. coli, B. typhosus, B. paratyphosus,
A. and B. dysenteriae) were not recovered 12 hours after inoculation.
The significant factors in infection are believed to be the numbers, of
infective organisms encountered, the frequency of exposure, and the
resistance of the individual including the degree of acquired immunity.
The probability of encountering a sufficient number of organisms to
break down the natural body defense is related to the air space per person
and the quantity of clean air supplied. Except in badly ventilated rooms,
the danger is believed to be "much contracted in space, limited in time
and restricted to comparatively few diseases."5
^ Practical possibilities in sterilizing air supplies by the use of ultra-
violet light are now being studied6.
The primary factors in air conditioning work, in the absence of any
specific contaminating source, are temperature, radiation, drafts and
TRAJ?sSo^AVolC1^9nS19Sd AiJ6?{8triblltion' by R C Houghten and J. L. Blackshaw (A.S.H.V.E.
v inleontiiQ7An RW\rements, *>y c- p- Yaglou, E. C. Riley and D. I. Coggins (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
vol. <U, laoO, p. L63).
oi^"*001* Infection and Sanitary Air Control, by W. F. Wells, (Journal Industrial Hygiene, November,
oOj.
B^TcSiVN1l?Ui9&fnd Hygiene' by Muton J- Rosenau (6th edition, pp. 909-917, D. Appleton-
slTsa^^gO)2' ^OU Exp°Sed t0 UttxBrVtolet Radiation in Air. by W. F. Wells, and G. M. Fair (Science,
52
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
body odors. As compared with these physical factors, the chemical
factors are, as a general rule, of secondary importance.
HEAT REGULATION IN MAN
The importance of the thermal factors arises from the profound in-
fluence which they exert upon body temperature, comfort and health.
Body temperature depends on the balance between heat production and
heat loss. The heat resulting from the combustion of food within the
body maintains the body temperature well above that of the surrounding
air. At the same time, heat is constantly lost from the body by radiation,
conduction and evaporation. Since, under ordinary conditions, the body
temperature is maintained at its normal level of about 98.6 F, the heat
production must be balanced by the heat loss. In healthy persons this
takes place automatically by the action of the heat regulating mechanism.
According to the general view, special areas in the skin are sensitive to
heat and cold. Nerve courses carry the sense impressions to the brain and
the response comes back over another set of nerves, the motor nerves, to
the musculature and to all the active tissues in the body, including the
endocrine glands. In this way, a two-sided mechanism controls the body
temperature by (1) regulation of internal heat production (chemical
regulation) , and (2) regulation of heat loss by means of automatic varia-
tion in the rate of cutaneous circulation and the operation of the sweat
glands (physical regulation). The mechanisms of adjustment are complex
and little understood at the present time. Coordination of these dif-
ferent mechanisms seems to vary greatly with different air conditions.
With rising air temperatures up to 75 F or 80 F, metabolism, or internal
heat production, decreases slightly7, probably by an inhibitory action on
heat producing organs, especially the adrenal glands, which seem to exert
the major influence on basic combustion processes in the body. The blood
capillaries in the skin become dilated by reflex action of the vasomotor
nerves, allowing more blood to flow into the skin, and thus increase its
temperature and consequently its heat loss. The increase in peripheral
circulation is at the expense of the internal organs. If this method of
cooling is not in itself sufficient, the stimulus is extended to the sweat
glands which allow water to pass through the surface of the skin, where it
is evaporated. This method of cooling is the most effective of all, as long
as the humidity of the air is sufficiently low to allow for evaporation. In
high humidities, where the difference between the dew-point temperature
of the air and body temperature is not sufficient to allow rapid evapora-
tion, equally good results may be obtained by increasing the air move-
ment, and hence the heat loss by conduction and evaporation.
In cold environments, in order to keep the body warm there is an actual
increase in metabolism brought about partly by voluntary muscular con-
tractions (shivering) and partly by an involuntary reflex upon the heat
producing organs. The surface blood vessels become constricted, and
the blood supply to the skin is curtailed by vasomotor shifts to the internal
organs in order to conserve body heat. The sweat glands become inactive.
7Heat and Moisture Losses from the Human Body and Their Relation to Air Conditioning Problems,
by F. C. Houghten, W. W. Teague, W. E. Miller and W. P. Yant (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35,
1929, p. 245).
53
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
EFFECTS OF HEAT
Although the human organism is capable of adapting itself to variations
in environmental conditions, its ability to maintain heat equilibrium is
limited. The upper limit of effective temperature to which the human
organism is capable of adapting itself without serious discomfort or
injury to health is 90 deg ET for men at rest and between 80 and 90 deg
ET for men at work depending upon the rate of work. Within these
limits a new equilibrium is established at a higher body temperature level
through a chain of physiological adjustments. The heat regulating center
fails, when the external temperature is so abnormally high that bodily
heat cannot be eliminated as fast as it is produced. Part of it is retained
in the body, causing a rise in skin and deep tissue temperature, an increase
in the heart rate, and accelerated respiration. (See Table 1.) In extreme
TABLE 1. PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO HEAT OF MEN AT REST AND AT WORK*
MEN AT WOBK
ACTUAL
MEN AT RBST
90,000 FT-LB of WORK PER HOUE
EfTccxtni
TBJCP.
TEMP.
IDio
FAHR)
Rise in
Rectal
Temp.
Fahrper
Hour)
Increase
in Pulse
Rate
(gate per
Min per
Hour)
Loss in Body
Weight by
Perspiration
(Lb perHr)
Total Work
Accomplished
(Ft-Lb)
Rise in
Body Temp.
(Deg Fair
per Hr)
Increase in
Pulse Rate
(Beat* per
Min per Hr)
Approximate
Loss in Body
Wt. by Per-
spiration (Lb
per Hr)
60
225,000
0.0
6
0.5
70
o.o
6
6.2~
225,000
0.1
7
0.6
80
96.1
0.0
0
0.3
209,000
0.3
11
0.8
85
96.6
0.1
i
0.4
190,000
0.6
17
1.1
90
97.0
0.3
4
0.5
153,000
1.2
31
1.5
95
97.6
0.9
15
0.9
102,000
2.3
61
2.0
100
99.6
2.2
40
1.7
67,000
4.0
103b
2.7
105
104.7
4.0
83
2.7
49,000
6.0*>
158b
3.5*>
110
5.9b
137b
4.0*>
37,000
8.5b
237*
4.4b
•Data by A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory.
bCompnted va!ue from exposures lasting less than one hour.
heat, the metabolic rate is markedly increased owing to the excessive rise
in body temperature8, and a vicious cycle results which may eventually
lead to serious physiologic damage.
Examples of this are met with in unusually hot summer weather and in
hot industries where the radiant heat from hot objects renders heat loss
from the body by radiation and convection impossible. Consequently,
the workers depend entirely on evaporation for the elimination of body
heat. They stream with perspiration and drink liquids abundantly to
replace the loss.
One of the deleterious effects of high temperatures is that the blood is
diverted from the internal organs to the surface capillaries, in order to
serve in the process of cooling. This affects the stomach, heart, lungs and
other vital organs, and it is suggested that the feeling of lassitude and
discomfort experienced is due in part to the anaemic condition of the brain
The stomach loses some of its power to act upon the food, owing to a
54
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
diminished secretion of gastric juice, and there is a corresponding loss in
the antiseptic and antifermentive action which favors the growth of
bacteria in the intestinal tract9. These are considered to be the potent
factors in the increased susceptibility to gastro-intestinal disorders in hot
summer weather. The victim may lose appetite and suffer from indiges-
tion, headache and general enervation, which may eventually lead to a
premature old age.
In warm atmospheres, particularly during physical work, a considerable
amount of chloride is lost from the system through sweating. The loss of
this substance may lead to attacks of cramps, unless the salts are replaced
in the drinking water. In order to relieve both cramps and fatigue,
Moss10 recommends the addition of 6 grams of sodium chloride and 4 grams
of potassium chloride to a gallon of water.
The deleterious physiologic effects of high temperatures exert a power-
ful influence upon physical activity, accidents, sickness and mortality.
Both laboratory and field data show clearly that physical work in warm
atmospheres is a great effort, and that production falls progressively as
the temperature rises. The incidence of industrial accidents reaches a
minimum at about 68 F, increasing above and below that temperature.
Sickness and mortality rates increase progressively as the temperature
rises.
EFFECTS OF COLD AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES
The action of cold on human beings is not well known. Cold affects the
human organism in two ways: (1) through its action on the body as a
whole, and (2) through its action on the mucous membranes of the upper
respiratory tract. Little exact information is available on the latter.
On exposure to coldr the loss of heat is increased considerably and only
within certain limits is compensation possible by increased heat produc-
tion and decreased peripheral circulation. The rectal temperature often
rises upon exposure to cold but the pulse rate and skin temperature fall.
The blood pressure increases, owing to constriction in the peripheral
vessels. Just how cold affects health is not well understood. It imposes
an extra load upon the heat-producing organs to maintain body tempera-
ture. The strain falls largely upon digestion, metabolism, blood circu-
lation, and the kidneys, and indirectly upon the nervous system11.
Although the seasonal increase in morbidity and mortality sets in with
the approach of cold weather and subsides in the warm summer months,
little is known of the specific causative factors and their mechanism of
action. Over-crowding of buildings, overheated rooms, lack of venti-
lation, and close personal contacts are frequently held responsible for our
winter ills, but the evidence is not conclusive.
In extremely cold atmospheres compensation by increased metabolism
becomes inadequate. The body temperature falls and the reflex irritability
of the spinal cord is markedly affected. The organism may finally pass
into an unconscious state which ends in death.
•innueucc of Effective Temperature upon Bactericidal Action of Gastro-intestinal Tract, by Arnold and
Brody (Proceedings Society Exp. Biol. Mcd. Vol. 24, 1927, p. 832).
10Some Effects of High Air Temperatures upon the Miner, by K. N. Moss (.Transactions Institute of
Mining Engineers, Vol. 66, 1924, p. 284).
"Loc. Cit. Note 5.
55
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Cannon showed that excessive loss of heat is associated with increased
activity of the adrenal medulla12. The extra output of adrenin hastens
heat production which protects the organism against cooling. Bast13
found a degeneration of thyroid and adrenal glands upon exposure to cold.
A moderate amount of variability in temperature is known to be
beneficial to health, comfort, and the performance of physical and mental
work. On the other hand, extreme changes in temperature, such as those
experienced in passing from a warm room to the cold air out-of-doors,
appear to be harmful to the tissues of the nose and throat which are the
portals for the entry of respiratory diseases.
Experiments show that chilling causes a constriction of the blood
vessels of the palate, tonsils, throat, and nasal mucosa, which is accom-
panied by a fall in the temperature of the tissues. On re-warming, the
palate and throat do not always regain their normal temperature and
blood supply. This anaemic condition favors bacterial activity and it
probably plays a part in the disposition of common cold and other
respiratory diseases. It is believed that the lowered resistance is due to a
diminution in the number and phagocytic activity of the leucocytes
(white blood cells) brought about by exposure to cold and by changes
in temperature.
Sickness records in industries seem to strengthen this belief. The
Industrial Fatigue Research Board of En'gland14 found that in workers
exposed to high temperatures and to changes in temperature, namely,
steel melters, puddlers, and general laborers, there is an excess of all
sickness, the excess among the puddlers being due chiefly to respiratory
diseases and rheumatism. The causative factor was not the heat itself
but the sudden changes in temperature to which the workers were exposed.
The tin-plate millmen who were not exposed to chills, since they work
almost continuously throughout the shift, had no excess of rheumatism
and respiratory diseases. On the other hand, the blast-furnacemen, who
work mostly in the open, showed more respiratory sickness than the steel
workers. This experience in British factories is well in accord with the
findings in American industries15- 16. According to these data the highest
pneumonia death rate is associated with dust, extreme heat, exposure to
cold, and to sudden changes in temperature.
ACCLIMATIZATION
Acclimatization and the factor of psychology are two important in-
fluences in air conditioning which cannot be ignored. The first is man's
ability to adapt himself to changes in air conditions; the second is an
intangible matter of habit and suggestion.
Some persons regard the unnecessary endurance of cold as a virtue.
^ f. Cannon, A. Guerido, S. W. Britten
- Bast* j- s- Supernaw' B- Lieberman and j- Munr°
Lolhdeon)°n ^ Sted Industry' by H' M' Vernon industrial Fatigue Research
telWfarf Bulletin,
Bloomfield<
56
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
They believe that the human organism can adapt itself to a wide range of
air conditions with no apparent discomfort or injury to health. In the
light of the present knowledge of air conditioning these views are not
justified. Acclimatization to extreme conditions involves a strain upon
the heat regulating system and it interferes with the normal physiologic
functions of the human body. Thousands of years in the heat of Africa
do not seem to have acclimatized the Negro to a temperature averaging
80 F. The same holds true of northern races with respect to cold, although
the effects are mitigated by artificial control. All this seems to indicate
that adaptation to an environment averaging between 60 and 80 F is a
very primitive trait17.
Within these limits, however, there does occur a definite adaptation to
external temperature level. People and animals raised under conditions
of tropical moist heat have a lower rate of heat production than do those
who grow up in cooler environments. This causes them to stand chilling
poorly as they are unable to quickly increase internal combustion to keep
up the body temperature. For this reason they have trouble standing
the cold, stormy weather of the temperate zones, and when exposed to it
are very susceptible to respiratory infections. Likewise, people living in
cool climates suffer greatly in the moist heat of the tropics until their
adrenal activity has slowed down. Within a couple of years, however,
they find themselves standing the heat much better and disliking cold.
They become acclimated by a definite change in the combustion level
within the body18.
In certain individuals the psychologic factor is more powerful than
acclimatization. A fresh air fiend may suffer in a room with windows
closed regardless of the quality of the air. As a matter of fact, instances
are known in which paid subjects refused to stay in a windowless but
properly conditioned experimental chamber because the atmosphere felt
suffocating to them upon entering the room.
EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE INDEX OF WARMTH
Sensations of warmth or cold depend, not only on the temperature of
the surrounding air as registered by a dry-bulb thermometer, but also
upon the temperature indicated by a wet-bulb thermometer. Dry air at
a relatively high temperature may feel cooler than air of considerably
lower temperature with a high moisture content. Air motion makes any
moderate condition feel cooler.
On the other hand, in cold environments an increase in humidity
produces a cooler sensation. The dividing line at which humidity has no
effect upon warmth varies with the air velocity and is about 46 F (dry-
bulb) for still air and about 51, 56 and 59 F for air velocities of 100, 300
and 500 fpm, respectively. Radiation from cold or warm surfaces is
another important factor under certain conditions.
Combinations of temperature, humidity and air movement which
induce the same feeling of warmth are called thermo-equivalent con-
"Civilization and Climate, by Ellsworth Huntington, Yale University Press, 1924.
"Air Conditioning in its Relation to Human Welfare, by C. A. Mills (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol.
40, 1934, p. 289).
57
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
I jj
-50
FIG. 1. EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE CHART SHOWING NORMAL SCALE OF EFFECTIVE
TEMPERATURE. APPLICABLE TO INHABITANTS OF THE UNITED STATES UNDER
FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:
i/*** c.ustomary indoor clothing. B. Activity: Sedentary or light muscular work. C. Heating
Methods: Convection type. i.e. warm air, direct steam or hot water radiators, plenum systems. amnn*
58
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
ditions. A series of tests19- 20» «• 22 at the A.S.H.V.E. Research Labora-
tory, Pittsburgh, established the equivalent conditions met with in
general air conditioning work. This scale of thermo-equivalent conditions
not only indicates the sensation of warmth, but also determines the
physiological effects on the body induced by heat or cold. For this reason,
it is called the effective temperature scale or index.
Effective temperature is an empirically determined index of the degree
of warmth perceived^ on exposure to different combinations of tempera-
ture, humidity, and air movement. It was determined by trained subjects
who compared the relative warmth of various air conditions in two ad-
joining conditioned rooms by passing back and forth from one room to
the other.
Effective temperature is not in itself an index of comfort, except under
ordinary humidity conditions (30 to 60 per cent) when the individual is
least conscious of humidity. Moist air at a comparatively low tem-
perature, and dry air at a higher temperature may each feel as warm as
air of an intermediate temperature and humidity, but the comfort ex-
perienced in the three air conditions would be different, although the
effective temperature is the same.
Air of proper warmth may, for instance, contain excessive water vapor,
and in this way interfere with the normal physiologic loss of moisture
from the skin, leading to damp skin and clothing and producing more or
less discomfort; or the air may be excessively dry, producing appreciable
discomfort to the mucous membrane of the nose and to the skin which
dries up and becomes chapped from too rapid loss of moisture.
The numerical value of the effective temperature index for any given
air condition is fixed by the temperature of calm (15 to 25 fpm air move-
ment) and saturated air which induces a sensation of warmth or cold like
that of the given condition. Thus, any air condition has an effective
temperature of 60 deg, for instance, when it induces a sensation of warmth
like that experienced in calm air at 60 deg saturated with moisture. The
effective temperature index cannot be measured directly but it is com-
puted from the dry- and wet-bulb temperature and the velocity of air
using- charts (see Figs. 1 or 2, 3 and 4) or tables. The accuracy in esti-
mating effective temperature is ±0.5 F, because the human organism
cannot perceive smaller temperature differences. Therefore, there is no
justification in trying to read chart values closer than 0,5 F, as this
implies fictitious accuracy.
The charts shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 apply to average normal^and
healthy persons adapted to American living and working conditions.
Application is limited to sedentary or light muscular activity, and to
rooms heated by the usual American convection methods (warm air,
central fan and direct hot water and steam heating systems) in which the
difference between the air and wall surface temperatures may not be too
"Determining Lines of Equal Comfort, by F. C. Houghten and C. P. Yaglou (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 29, 1923, p. 361).
'"Cooling Effect on Human Beings by Various Air Velocities, by F. C. Houghten and C. P. Yaglou
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 30, 1924, p. 193).
^Effective Temperature with Clothing, by C. P. Yaglou and W. E. Miller (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 31, 1925, p. 89).
^Effective Temperature for Persons Lightly Clothed and Working in Still Air, by F. C. Houghten, W. W.
Teague and W. E. Miller (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 32, 1926, p. 315).
59
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
great. The charts do not apply to rooms heated by radiant method such
as British panel system, open coal fires and similar usages. They will
probably not apply to races other than the white or perhaps to inhabitants
of other countries where the living conditions, climate, heating methods,
and clothing are materially different than those of the subjects employed
in experiments at the Research Laboratory.
jo SNIIVMO
In rooms in which the average wall surface temperature is considerably
below or above air temperature, a correction must be applied to the
readings of the dry-bulb thermometer to allow for such negative or
positive radiation. In Fig. 5 is given the cooling effect of cold walls as
determined at the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory" by trained subjects
l McDennott
60
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES or AIR CONDITIONING
passing back and forth from a small experimental room having three cold
walls, to a control room with walls and air at the same temperature.
It can be seen in Fig. 5 that with air and walls at 70 F in the control
(warm wall room), the cooling effect of three cold walls at 55 F of the
experimental room was 4 F. Therefore, for the same feeling of warmth,
3 S *
aiv AHQ jo amod *ad 3arusiow jo SNivyo
the temperature in the experimental room should be increased to 74 F.
The reverse would hold in rooms with high-wall surface temperature; a
lower air temperature would be required to compensate for positive
radiations to the occupants.
61
HEATING VENTIULTING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
OPTIMUM Affi CONDITIONS
No single comfort standard can be laid down which would meet^ every
need. There is an inherent individual variation in the sensation of
warmth or comfort felt by persons when exposed to an identical atmos-
pheric condition. The state of health, age, sex, clothing, activity, and
AHQ JO QNnOd H3d 3Ur>JLSIOfl JO SNIVdO
the degree of acquired adaptation seem to be the important factors
affecting the comfort standards,
Since the prolonged effects of temperature, humidity and air move-
ment on health are not known to the same extent as their effects on com-
fort, the optimum conditions for health may not be identical with those
for comfort. On general physiologic grounds, however, the two do not
differ greatly since this is in accordance with the efficient operation of the
62
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
heat regulating mechanism of the body. This belief is strengthened by
results of studies on premature infants over a four-year period24. By
adjusting the temperature and humidity so as to stabilize the body tem-
perature of these infants, the incidence of diarrhoea and mortality was
decreased, gains in body weight increased and infections were reduced
to a minimum.
Winter Comfort Zone and Comfort Line
In Fig. 6 is shown the A.S.H.V.E. winter comfort zone which was
determined experimentally with large groups of men and women subjects
wearing customary indoor winter clothing. The extreme comfort zone
includes conditions between 60 and 74 deg ET in which one or more of the
experimental subjects were comfortable. The average comfort zone
WALL TEMPERATURE, DEG FAHR
FIG. 5. COOLING EFFECT OF THREE COLD WALLS IN A SMALL EXPERIMENTAL ROOM,
AS DETERMINED BY COMPARISON WITH SENSATIONS IN A ROOM OF UNIFORM
WALL AND AIR TEMPERATURE
includes conditions between 63 and 71 deg ET conducive to comfort in
50 per cent or more of the experimental subjects. The most popular
effective temperature was found to be 66 deg, and was adopted by the
Society25 as the winter comfort line for individuals at rest wearing custom-
ary winter clothing.
The comfort line separates the cool air conditions to its left from the
warm air conditions to its right. Under the air conditions existing along
or defined by the comfort line, the body is able to maintain thermal
"Application of Air Conditioning to Premature Nurseries in Hospitals, by C. P. Yaglou, Philip Drinker
and K. D. Blackfan (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 383).
»How to Use the Effective Temperature Index and Comfort Charts (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 38, 1932, p. 410).
63
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
90
, STILL AIR
' Air Mcveirent or Turbulence 15 to 25 ft. per min.
I ; A.S H.V.E. COMFORT CHART
(Cot>\ri£ht 1934}
Average Winter Comfort Zone —
'-— - Average Winter Comfort Line
K//V///I Average Summer Comfort Zone
— — — Average Summer Comfort Line
70 80 90 TOO
Pry Bulb Temperature F
FIG. 6. A.S.H.V.E. COMFORT CHART FOR AIR VELOCITIES OF 15 TO 25 FPM
(STILL AIR)*>, »
gfn^o^
8hSS. aPP y t0 "' department stores« ^d Belike whe?e the expo^elrie^^
equilibrium with its environment with the least conscious sensation to the
mdmdual, or with the minimum phsyiologic demand on the heat regulat-
ing mechanism. This environment involves not only the condition of the
air with respect to temperature and humidity, but also the condition of
the surrounding objects and wall surfaces. The comfort zone tests were
Zon^r^^^^^
CA.S.H.V.E.
64
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
made in rooms with wall surface temperatures approximately the same as
the room dry-bulb temperature. For walls of large area having unusually
high or low surface temperatures, however, a somewhat lower or higher
range of effective temperature is required to compensate for the increased
gain or loss of heat to or from the body by radiation as shown in Fig. 5
(See also Chapter 41).
The average winter comfort line (66 deg ET) applies to average
American men and women living inside the broad geographic belt across
the United States in which central heating of the convection type is
generally used during four to eight months of the year. It does not apply
to rooms heated by radiant energy, rooms with excessive glass area or
rooms with poorly insulated or cold walls. Even in the warm south and
southwestern climates, and in the very cold north-central climate of the
United States, ^the comfort chart would probably have to be modified
according to climate, living and working conditions, and the degree of
acquired adaptation.
In densely occupied spaces, such as classrooms, theaters and audi-
toriums, somewhat lower temperatures may be necessary than those
indicated by the comfort line on account of counter-radiation between the
bodies of occupants in close proximity28.
The sensation of comfort, insofar as the physical environment is con-
cerned, is not absolute but varies considerably among certain individuals.
Therefore, in applying the air conditions indicated by the comfort line,
it should not be expected that all the occupants of a room will feel per-
fectly comfortable. When the winter comfort line is applied in accordance
with the foregoing recommendations, the majority of the occupants will
be perfectly comfortable, but there will always be a few who would feel
a bit too cool and a few a bit too warm. These individual differences among
the minority should be counteracted by suitable clothing.
Air conditions lying outside the average comfort zone but within the
extreme comfort zone may be comfortable to certain persons. In other
words, it is possible for half of the occupants of a room to be comfortable
in air conditions outside the average comfort zone, but in the majority of
cases, if not in all, these conditions will be well within the extreme comfort
zone as determined experimentally.
The comfort chart (Fig. 6) applies to adults between 20 and 70 years
of age living in the northeastern parts of the United States. For pre-
maturely born infants, the optimum temperature varies from 100 F to
75 F, depending upon the stage of development. The optimum relative
humidity for these infants is placed at 65 per cent29. No data are yet
available on the optimum air conditions for full term infants and young
children up to school age. Satisfactory air conditions for these age
groups are assumed to vary from 75 F to 68 F with natural indoor humidi-
ties. For school children, the studies of the New York State Commission
on Ventilation place the optimum air conditions at 66 F to 68 F tempera-
ture with a moderate humidity (not specified) and a moderate but not
excessive amount of air movement (not specified)30.
»Loc. Cit. Note 27.
a»Loc. at. Note 24.
"Ventilation (Report N. Y. State Commission on Ventilation. E. P. Button and Co., N. Y., 1923).
65
HEATING VENTIIIATINO AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Satisfactory comfort conditions for men at work are found to vary from
40 deg to 70 deg ET, depending upon the rate of work and amount of
clothing worn31. In hot industries, 80 deg ET is considered the upper
limit compatible with efficiency, and, whenever possible, this should be
reduced to 70 deg ET or less.
Summer Comfort Zones
The summer comfort zone is much more difficult to fix than the winter
zone owing to the complicating factor of sweating in warm weather. A
given air condition which is comfortable for persons with dry skin and
clothing may prove too cold for those perspiring, as is the case, for
instance, with employees and customers in a cooled store, restaurant, or
theater, on a warm summer day. The conditions to be maintained in
different types of public buildings depend to a large extent upon_ the oc-
cupants' length of stay and upon the prevailing outdoor condition.
In Fig. 6 is shown the summer comfort zone for exposures of 3 hours or
more, after adaptation has taken place. The average zone extends from
66 to 75 deg ET, with a comfort line at 71 deg ET, as determined at the
Harvard School of Public Health32. These effective temperatures average
about 4 deg higher than those found in winter when customary winter
clothing was worn. The variation from winter to summer is probably due
partly to adaptation to seasonal weather and partly to differences in the
clothing worn in the two seasons.
The best effective temperature (for exposures lasting 3 hours or more)
was found to follow the average monthly outdoor temperature more
closely than the prevailing outdoor temperature. It remained at approxi-
mately the same value in July, August and September, and although the
average monthly temperature did not vary much, the prevailing outdoor
temperature ranged from 70 F to 99.5 F. A decrease in the optimum
temperature became apparent only when the prevailing outdoor tempera-
ture fell to 66 F, which is below the customary room temperature in the
United States for summer and winter.
Crowding the experimental chamber lowered the comfortable effective
temperature from 70.8 deg when the gross floor area per occupant was
44 sq ft and the air space 380 cu ft, to 69.4 deg when the floor area was
reduced to 14 sq ft and the air space to 120 cu ft per occupant.
The basic summer comfort zone, shown in Fig. 6 has more academic
than practical significance. It prescribes conditions of choice for con-
tinuous exposures, as in homes, offices, etc., without regard to costs,
prevailing outdoor air conditions, and temperature contrasts upon
entering or leaving the cooled space. A great number of persons seem to
be content with a higher plane of indoor temperature, particularly when
the matter of first cost and cost of operation of the cooling plant is given
due consideration.
According to previous investigations33, an indoor temperature of about
80 F with relative humidities below 55 per cent, or 74.5 deg ET and lower,
result in satisfactory comfort conditions in the living quarters of a residence,
«Loc. Cit. Note 22.
»Loc. Cit. Note 27.
. . .
vf ^i?1? of Summer (Doling in the Research Residence for the Summer of 1934, by A. P. Kratz, S. Konzo,
M. K. Fahnestock and E. L. Broderick (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 207).
66
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES or AIR CONDITIONING
and while this condition is not representative of optimum comfort it
provides for sufficient relief in hot weather to be acceptable to the majority
of users. Experience in a number of air conditioned office buildings,
including the New Metropolitan Life Building in New York34, indicates
that a temperature of about 80 F with a relative humidity between 45 and
55 per cent (73 to 74.5 deg ET) is generally satisfactory in meeting the
requirements of the employees.
In artificially cooled theaters, restaurants, and other public buildings
where the period of occupancy is short, the contrast between outdoor and
indoor air conditions becomes the deciding factor in regard to the tem-
perature and humidity to be maintained. The object of cooling such
places in the summer is to provide sufficient relief from the heat without
causing sensations of chill or intense heat on entering and leaving the
building.
Effective temperatures as high as 75 F at times have been found satis-
factory in very warm weather. There are two schools of thought con-
cerning the relation between temperature and humidity to be maintained.
For a given effective temperature some engineers including the operators
of cooling plants favor a comparatively low temperature with a high
humidity as this results in a reduction of refrigeration requirements.
Preliminary experiments at the A.S.H.V.E. Laboratories35 would seem to
indicate no appreciable impairment of comfort with relative humidities
as high as 80 per cent, provided the effective temperature is between
70 and 75 deg,
The second school favors a higher dry-bulb temperature, according^ to
the prevailing outdoor dry-bulb, with a comparatively low humidity
(well below 50 per cent) ; the main purpose being to reduce temperature
contrasts upon entering and leaving the cooled, space and to keep the
clothing and skin dry. This second scheme requires more refrigeration
with the present conventional type of apparatus.
Current practice in theatres, restaurants, etc., follows a schedule
similar to that shown in Table 2, This schedule should be used^with con-
siderable judgment depending on the occupancy and local climatic
conditions. There are some indications that a definite indoor effective
temperature may be applicable throughout the cooling season, but
other observations seem to show that changing indoor conditions are
desirable with violently changing outdoor weather conditions. It is, in
fact, questionable whether entirely satisfactory air conditions could be
adduced for practical use to meet the changing requirements of patrons
from the time they enter to the time they leave a cooled space. Too
many uncontrollable variables enter into the problem. Work now going
on at the A.S.H.V.E. Laboratories and other interested institutions may
throw considerable light on this complex problem. _^
For cooled banks and stores where the customers come and go spending
»*The Air Conditioned System of the New Metropolitan Building— First Summer's Experience, by W. J.
McConnell and I. B. Kagey (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 217).
^Comfort Standards for Summer Air Conditioning, by F. C. Houghten and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 42, 1936, p. 215). Cooling Requirements for Summer Air Conditioning, by F. C.
Houghten, F. E. Giesecke, Cyril Tasker and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, December, 1936, p. 681).
67
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. DESIRABLE INSIDE CONDITIONS ix SUMMER CORRESPONDING
TO OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES**
Occupancy Over 40 Min
INSIDE AIR CONDITIONS
DEC F
Effective Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
Temperature Deg F , Deg F
Dew-Point
DegF
Relative Humid-
ity Per Cent
100
75 83
75 82
75 81
75 i 80
66
i 67
68
70
56
59
61
65
40
45
51
60
95
74
74
74
74
74
82
81
80
79
78
64
66
67
68
70
53
57
60
62
66
36
44
51
57
68
90
i
i
73
73
73
73
81
80
79
78
63
64
66
67
52
54
59
61
36
41
50
56
85 :
1
1
72
72
72
72
80
79
78
77
61
63
64
66
48
53
56
60
32
41
46
56
80
71
71
71
71
78
77
76
75
61
63
64
66
49
54
57
61
36
45
52
61
^Applicable to individuals engaged in sedentary or light muscular activity.
but a few minutes in the cooled space, observations36 indicate a schedule
about 1 deg dry-bulb or effective temperature higher than that shown in
Table 2. Laboratory experiments with exposures of 2 to 10 min indicate
temperatures 2 to 10 F higher than those in Table 2 but with much lower
relative humidities.
It should be kept in mind that southern people, with their more sluggish
heat production and lack of adaptability, will demand a comfort zone
several degrees higher than that for the more active people of northern
climates. Instead of the summer comfort line standing at 71 deg as here
given, it was found to be much higher for foreigners in Shanghai where
climatic conditions are similar to those of our gulf states. This difference
in adaptability of people forms a very real problem for air conditioning
engineers. Cooling of theaters, restaurants, and other public buildings in
southern climates cannot be based on northern standards without con-
siderable modification.
Optimum Humidity
Just what the optimum range of humidity is, is a matter of conjecture.
1 here seems to exist a general opinion, supported by some experimental
and statistical data, that warm, dry air is less pleasant than air of a
- bv J- H- Walker (Heating
68
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
moderate humidity, and that it dries up the mucous membranes in such
a way as to increase susceptibility to colds and other respiratory dis-
orders 37f 38> 39t Owing to the cooling effect of evaporation, higher tem-
peratures are necessary, and this condition may lead to discomfort and
lassitude. Moist air, on the other hand, interferes with the normal
evaporation of moisture from the skin, and again may cause a feeling of
oppression and lassitude, especially when the temperature is also high.
For the premature infant, a high relative humidity of about 65 per cent is
demonstrably beneficial to health and growth40 until the infants reach a
weight of about 5 Ib. No such clear-cut evidence exists in the case of
adult persons. In the comfort zone experiments of the A.S.H.V.E.
Research Laboratory, the relative humidity was varied between the
limits of 30 and 70 per cent approximately, but the most comfortable
range has not been determined. In similar experiments at the Harvard
School of Public Health, the majority of the subjects were unable to
detect sensations of humidity (i.e., too high, too low, or medium) when
the relative humidity was between 30 per cent and 60 per cent with
ordinary room temperatures. This is in accord with studies by Howell41,
Miura42 and others.
The limitation of the comfort zones in Fig. 6 with respect to humidity
must not be taken too seriously. Relative humidities below 30 per cent
may prove satisfactory from the standpoint of comfort, so long as ex-
tremely low humidities are avoided. From the standpoint of health,
however, the consensus seems to favor a relative humidity between 40 and
60 per cent. In mild weather such comparatively high relative humidi-
ties are entirely feasible, but in cold or sub-freezing weather they are
objectionable on account of condensation and frosting on the windows.
They may even cause serious damage to certain building materials of the
exposed walls by condensation and freezing of the moisture accumulating
inside these materials. Unless special precautions are taken to properly
insulate the affected surfaces, it will be necessary to reduce the degree of
artificial humidification in sub-freezing weather to less than 40 per cent,
according to the outdoor temperature. Information on the prevention of
condensation on building surfaces is given in Chapter 7. The principles
underlying humidity requirements and limitations are discussed more
fully elsewhere43.
The purpose of artificial humidification may be easily defeated by
failure to change the spray water of the humidifier at least daily. Where
this condition occurs, the air is characterized by a lack of freshness, and
under extreme conditions by a musty, sour odor in the conditioned space.
"Reactions of the Nasal Cavity and Post-Nasal Space to Chilling of the Body Surface, by Mudd, Stuart,
et al (Journal Experimental Medicine, 1921, Vol. 34, p. 11).
^Reactions of the Nasal Cavity and Post-Nasal Space to Chilling of the Body Surfaces, by A. Goldman,
et al and Concurrent Study of Bacteriology of Nose and Throat (Journal Infectious Diseases, 1921, Vol. 29,
p. 151).
S9The Etiology of Acute Inflammations of the Nose, Pharynx and Tonsils, by Mudd, Stuart, et al (Am.
Otol., Rhinol., and Laryngol., 1921).
«Loc. Cit. Note 24.
^Humidity and Comfort, by W. H. Howell (The Science Press, April, 1931).
^Effect of Variation in Relative Humidity upon Skin Temperature and Sense of Comfort, by U. Miura
(American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. 13, 1931, p. 432).
^Humidification for Residences, by A. P. Kratz, University of Illinois (Engineering Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 230, July 28, 1931).
69
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Affi QUALITY AND QUANTITY
Air Quality
In occupied spaces in which the vitiation is entirely of human origin,
the chemical composition of the air, the dust, and often the bacteria con-
tent may be dismissed from consideration so that the problem consists in
maintaining a suitable temperature with a moderate humidity, and in
keeping the atmosphere free from objectionable odors. Such unpleasant
odors, human or otherwise, can be easily detected by persons entering the
room from clean, odorless air.
In industrial rooms where the primary consideration is the control of
air pollution (dusts, fumes, gases, etc.), or contamination not removable
at the source of production, the clean air supply must be sufficient to
dilute the polluting elements to a concentration below the physiological
threshold (see Chapters 4 and 26).
Air Quantity
The air supply to occupied spaces must always be adequate to satisfy
the physiological requirements of the occupants. It must be sufficient to
maintain the desired temperature, humidity, and purity with reasonable
uniformity and without drafts. In many practical instances there are
two air quantities to be considered, (a) outdoor air supply, and (b) total
air supply. The difference between the two gives the amount of air to be
recirculated.
When the only source of contamination is the occupant, the minimum
quantity of outdoor air needed appears to be that necessary to remove
objectionable body odors, or tobacco smoke. The concentration of body
odor in a room, in turn, depends upon a number of factors, including
socio-economic status of occupants, outdoor air supply, air space allowed
per person, odor adsorbing capacity of air conditioning processes, tem-
perature, and other factors of secondary importance. With any given
group of occupants and type of air conditioner the intensity of body odor
perceived upon entering a room from relatively clean air was found to
vary inversely with the logarithm of outdoor air supply and the logarithm
of the air space allowed per person*
The minimum outdoor air supply necessary to remove objectionable
body odors under various conditions, as determined experimentally at the
Harvard School of Public Health44, is given in Table 3.
Outdoor air requirements for the removal of objectionable tobacco
smoke odors have yet to be determined. Practical values in the field vary
from 5 to 15 cfm per person; this air quantity may and should be a part
of that necessary for other requirements, i.e., removal of body odors, heat,
moisture, etc.
The total quantity of air to be circulated through an enclosure is
governed largely^ by the needs for controlling temperature and air dis-
tribution when either heating or cooling is required. The factors which
determine total air quantity include the type and nature of the building,
locality, climate, height of rooms, floor area, window area, extent of
occupancy, and last but not least, the method of distribution.
Serious difficulties are often encountered in attempting to cool a room
**Loc. Cit Note 3.
70
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
with a poor distribution system or with an air supply which is too small to
result in uniform distribution without drafts. Some systems of distribu-
tion produce drafts with but a few degrees temperature rise, while other
systems operate successfully with a temperature rise as high as 35 F.
The total air quantity introduced in any particular case is inversely pro-
portional to the temperature rise, and depends largely upon the judgment
and ingenuity of the engineer in designing the most suitable system for the
particular conditions.
TABLE 3. MINIMUM OUTDOOR AIR REQUIREMENTS TO REMOVE OBJECTIONABLE
BODY ODORS
(Provisional values subject to revision upon completion of work)
TYPE OP OCCUPANTS
AIR SPACE PER
PEBSON Cu FT
OUTDOOR* AIR SUPPLY
CFM ?BR PERSON
Heating season with or without recirculation. Air not conditioned.
Sedentary adults of average socio-economic status
Sedentary adults of average socio-economic status
100
200
25
16
Sedentary adults of average socio-economic status —
Sedentary adults of average socio-economic status.
300
500
12
7
Laborers
200
23
Grade school children of average class
100
29
Grade school children of average class
Grade school children of average class
200
300
21
17
Grade school children of average class
500
11
Grade school children of poor class
200
38
Grade school children of better class
200
18
Grade school children of best class
100
22
Heating season. Air humidified by means of centrifugal humidifier. Water
atomization rate 8 to 10 gph. Total air circulation SO cfm per person.
Sedentary Adults
200
12
Summer season. Air cooled and dehumidified by means of a spray dehumidifier.
Spray water changed daily. Total air circulation 80 cfm per person.
Sedentary Adults
200
<4
a Impressions upon entering room from relatively clean air at threshold odor intensity.
The changes in moisture content resulting from occupation in the
atmosphere of a room supplied with various volumes of outside air is
shown in Fig. 7. Data are given for an adult, 5 ft 8 in. in height, weighing
150 Ib and having a body surface of 19.5 sq ft and for a child, 12 years of
age, 4 ft 7 in. in height weighing 76.6 Ib and having a body surface area
of 12.6 sq ft. Also given in Fig. 7 is the temperature of incoming air
necessary to maintain a room temperature of either 70 or 80 F as indicated
assuming that there is no heat gain or loss to the room by transmission
through the walls, solar radiation or other sources.
71
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
AIR MOVEMENT AND DISTRIBUTION
Stagnant warm air, no matter how pure, is not stimulating and it
detracts to some extent from the quality of air. Experience, and recent
field studies by the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory45 place the desirable
air movement between 15 and 25 fpm under ordinary room temperatures
during the heating season. Objectionable drafts are likely to occur when
the velocity of the air current is 40 fpm and the temperature of the air
current 2 F or more below the customary winter room temperature.
Higher velocities are not objectionable in the summer time when the air
i — i — i
ADULTS IN 80 F AIR
!>CHILDREN IN 80 F AIR
.ADULTS IN 70 F AIR
(^.CHILDREN IN 70 F AIR
CHILDREN IN 80 F AIR
ULTS IN 80 F AIR
CHILDREN IN 70 F AIR
ADULTS IN 70 F AIR
12 16 20 24 28-
RATE OF AIR SUPPLY
CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE PER OCCUPANT
FIG. 7. RELATION AMONG RATE OF AIR CHANGE PER OCCUPANT, MOISTURE CONTENT
OF ENCLOSURE, AND DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE OF INCOMING AIR
temperature exceeds 80 F. Variations in air movement and temperature
in different parts of occupied rooms are often indicative of relative air
distribution. The work of the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory indicates
that an air movement between 15 and 25 fpm with a temperature variation
of 3 F or less in different parts of a room, 36 in. above floor, insure satis-
factory distribution. Considerable evidence was obtained in these tests
to show that measurements of carbon dioxide are not essential for the
study of air distribution, or for indirect measurements of outdoor air
^Classroom Drafts in Relation to Entering Air Stream Temperature, by F. C. Houghten,
Cart Gutberlet and M. F. Lichtenfels (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 268).
, H. H. Trimble,
72
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES or AIR CONDITIONING
TABLE 4. RELATION BETWEEN METABOLIC RATE AND ACTIVITY*
ACTIVITY
HOTJRLT META-
BOLIC RATE FOB
AYG. PERSON OB
TOTAL HEAT
DISSIPATED,
BTU PER HOUR
HOURLT
SENSIBLE
HEAT
DISSIPATED,
BTU PER
HOUR
HOURLY
LATENT
HEAT
DISSIPATED,
BTU PER
HOUR
MOISTURE DISSIPATED,
PER HOUR
GRAINS
LB
Average Person Seated at Rest1..
Average Person Standing at Rest1
384
431
225
225
159
206
1070
1390
0.153
0.199
Tailor2
482
225
257
1740
0.248
Office Worker Moderately Active
490
225
265
1790
0.256
Clerk, Moderately Active,
Standing at Counter.—
600
225
375
2530
0.362
Book Binder2.
626
225
401
2710
0.387
Shoe Maker2; Clerk, Very Active
Standing at Counter
661
225
436
2940
0.420
Pool Player
680
230
450
3040
0.434
Walking^ mph3. 4; Light
Dancing
761
250
511
3450
0.493
Metalworker2
862
277
585
3950
0.564
Painter of Furniture2.
876
280
596
4020
0.575
Restaurant Serving, Very Busy..
1000
325
675
4560
0.651
Walking 3 mph8
1050
346
704
4750
0.679
Walking 4 mph8. *; Active
Dancing, Roller Skating.
1390
452
938
6330
0.904
Stone Mason2
1490
490
1000
6750
0.964
Bowling
1500
490
1010
6820
0.974
Man Sawing Wood2.
1800
590
1210
8170
1.167
Slow Run4
2290
Walking 5 mph8
2330
Vgry Severe Exercise**
2560
Maximum Exertion Different
People4.
3000 to 4800
aMetabolism rates noted based on tests actually determined from the following authoritative sources:
iA.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory; *Becker and Hamalainen; 'Douglas, Haldane, Henderson and Schneider;
^Henderson and Haggard; and "^Benedict and Carpenter. Metabolic rates for other activities estimated.
Total heat dissipation integrated into latent and sensible rates by actual tests for metabolic rates up to
1250 Btu per hour, and extrapolated above this rate. Values for total heat dissipation apply for all atmos-
pheric conditions in a temperature range from approximately 60 to 90 F dry-bulb. Division of total heat
dissipation rates into sensible and latent heat holds only for conditions having a dry-bulb temperature of
79 F. For lower temperatures, sensible heat dissipation increases and latent heat decreases, while for
higher temperatures the reverse is true.
TABLE 5.
DEGREES OF PERSPIRATION FOR PERSONS SEATED AT REST UNDER
VARIOUS ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
DEGREE OF PERSPIRATION*
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITION
95 Per Cent Relative
Humidity
20 Per Cent Relative
Humidity
E.T.
D.B.
W.B.
E.T.
D.B.
W.B.
Forehead clammy ..
73.0
73.0
79.0
80.0
84.5
88.0
88.5
73.6
73.6
79.7
80.8
85.4
89.0
89.5
72.4
72.4
78.4
79.4
84.0
87.6
88.1
75.0
75.0
81.0
87.0
86.5
94.0
90.0
87.0
87.0
97.5
109.4
108.5
125.2
116.0
60.7
60.7
67.5
75.2
74.6
85.4
79.5
Body clammy.. . .
Body damp . .— — -
Beads on forehead
Body wet.
Perspiration on forehead runs and drips
Perspiration runs down body- .
•Forty per cent of subjects registered degree of perspiration equal to or greater than indicated.
73
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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74
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
TABLE 6. DEGREES OF PERSPIRATION FOR PERSONS AT WORK UNT»ER VARIOUS
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
Work Rate 83,000 Ft Lb per Hour
DEGREE OF PERSPIRATION"
95 Per Cent Relative
Humidity
20 Per Cent Relative
Humidity
E. T.
D.B.
W.B.
•E. T.
D.B.
W.B
Forehead clammy
59.0
50.0
60.0
68.0
69.0
78.5
79.0
59.4
50.2
60.3
68.5
69.6
79.3
79.8
58.3
49.3
59.3
67.5
68.5
78.0
78.5
69.5
57.0
62.5
76.0
71.0
82.0
81.0
80.5
61.6
69.6
91.0
82.8
100.5
99.8
56.5
44.2
49.5
63.4
53.0
70.2
69.0
Body clammy
Body damp . .
Beads on forehead.
Body w^t
Perspiration on forehead runs and drips
Perspiration runs down body
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITION
aForty per cent of subjects registered degree of perspiration equal to or greater than indicated.
supply, which can be obtained more conveniently from the increase in
moisture content of the ventilating current.
HEAT AND MOISTURE GIVEN UP BY HUMAN BODY
In conditioning air for comfort and health it is necessary to know the
rate of sensible and latent heat liberation, from the human body, which in
conjunction with other heat loads (see Chapters 5 and 7) determine the
capacity of the conditioner. The data in common use are those of the
A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory46 shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. Other
useful data are given in Tables 4, 5 and 6, which are self-explanatory.
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION AND IONIZATION
In spite of the rapid advances in the field of air conditioning during the
past few years, the secret of reproducing indoor atmospheres of as
stimulating qualities as those existing outdoors under ideal weather con-
ditions, has not as yet been found. Extensive studies have failed to
elucidate the cause of the stimulating quality of country air, qualities
which are lost when such air is brought indoors and particularly when it
is handled by mechanical means. Ultra-violet light and ionizatlon have
been suggested but the evidence so far is inconclusive or negative47.
*6Thermal Exchanges between the Bodies of Men Working and the Atmospheric Environment, by F. C.
Houghten, W. W. Teague, W. E. Miller and W. P. Yant (American Journal of Hygiene, Vol. XIII, No. 2.
March, 1931, pp. 415-431).
47Changes in Ionic Content in Occupied Rooms, Ventilated by Natural and Mechanical Methods, by
C. P. Yaglou, L. C. Benjamin and S. P. Choate (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 191). Physio-
logic Changes During Exposure to Ionized Air, by C. P. Yaglou, A. D. Brandt and L. C. Benjamin (A.S.
H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 357). Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in the Small Ion Content
of Outdoor and Indoor Air, by C. P. Yaglou and L. C. Benjamin (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40,
1934, p. 271). The Nature of Ions in Air and Their Possible Physiological Effects, by L/. B. Loeb (A.S.
H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 101). The Influence of Ionized Air upon Normal Subjects, by
L. P. Herrington (Journal Clinical Investigation, 14, January, 1935). The Effect of High Concentrations
of Light Negative Atmospheric Ions on the Growth and Activity of the Albino Rat, by L. P. Herrington
and Karl L. Smith (Journal Ind. Hygiene, 17, November, 1935). Subjective Reactions of Human Beines
to Certain Outdoor Atmospheric Conditions, by C.-E. A. Winslow and L. P. Herrington (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 42, 1936, p. 119).
75
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
^1000
"-i i"< — *— t' 'jx^T F
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1 . 'i 1 • : i 1 !/| . | i
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i ' ! J ' ' /
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cf 40°
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! ' / / ''
y~" ;-"
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f~l~ .x T ~^~^^ ^
-r-
£ 300:
x
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r r--E-2ooo
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L.-JL-L-f?-^
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at
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<!>
DRY BULB TEMPELRATURE *FAHR. g
FIG. 10. LATENT HEAT AND MOISTURE Loss FROM THE HUMAN BODY BY EVAPORATION
IN RELATION TO DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE FOR STILL AIR CoNDiTioNSa
/- -A.TMen working 66,150 ft-Ib per hour. Curve B — Men working 33,075 ft-lb per hour. Curve
C— Men working 16,638 ft-lb per hour. Curve D— Men seated at rest. Curves A and C drawn from data
at a dry-bulb temperature of 81.3 F only and extrapolating the relation between Curves B and D which
were drawn from data at many temperatures.
45° 50° 55° 60° 65° 70° 75°
DRY BULB TEMPERATURE *FAHR.
£OSS *ROM rai5 HUMAN BODY BY EVAPORATION, RADIATION AND CON-
RELATION TO DRY-BULB TEMPERATURE FOR STILL AIR CONDITION^
76
CHAPTER 3. PHYSICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF AIR CONDITIONING
NATURAL AND MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Under favorable conditions natural ventilation methods properly com-
bined with means for heating may be sufficient to provide for the fore-
going objectives in homes, uncrowded offices, small stores, etc.
In large offices, large school rooms, and in public and industrial build-
ings, natural ventilation is uncertain and makes heating difficult. The
chief disadvantage of natural methods is the lack of control ; they depend
largely on weather and upon the velocity and direction of the wind.
Rooms on the windward side of a building may be difficult to heat and
ventilate on account of drafts, while rooms on the leeward side may not
receive an adequate amount of air from out-of-doors. The partial vacuum
produced on the leeward side under the action of the wind may even
reverse the flow of air so that the leeward half of the building has to take
the drift of the air from the rooms of the windward half. Under such
conditions no outdoor air would enter through a leeward window opening,
but room air would pass out.
In warm weather natural methods of ventilation afford little or no
control of indoor temperature and humidity. Outdoor smoke, dust and
noise constitute other limitations of natural methods.
RECmCULATION AND OZONE
The amount of recirculated air may be varied to suit changes in weather
and seasonal requirements, so as to conserve heat in winter and refrig-
eration in summer, but the saving in operating cost should not be obtained
at the expense of air quality.
Ozone has been used for deodorizing recirculated air by oxidation or
masking. Under favorable conditions some success is possible but from
the practical standpoint it is difficult to regulate the ozone output so as to
just neutralize undesirable odors at all times during the occupancy of a
room. The difficulties appear to be mainly due to a wide variability in
the rate of ozone disappearance in different rooms, or in the same room at
different times, according to the characteristics of a room, the absolute
humidity, impurities in the air, number and type of occupants, and
probably other factors which require considerable study before ozone can
be safely and economically applied.
The allowable concentrations in the breathing zone are very small,
between 0.01 to 0.05 parts of 03 per million parts of air. These are much
too small to influence bacteria. Higher concentrations are associated
with a pungent unpleasant odor and considerable discomfort to the
occupants. One part per million causes respiratory discomfort in man,
headaches and depression, lowers the metabolism, and may even lead to
coma48.
Toilets, kitchens, and similar rooms, in buildings using recirculation,
should be ventilated separately by mechanical exhaust in order to prevent
objectionable odors from diffusing into other parts of the building.
**The British Medical Journal. Editorial. June 25, 1932, p. 1182. See also Loc. Cit. Note 5.
77
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What are the most comfortable air conditions?
Comfort standards are not absolute, but they are greatly affected by the physical con-
dition of the individual, and the climate, season, age, sex, clothing, and physical activity.
For the northeastern climate of the United States, the conditions which meet the require-
ments of the majority of people consist of temperatures between 68 and 72 F in winter
and between 70 and 85 F in summer, the latter depending largely upon the prevailing
outdoor temperature. The most desirable relative humidity range seems to be between
30 and 60 per cent.
2 • Are the optimum conditions for comfort identical with those for health?
There are no absolute criteria of the prolonged effects of various air conditions on health.
For the present it can be only inferred that bodily discomfort may be an indication of
adverse conditions leading to poor health.
3 • Given dry-bulh and wet-bulb temperatures of 76 F and 62 F, respectively,
and an air velocity of 100 fpm, determine: (l) effective temperature of the
condition; (2) effective temperature with calm air; (3) cooling produced hy the
movement of the air.
(1) In Fig. 1 draw line AB through given dry- and wet-bulb temperatures. Its inter-
section with the 100 ft velocity curve gives 69 deg for the effective temperature of the
condition. (2) Follow line AB to the right to its intersection with the 20 fpm velocity
line, and read 70.4 deg for the effective temperature for this velocity or so-called still air.
(3) The cooling produced by the movement of the air is 70.4 - 69 = 1.4 deg ET.
4 • Assume that the design of an air conditioning system for a theater is to he
based on an outdoor dry-bulb temperature of 95 F and a wet-bulb temperature
of 78 F with an indoor relative humidity of 50 per cent. According to Table 2,
the dry-bulb temperature in the auditorium should be 80 F. Estimate the
sensible and latent heat given up per person.
The sensible heat given up per person per hour may be obtained from Fig. 9. With an
abscissa value of 80 F, Curve D for men seated at rest gives a value (on the ordinate
scale) of 220 Btu per person per hour as the sensible heat loss. The latent heat given up
by a person seated at rest may be obtained from Fig. 10. With an abscissa value of 80 F, '
Curve D indicates a latent heat loss of 175 Btu per hour (left hand scale) or a moisture
loss of 1190 grains per hour (right hand scale).
5 • Neglecting the gain or loss of heat by transmission or infiltration through
walls, windows and doors, how many cubic feet of outside air, with dry- and
wet-bulb temperatures of 65 F and 59 F, respectively, (63.1 deg ET) must be
supplied per hour to an auditorium containing 1000 people in order that the
inside temperature shall not exceed 75 F dry-bulb and 65 F wet-bulb?
Figs. 9 and 10 give 265 Btu sensible heat and 905 grains of moisture per person with a
dry-bulb temperature of 75 F in the auditorium. Therefore, 265,000 Btu of sensible
heat and 905,000 grains of moisture will be added to the air in the auditorium per hour.
Taking 0,24 as the specific heat of air, 2.4 Btu per pound of air will be absorbed in
raising the dry-bulb temperature from 65 to 75 F, and 265,000 -4- 2.4 - 110,400 Ib of
air or 110,400 X 13.4 = 1,479,000 cfh of air will be required. This is equivalent to
1,479,000 -5- (1000 X 60) = 24.7 cfm per person.
The ^moisture content of the inside air is 76 grains per pound of dry air and that of the
outside condition is 65 grains. From a psychrometric chart the increase in moisture
content will therefore be 11 grains per pound of dry air. Hence 905,000 + 11.0 = 82,300
Ib of air at the specified condition will be required. This is equivalent to 82,300 X 13 4
- 1,103,000 cfh of air or 1,103,000 -- (1000 X 60) - 18.4 cfm of air per person.
The higher volume of 24.7 cfm per person will be required to keep the dry-bulb tem-
perature from rising above the 75 F specified. The wet-bulb temperature will therefore
not rise to the maximum of 65 F.
78
Chapter 4
AIR POLLUTION
Classification of Air Impurities, Dust Concentrations, Air
Pollution and Health, Occlusion of Solar Radiation, Smoke
and Air Pollution Abatement, Dust and Cinders, Nature's
Dust Catcher
THE particulate impurities which contribute to atmospheric pollution
include carbon from the combustion of fuels, particles of earth, sand,
ash, rubber tires, leather, animal excretion, stone, wood, rust, paper,
threads of cotton, wool, and silks, bits of animal and vegetable matter,
and pollen. Microscopic examination of the impurities in city air shows
that a large percentage of the particles are carbon.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR IMPURITIES
The most conspicuous sources of atmospheric pollution may be classi-
fied arbitrarily according to the size of the particles as dusts, fumes, and
smoke. Dusts consist of particles of solid matter varying from 1.0 to 150
microns in size, (micron = 0.001 millimeter or 1/25,000 in.) Fumes
t include particles resulting from chemical processing, combustion, explo-
sion, and distillation, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 micron in size. The word
fumes may be applied also to mixtures of mists (liquid droplets) and gases
as acid mists. Smoke is composed of fine soot or carbon particles, usually
less than 0.1 micron in size, which result from incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous materials, such as. coal, oil, tar, and tobacco. In addition
to carbon and soot, smoke contains unconsumed hydrocarbon gases,
sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other industrial gases capable of
injuring property, vegetation, and health.
The lines of demarcation in these three classifications are neither sharp
nor positive, but the distinction is descriptive of the nature and origin of
of the particles, and their physical action. Dusts settle without appre-
ciable agglomeration, fumes tend to aggregate, smoke to diffuse. Particles
which approach the common bacteria in size — about 1 micron — are
difficult to remove from air and are apt to remain in suspension unless
they can be agglomerated by artificial means. The term fly-ash is usually
applied to the microscopic glassy spheres which form the principal solid
constituent of the effluent gases from powdered-coal fired furnaces.
Cinders denote the larger solid constituents which may be entrained by
furnace gases.
It is well established that particles larger than about 1 micron are
unlikely to remain suspended in air currents of moderate strength. Only
79
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
violent air motion will sustain them in air long enough for them to be
breathed. This means that, in hygenic problems, the engineer is con-
cerned mostly with suspensions of particles comparable to the common
D!AM.
OF
PAR-
TICLES
m
HICW113
SCALE OF
ATMOSPHERIC
IMPURITIES
RATE OF
SETTLING
IN F.PM.
FOR
SPHERED
OF
DENSITY I
AT 10* F.
NUMBER
OFPAR-
TICIESW
OMECUFT
SURFACE
AREA IN
SQUARE
INCHES
LAWS OF SETTLING
IN RELATION TO
PARTICLE SIZE
(LINES OF DEMARCATION APPRO*.)
AIR CONTAINING
.0006 GRAINS OF
IMPURITIES PER
CU.FT.(BEM31T<-0
8000
600O
p" :.. -i."..--. — r., -td
| PARTICLES SETTLE WITH CONSTANT VELOCITY |
PARTICLES FALL WITH
INCREASING VELOCITY
4000
£000
1000
800
600
400
200
100
SO
=^=^rz|:
790
.075
.000)65
C = 24.9VD«7
oVelocity ctn/s«c.
CWelocity ft/mm.
d«Diam of par-
ticle in cm.
D*Diam. of par-
ticlt in Microns
r« Radius of par-
ticle in cm.
g-SSlcm/aec*
acceleration
s,- Density of
particle
sz=Density of Air
(Very Small
relative to s,)
57* Viscosity of
air in poises
-!814xlO~Tfor
o.r at 70* F.
(Mean free
path of gas
molecules )
'•^^FP-
^H-J^^^
555
g
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— r-^r — *
STOKES
LAW
FOR AIR AT 70 *F.
c -300,460s,d*
C -.0059ZS.D*
CUNNINGHAM'S
60
40
20
10
8
3|
stgss
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532
600
75000
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3
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60XI07
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FACTOR
ifl
y
s
PCRHR.
MOtn-64
75x10*
3.65 »
f1"! «
ft S
2
<
C'-C OF STOKES IAW
K -.8 TO .86
uJ
UJ
s f
? k •
1
te.
ci
I
^
.01
PER HR.
i.e IN.SO.
PARTICLES N
GAS MOL
BROWN IAN
MOVEMENT
A=Vff 3^7
1OVE LIKE
&CULES
A- Distance of
motion m time t
R-Gas constant
-0.316x10''
T- Absolute
Temperature
N* Number of Gas
molecules in
onemoi-edOSxlO23
•fii
-^ —
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ri—
— &
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0
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2.5350. FT.
f
-y
irl-y
-•
5
Compiled by W. G. Frank and Copyrighted.
FIG. 1. SIZES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR-BORNE SOLIDS
bacteria in size. A notable exception to this size limitation is the common
hay-fever producing pollen such as that from rag-weed. Pollen grains
may be anything from fragments 15 microns in diameter to whole pollens
25 microns or more in size. Since the lower limit of visability to the
CHAPTER 4. AIR POLLUTION
TABLE 1. APPROXIMATE LIMITS OF INFLAMMABILITY OF SINGLE GASES AND VAPORS
IN AIR AT ORDINARY TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES**
GAS OR VAPOR
LOWER LIMIT
VOLTJMB IN PER CENT
HIGHER LIMIT
VOLUME IN PER CENT
Hydrogen
4 1
74 o
Ammonia
16 0
27 0
Hydrogen sulphide
43
46 0
Carbon disulphide
1 0
50 0
Carbon monoxide
12 5
74 0
Methane
5 3
14 0
Methane (turbulent mixture)
5 0
15 0
Ethane
3 2
12 5
Propane-
2 4
9 5
Butane
19
85
Pentane
1 45
7 5
Ethylene
3 0
29 0
Acetylene -
3 0
Acetylene (turbulent mixture)
2 3
Benzene.
1 4
7 0
Toluene.
1 4
7 0
Cyclohexane
13
8 3
Methyl cyclohexane
1 2
Methyl alcohoL
7 0
Ethyl alcohol
4 0
19 0
Ethyl ether._ .. .
1 7
26 0
Benzine
1 1
Gasoline
1 4
6 0
Water gas
6 to 9
55 to 70
Ethylene oxide
3.0
80 0
Acetaldehyde
4 0
57 0
Furfural (125 C)
2.0
Acetone
3 0
11 0
Acetone (turbulent mixture)
2.5
Methyl ethyl ketone.
2 0
12 0
Methyl formate
6 0
20 0
Ethyl formate
3 5
16 5
Methyl acetate-
4 1
14 0
Ethyl acetate
2 5
11 5
Proovl acetate
2 0
Butyl acetate (30 C)
1.7
Ethyl nitrite.
3.0
Methyl chloride
8 0
19 0
Methyl bromide— ...
13.5
14 5
Ethyl chloride
4 0
15 0
Ethyl bromide
7 0
11 0
Ethylene dichloride
6 0
16 0
Dichlorethylene
10 0
13 0
Vinyl chloride,
4.0
22.0
Pyridine (70 C)
1.8
12 5
Natural gas
4 8
13 5
Illuminating gas
5.3
31 0
Blast-furnace eras
35 0
74 0
^Limits of Inflammability of Gases and Vapors, by H. F. Coward and G. W. Jones, (U. S. Bureau <
Mines, Bulletin No. 279, 1931).
81
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
average eye is around 50 microns all air floated material of this kind is too
small to identify without the aid of the microscope.
Mineral particles, such as grains of sand, bits of rock, volcanic ash, or
fly-ash, can be transported long distances under unusual circumstances.
Thus, the dust storms of 1935 in the Kansas district resulted in vast
amounts of fine top soil being thrown high into the air. Solar illumination
as far east as Boston was affected noticeably and particles as large as 40
to 50 microns were actually carried half way across the continent before
they settled out. In similar manner volcanic ash has been carried even
further. It is not surprising, therefore, that fly-ash from furnace gases,
cement dust and the like, can be carried for considerable distances and
occasionally the engineer is confronted with the problem of removing such
material before the air in question is suitable for use in building venti-
lation.
The physical properties of the particulate impurities of air are summar-
ized conveniently in the chart of Fig. 1.
In the case of gases the physical property which is probably of most
importance is inflammability. The best data available at present on this
subject are given in Table 1.
Dust Concentrations
It is customary to report dust concentrations as grains per 1000 cu ft
or milligrams per cubic meter. Gas concentrations are commonly' re-
corded as milligrams per cubic meter or as parts per million or as per
cent by volume. Typical ranges in dust concentrations as now found in
practical applications are given in Table 2.
TABLE 2. DCST CONCENTRATION RANGES IN PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS**
APPLICATION
GRAINS PER 1000 Cn FT
MGS PER Cu M
Rural and suburban districts
0 2 to 04
04. rn ft fc
Metropolitan districts
0 4 to 08
0 9 to 1 8
Industrial districts
0 8 to 15
1 8 to 3 5
Dusty factories or mines
4 0 to 80 0
10 to 200
Explosive concentrations (as of flour or soft coal)..
4000 to 8000
10,000 to 20,000
«1 grain per 1000 cu ft = 2.3 mgs per cubic meter; 1 oz per cubic foot =* 1 gram per liter.
The engineer frequently desires information regarding the effects of
various concentrations of gases or dusts upon man, as the success of a
particular installation may depend upon the maintenance of air which is
adequately clean. At the present time there are a number of organi-
zations working on this problem all of them publishing literature of
various kinds.1 References to books covering the hygienic significance,
determination and control of dust are listed at the end of this chapter.
m
meat of
f' S-P^lic Health Service; Division of Labor Standards, U. S. Depart-
of Toronto Medical School, Canada; Saranac Laboratories, Saranac Lake
' In", ^^S^A **- Harvard ^h001 of Public Health! BoS?, M£ .\
:1 '^ the Departraents of Health and °f Labor in the United States
82
CHAPTER 4. AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH
The prevention of various diseases which result from exposure to
atmospheric impurities is an engineering problem. It is important for
the engineer to insure, by proper ventilation, suitable environments for
working or for general living. If the equipment used is to be successful, it
must operate automatically as in the modern air conditioned theatre or
railroad train.
In Table 3 are given data on permissable concentrations of various
substances, gases and dusts, which occur in industry. The prudent
TABLE 3. TOXICITY OF GASES AND FUMES IN PARTS PER 10,000 PARTS OF AiRa
VAPOR OB GAS
RAPIDLY
FATAL
MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
FOR FROM
M TO 1 HOUR
\
1 MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATION
FOR 1 HOUH
MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE
FOR PROLONGED
EXPOSURE
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
40
800-1000
15-20
10
1
Hydrocyanic acid
30
\1A
'"y"
l.<
Ammonia
50-100
25
3
1
Hydrochloric acid gas
10-20
Ko
Chlorine....".
10
\s
Koo
Hydrofluoric acid gas._
2
Mo
3*33
Sulphur dioxide.-
4-5
M-l
s^.Q
Hydrogen sulphide
Carbon bisulphide.
10-30
5-7
11
2-3
5
1
\4
Phosphene
20
4-6
1 2
Arsine
2H
1A
Phosgene
Over 34
i/
Mnn
Nitrous furnes
2^-7i|
1-1 H
7Q
Benzene
190
31-47
lU-3
Toluene and xylene
190
31-47
Aniline
1-1^
Kn
Nitrobenzene
Hoo
i/
44 i\f\
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
480
250
240
140
40
50
1
2
Tetrachlorethane _
Trichlorethylene
73
370
Ho
Methyl chloride.....
Methyl bromide
1500-3000
200-400
200-400
20-40
70
10
5-10
2
Lead dust.
0 15 mg/cu m
Quartz dust
1 mg/cu m
^Adapted from Y. Henderson and H. Haggard. (See ^oxtows Gases, 1927, and Lessotw Learned from
Industrial Gases and Fumes, Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1930.)
engineer will design equipment using these bench marks as the upper
limits of pollution. In general it is good practice to avoid recirculation
of air which contains originally toxic substances. Obviously there may be
exceptions to this rule, but it is one which is generally being followed in
current practice.
' Bronchitis is the chief condition associated with exposure to thick dust,
and follows upon inhalation of practically any kind of insoluble and non-
colloidal dust. Atmospheric dust in itself cannot be blamed for causing
tuberculosis, but it may aggravate the disease once it has started.2
'Physiological Response of the Peritoneal Tissue to Dusts Introduced as Foreign Bodies, by Miller
and Sayers (U. S. Public Health Reports, 49:80, 1934).
83
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The sulphurous fumes and tarry matter in smoke are more dangerous
than the carbon. In foggy weather the accumulation of these substances
in the lower strata may be such as to cause irritation of the eyes, nose, and
respiratory passages, leading to asthmatic breathing and bronchitis and,
in extreme cases, to death. The Meuse Valley fog disaster will probably
become a classic example in the history of gaseous air pollution. Re-
leased in a rare combination of atmospheric calm and dense ^fog, it^is
believed that sulphur dioxide and other toxic gases from the industrial
region of the valley caused 63 sudden deaths, and injuries to several
hundred persons.
Carbon monoxide from automobiles and from chimney ^ gases consti-
tutes another important source of aerial pollution in busy cities. During
heavy traffic hours and under atmospheric conditions favorable to con-
centration, the air of congested streets is found to contain enough CO to
menace the health of those exposed over a period of several hours, par-
ticularly if their activities call for deep and rapid breathing.^ In open air
under ordinary conditions the concentration of CO in city air is insufficient
to affect the average city dweller or pedestrian.
Occlusion of Solar Radiation
The loss of light, particularly the occlusion of solar ultra-violet light
due to smoke and soot, is beginning to be recognized as a health problem
in many industrial cities. Measurements of solar radiation in Baltimore3
by actinic methods show that the ultra-violet light in the country was
50 per cent greater than in the city. In New York City4 a loss as great as
50 per cent in visible light was found by the photo-electric cell method.
Recent studies5 in Pittsburgh indicate that heavy smoke pollution is
definitely unhealthful. Heretofore adequate proofs on this point were
lacking.
The aesthetic and economic objections to air pollution are so definite,
and the effect of air-borne pollen can be shown so readily as the cause of
hay fever and other allergic diseases, that means and expenses of pre-
vention or elimination of this pollution are justified.
SMOKE AND AIR POLLUTION ABATEMENT
Successful abatement of atmospheric pollution requires the combined
efforts of the combustion engineer, the public health officer, and the
public itself. The complete electrification of industry and railroads, and
the separation of industrial and residential communities would aid
materially in the effective solution of the problem.
In the large cities where the nuisance from smoke, dust and cinders is
the most serious, limited areas obtain some relief by the use of district
heating. The boilers in these plants are of large size designed and oper-
ated to burn the fuel without smoke, and some of them are equipped with
dust catching devices. The gases of combustion are usually discharged at
'Effects of Atmospheric Pollution Upon Incidence of Solar Ultra-Violet Light, by J. H. Shrader, M. H.
Coblentz and F. A. Korff (American Journal of Public Health, p. 7, Vol. 19, 1929).
'Studies in Illumination, by J. E. Ives (U. S. Public Health Service Bulletin No. 197, 1930).
'Pneumoconiosis in the Pittsburgh district, Based on a Study of 2,500 Post Mortem Examinations
made in Pittsburgh Hospitals, by Schnurer et al (Journal Industrial Hygiene, 17:294, March, 1935).
84
CHAPTER 4. AIR POLLUTION
a much higher level than is possible in the case of buildings that operate
their own boiler plants.
In general, time, temperature and turbulence are the essential require-
ments for smokeless combustion. Anything that can be done to increase
any one of these factors will reduce the quantity of smoke discharged.
Especial care must be taken in hand-firing bituminous coals. (See
Chapter 9.)
Checker or alternate firing, in which the fuel is fired alternately on
separate parts of the grate > maintains a higher furnace temperature and
thereby decreases the amount of smoke.
Coking and firing, in which the fuel is first fired close to the firing door
and the coke pushed back into the furnace just before firing again, pro-
duces the same effect. The volatiles as they are distilled thus have to
pass over the hot fuel bed where they will be burned if they are mixed with
sufficient air and are not cooled too quickly by the heat-absorbing surfaces
of the boiler.
Steam or compressed air jetst admitted over the fire, create turbulence
in the furnace and bring the volatiles of the fuel more quickly into contact
with the air required for combustion. These jets are especially helpful
for the first few minutes after each firing. Frequent firings of small
charges shorten the smoking period and reduce the density. Thinner
fuel beds on the grate increase the effective combustion space in the
furnace, supply more air for combustion, and are sometimes effective in
reducing the smoke emitted, but care should be taken that holes are not
formed in the fire. A lower volatile coal or a higher gravity oil always
produces less smoke than a high volatile coal or low gravity oil used in
the same furnace and fired in the same manner.
The installation of more modern or better designed fuel burning equip-
ment, or a change in the construction of the furnace, will often reduce
smoke. The installation of a Dutch oven which will increase the furnace
volume and raise the furnace temperature often produces satisfactory-
results.
In the case of new installations, the problem of smoke abatement can
be solved by the selection of the proper fuel-burning equipment and
furnace design for the particular fuel to be burned and by the proper
operation of that equipment. Constant vigilance is necessary to make
certain that the equipment is properly operated. In old installations the
solution of the problem presents many difficulties, and a considerable
investment in special apparatus is necessary.
Legislative measures at the present time are largely concerned with the
smoke discharged from the chimneys of boiler plants. Practically all of
the ordinances limit the number of minutes in any one hour that smoke of
a specified density, as measured by comparison with a Ringelmann Chart
(Chapter 44), may be discharged.
These ordinances do not cover the smoke discharged at low levels by
automobiles, and, although they have been instrumental in reducing the
smoke emitted by boiler plants, they have, in many instances, increased
the output of chimney dust and cinders due to the use of more excess air
and to greater turbulence in the furnaces.
Legislative measures in general have not as yet covered the noxious
85
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
gases, such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid mist, which are dis-
charged with the gases of combustion. ^ Where high sulphur coals are
burned, these sulphur gases present a serious problem.
DUST AND CINDERS
The impurities in the air other than smoke come from so many sources
that they are difficult to control. Only those which are produced in
large quantities at a comparatively few points, such as the dust, cinders
and fly-ash discharged to the atmosphere along with the gases of com-
bustion from burning solid fuel, can be readily controlled.
Dusts and cinders in flue gas may be caught by various devices on the
market, such as fabric filters, dust traps, settling chambers, centrifugal
separators, electrical precipitators, and gas scrubbers, described in
Chapter 26.
The cinder particles are usually larger in size than the dust particles;
they are gray or black in color, and are abrasive. Being of a larger size,
the range within which they may annoy is limited.
The dust particles are usually extremely fine; they are light gray or
yellow in color, and are not as abrasive as cinder particles. Being ex-
tremely fine, they are readily distributed over a large area by air currents.
The nuisance created by the solid particles in the air is dependent on
the size and physical characteristics of the individual particles. The
difficulty of catching the dust and cinder particles is principally a function
of the size and specific gravity of the particles.
Lower rates of combustion per square foot of grate area will reduce the
quantity of solid matter discharged from the chimney with the gases of
combustion. The burning of coke, coking coal, and sized coal from which
the extremely fine coal has been removed will not as a general rule produce
as much dust and cinders as will result from the burning of non-coking
coals and slack coal when they are burned on a grate.
Modern boiler installations are usually designed for high capacity per
square foot of ground area because such designs give the lowest cost of
construction per unit of capacity. Designs of this type discharge a
large quantity of dust and cinders with the gases of combustion, and if
pollution of the atmosphere is to be prevented, some type of catcher must
be installed.
NATURE'S DUST CATCHER
Nature has provided means for catching solid particles in the air and
depositing them upon the earth. A dust particle forms the nucleus for
each rain drop and the rain picks up dust as it falls from the clouds to the
earth. In fact, without dust in the air to form the nuclei for rain drops it
would never rain, and the earth would be continually enveloped in a
cloud of vapor. However, it was found in recent studies6 that rain was
not a good air cleaner of the material below about 0.7 micron.
•Atmospheric Pollution of American Cities for the years 1931-1933, by J. E. Ives et al (U. 5. Public
Health Bulletin No* 224. March, 1936).
CHAPTER 4. AIR POU.UTION
REFERENCES
Bulletin, Air Hygiene Foundation, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Determination and Control of Industrial Dust, by J. J. Bloomfield and J. M. Dalla
Valle (U. S. Public Health Bulletin, No, 217, 1935).'
Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Harvard School of Public Health,
Boston, Mass.
Reports of the National Silicosis Conference, Washington, D. C. To be published
by the U. S. Department of Labor.
Saranac Symposium on Silicosis, 1937, Saranac Laboratories, Saranac, N. Y.
Industrial Dust, by Philip Drinker and Theodore Hatch, McGraw Hill Co., N. Y.
Noxious Gases, by Y. Henderson and H. Haggard, Chemical Catalog Co., N. Y.
Occupation and Health, International Labour Office.
Preventive Medicine and Hygiene, by Milton J. Rosenau, D. Appleton- Century
Co., N. Y.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Classify the detrimental aspects of air pollution as it affects large industrial
communities.
Air pollution may be classified (a) medical, as it affects the physiological functions of
people; (b) botanical, as it affects vegetation, trees, plants, shrubs and flowers; and (c)
physical, as it affects the discoloration and deterioration of buildings, and the nuisance
of soiled interior furnishings, clothes, merchandise, etc.
2 • Distinguish between dusts, fumes, and smokes.
Solid particles ranging in size from 1.0 micron to 150 microns are called dusts (micron =
Ms. ooo in.)-
Particles resulting from sundry chemical reactions and ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 micron in
size are called fumes.
Carbon particles less than 0.1 micron in size which generally arise from the incomplete
combustion of such materials as coal, oil, or tobacco are called smokes,
3 • What are some of the more important physical properties of these various
groups of foreign bodies which are of importance in ventilation?
In slowly moving air, dusts tend to settle out by gravity without agglomerating to form
larger particles; fumes have the tendency to form larger particles which will settle when
they attain the size of approximately 1.0 micron; while smokes tend to diffuse and remain
in the air as permanent impurities.
4 • Why is atmospheric pollution an important engineering problem?
a. Certain impurities, when present in too great concentrations, cause ill health or even
death.
b. High concentrations of solids occlude solar radiations.
c. Some materials cause permanent injury to parts of buildings, as sulphur fumes corrode
exposed metal.
d. Extra cleaning expense is incurred in dusty localities.
e. Internal combustion engines are damaged by abrasive dusts.
5 • How may the hazards of dust-producing industrial operations best be
curtailed?
By providing mechanical exhaust ventilation sufficient to keep dust concentration at a
safe level (see Table 3) and then removing foreign bodies to reduce the pollution of out-
side air.
87
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
6 • How may the pollution of the atmosphere he lessened?
By compelling industrial plants to install dust catching and smoke controlling devices.
In many cities the domestic heating plant is one of the most serious offenders, but these
plants are too small to justify the installation of dust catchers. Public education in
improved firing methods would be of considerable help in this field.
7 • What size particles are detrimental to health?
While fairly large particles may enter the upper air passages, those found in the lungs
are seldom more than 10 microns in size, and comparatively few of them are more than
5 microns. It is agreed that particles between % and 2 microns may be harmful; some
authorities place the upper limit at about 5 microns, and some incline to extend the
lower limit to 0.1 of a micron.
8 • Is the shape of the particle of any significance?
Hard particles with sharp corners or edges have a cutting effect on the delicate mucous
membranes of the upper respiratory tract which may lower the resistance of the nose and
throat to acute infections. This is aggravated by the irritating effects of some chemical
compounds which may be taken in with the air and which act to reduce resistance.
9 • What are the principal meteorological effects of smoke and dust?
a. The reduction in the amount of light received. Measurements have shown that
visible light may be as much as 50 per cent less intense in a smoky section of a city than
in a section that is free from smoke. Ultra-violet light is reduced as much or more, and
in some cases is cut out entirely for a time.
6. Smoke and dust aid in the formation and prolongation of fogs. City fogs accumulate
smoke and become darker in color and very objectionable. The sun requires a longer
time to disperse them, and when the water is evaporated, there is a rain of smoke and
soot particles that have been entrained.
10 • Why has not smoke abatement been more effective?
Because communities have not been made sufficiently aware of the possibilities of
burning high volatile fuels smokelessly and of separating cinder and ash from the stack
gases to a degree that will prevent a nuisance.
11 • Is the abatement of dust and cinders important?
Yes. Only a small percentage of the solid emission from stacks is smoke, in the accepted
popular sense; the remainder is fly-ash and cinders. While black smoke is disagreeable
and its tarry matter and carbon particles soil anything with which they come in contact,
the cinders and some of the ash are hard and destructive. They also, together with
dusts from industrial processes, make up the irritating, air-borne solids that are breathed
by individuals not working in a dusty mill or factory.
12 • Are air-borne impurities causative factors in hay fever, bronchial asthma,
and allergic disorders?
Yes. Recent medical investigations indicate that 90 per cent of seasonal hay fever and
40 per cent of bronchial asthma are caused by air-borne pollens, tree dusts, and other
allergic irritants.
13 • Name some essential requirements for the smokeless combustion of fuels.
Time, temperature, and turbulence. A study of these factors is usually of value in
overcoming a smoke nuisance.
14 • What is the Ringelmann Chart Method of comparing smoke densities?
See Chapter 44. The Ringelmann Chart consists of four cards ruled with lines having
different degrees of blackness. These cards, together with a white card and a black one,
are^hung in a horizontal row 50 ft from the observer. At this distance the lines become
invisible and the cards appear to be different shades of gray, ranging from white to black.
The observer, by matching the cards against the shades of smoke coming from a stack, is
able to estimate the blackness of the smoke as compared with the chart.
88
Chapter 5
HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS
AND TABLES
Methods o£ Heat Transfer, Coefficients, Conductivity of
Homogeneous Materials, Surface Conductance Coefficients,
Air Space Conductance, Practical Coefficients, Table of Con-
ductivities and Conductances, Tables of Over- all Coefficients
of Heat Transfer for Typical Building Construction, Combined
Coefficients of Transmission
IN order to maintain comfortable living temperatures within a building
it is necessary to supply heat at the same rate that it is lost from the
building. The loss of heat occurs in two ways, by direct transmission
through the various parts of the structure and by air leakage or filtration
between the inside and outside of the building. The purpose of this
chapter is to show methods of calculation and to give practical trans-
mission coefficients which may be applied to various structures to deter-
mine the heat loss by direct transmission. The amount lost by air
nitration is determined by different methods, as outlined in Chapter 6,
and must be added to that lost by direct transmission to obtain the total
heating plant requirements.
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transmission between the air on the two sides of a structure takes
place by three methods, namely, radiation, convection and conduction.
In a simple wall built up of two layers of homogeneous materials separated
to give an air space between them, heat will be received from the high
temperature surface by radiation, convection and conduction. It will
then be conducted through the homogeneous interior section by con-
duction and carried across to the opposite surface of the air space by
radiation, conduction and convection. From here it will be carried by
conduction through to the outer surface and leave the outer surface by
radiation, convection and conduction. The process of heat transfer
through a built-up wall section is complicated in theory, but in practice
it is simplified by dividing a wall into its component parts and considering
the transmission through each part separately. Thus the average wall
may be divided into external surfaces, homogeneous materials and interior
air spaces. Practical heat transmission coefficients may be derived which
will give the total heat transferred by radiation, conduction and convec-
tion through any of these component parts and if the selection and method
of applying these individual coefficients is thoroughly understood it is
usually a comparatively simple matter to calculate the over-all heat
transmission coefficient for any combination of materials.
89
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
The symbols representing the various coefficients of heat transmission
and their definitions are as follows :
U = thermal^ transmittance or over-all coefficient of heat transmission ; the amount of
heat expressed in Btu transmitted in one hour per square foot of the wall, floor, roof or
ceiling for a difference in temperature of 1 deg F between the air on the inside and that
on the outside of the wall, floor, roof or ceiling.
k = thermal conductivity; the amount of heat expressed in Btu transmitted in one
hour through 1 sq ft of a homogeneous material 1 in. thick for a difference in temperature
of 1 deg F between the two surfaces of the material. The conductivity of any material
depends on the structure of the material and its density. Heavy or dense materials, the
weight of which per cubic foot is high, usually transmit more heat than light or less dense
materials, the weight of which per cubic foot is low.
C = thermal conductance; the amount of heat expressed in Btu transmitted in one
hour through 1 sq ft of a non-homogeneous material for the thickness or type under
consideration for a difference in temperature of 1 deg F between the two surfaces of the
material. Conductance is usually used to designate the heat transmitted through such
heterogeneous materials as plaster board and hollow clay tile.
/ =• film or surface conductance; the amount of heat expressed in Btu transmitted by
radiation, conduction and convection from a surface to the air surrounding it, or vice
versa, in one hour per square foot of the surface for a difference in temperature of 1 deg F
between the surface and the surrounding air. To differentiate between inside and outside
wall (or floor, roof or ceiling) surfaces, fi is used to designate the inside film or surface
conductance and /0 the outside film or surface conductance.
a — thermal conductance of an air space; the amount of heat expressed in Btu trans-
mitted by radiation, conduction and convection in one hour through an area of 1 sq ft of
an air space for a temperature difference of 1 deg F. The conductance of an air space
depends on the mean absolute temperature, the width, the position and the character of
the materials enclosing it.
R — resistance or resistivity which is the reciprocal of transmission, conductance,
or conductivity, i.e.:
-jj- - over-all or air-to-air resistance.
-T~ = internal resistivity.
TT — internal resistance,
c/
-j- — film or surface resistance.
1
— = air-space resistance.
As an example in the application of these coefficients assume a wall
with over-all coefficient U. Then,
H = AU(t-to) (1)
where
H = Btu per hour transmitted through the material of the wall, glass, roof or
floor.
A * area in square feet of wall, glass, roof, floor, or material, taken from building
plans or actually measured. (Use the net inside or heated surface dimensions
in all cases.)
- k = temperature difference between inside and outside air, in which t must always
be taken at the proper level. Note that t may not be the breathing-line
90
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
If the heat transfer between the air and the inside surface of the wall
is being considered, then,
H = A fi (t - h) f2)
where
fi = inside surface conductance.
t and h = the temperatures of the inside air and the inside surface of the wall re-
spectively.
In practice it is usually the over-all heat transmission coefficient that is
required. This may be determined by a test of the complete wall, or
it may be obtained from the individual coefficients by calculation. The
simplest method of combining the coefficients for the individual parts of
the wall is to use the reciprocals of the coefficients and treat them as
resistance units. The total over-all resistance of a wall is equal numeri-
cally to the sum of the resistances of the various parts, and the reciprocal
of the over-all resistance is likewise the over-all heat transmission coef-
ficient of the wall. For a wall built up of a single homogeneous material
of conductivity k and x inches thick the over-all resistance,
If the coefficients /i,/0 and k, together with the thickness of the material
x are known, the over-all coefficient U may be readily calculated as the
reciprocal of the total heat resistance.
For a compound wall built up of three homogeneous materials having
conductivities AI, &2 and ks and thicknesses xi, xz and x$ respectively, and
laid together without air spaces, the total resistance,
l=!+i+t+t+i
For a wall with air space construction consisting of two homogeneous
materials of thicknesses Xi and x2 and conductivities ki and kz, respectively,
separated to form an air space of conductance a, the over-all resistance,
-L - — 4- -5- 4-—+ -5-4- 1 ' m
U ' fi + ft, + a + k, + 7T 5
Likewise any combination of homogeneous materials and air spaces can
be put into the wall and the over-all resistance of the combination may be
calculated by adding the resistances of the individual sections of the wall.
In certain special forms of construction such as tile with irregular air
spaces it is necessary to consider the conductance C of the unit as built
instead of the unit conductivity k, and the resistance of the section is
equal to -pr. The method of calculating the over-all heat transmission
o
coefficient for a given wall is comparatively simple, but the selection of
the proper coefficients is often complicated. In some cases the construc-
tion of the wall is such that the substituting of coefficients in the accepted
formula will give erroneous results. This is the case with irregular cored
91
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
out air spaces in concrete and tile blocks, and walls in which there are
parallel paths for heat flow through materials having different heat
resistances. In such cases it is necessary to resort to test methods to
check the calculations, and in practically all cases it has been necessary
to determine fundamental coefficients by test methods.
Conductivity of Homogeneous Materials
The thermal conductivity of homogeneous materials is affected by
several factors. Among these are the density of the material, the amount
of moisture present, the mean temperature at which the coefficient is
determined, and for fiberous materials the arrangement of fiber in the
material. There are many fiberous materials used in building construc-
tion and considered as homogeneous for the purpose of calculation,
whereas they are not really homogeneous but are merely considered so as a
matter of convenience. In general, the thermal conductivity of a material
increases directly with the density of the material, increases with the
amount of moisture present, and increases with the mean temperature at
which the coefficient is determined. The rate of increase for these various
factors is not the same for all materials, and in assigning proper coef-
ficients one should make certain that they apply for the conditions under
which the material is to be used in a wall. Failure to do this may result
in serious errors in the final coefficients.
Surface Conductance Coefficients
Heat is transmitted to or from the surface of a wall by a combination
of radiation, convection and conduction. The coefficient will be effected
by any factor which has an influence on any one of these three methods of
transfer. The amount of heat by radiation is controlled by the character
of the surface and the temperature difference between it and the sur-
rounding objects. The amount of heat by conduction and convection is
controlled largely by the roughness of the surface, by the air movement
over the surface and by the temperature difference between the air and
the surface. Because of these variables the surface coefficients may be
subject to wide fluctuations for different materials and different con-
ditions. The inside and outside coefficients jfi and/0 are in general affected
to the same extent by these various factors and test coefficients deter-
mined for inside surfaces will apply equally well to outside surfaces under
like conditions. Values for /i in still and moving air at different mean
temperatures have been determined for various building materials at the
University of Minnesota under a cooperative agreement with the Society.1
The relation obtained between surface conductances for different
materials at mean temperatures of 20 F is shown in Fig. 1. These values
were obtained with air flow parallel to the surface and from other tests in
which the angle of incident between the direction of air flow and the
surface was varied from zero to 90 deg it would appear that these values
might be lowered approximately 15 per cent for average conditions.
While for average building materials there is a difference due to mean
temperature, the greatest variation in these coefficients is caused by the
character of the surface and the wind velocity. If other surfaces, such as
'Surface Conductances as Affected by Air Velocity, Temperature and Character of Surface, by F. B.
Rowley, A. B. Algren and J. L. Blackshaw (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 429).
92
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
aluminum foil with low emissivity coefficients were substituted, a large
part of the radiant heat would be eliminated. This would reduce the
total coefficient for all wind velocities by about 0.7 Btu and would make
but very little difference for the higher wind velocities. In many cases in
building construction the heat resistance of the internal parts of the wall
is high as compared with the surface resistance and the surface factors
become of small importance. In other cases such as single glass windows
the surface resistances constitute practically the entire resistance of the
structure^ and therefore become important factors. Due to the wide
variation in surface coefficients for different conditions their selection for
15 20 25
AIR VELOCITY, M. P. H.
FIG. 1. CURVES SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN SURFACE CONDUCTANCES FOR
DIFFERENT SURFACES AT 20 F MEAN TEMPERATURE
a practical building becomes a matter of judgment. In calculating the
over-all coefficients for the walls of Tables 3 to 12, 1.65 has been selected
as an average inside coefficient and 6.0 as an average outside coefficient
for a 15-mile wind velocity. In special cases where surface coefficients
become important factors in the over-all rate of heat transfer more
selective coefficients may be required,
Air Space Conductance
Heat is conducted across an air space by a combination of radiation,
conduction and convection. The amount of heat by radiation is governed
largely by the nature of the surface and the temperature difference
between the boundary surfaces of the air space. Conduction and con-
93
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
vection are controlled largely by the width and shape of the air space and
the roughness of the boundary surfaces. The thermal resistances of air
spaces bounded by extended parallel surfaces perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow and at different mean temperatures have been
determined for average building materials at the^ University of Minnesota
in a cooperative research program with the Society.
The values given in Table 1 show the results of this study and apply to
air spaces bounded by such materials as paper, wood, plaster, etc.,
having emissivity coefficients of from 0.9 to 0.95. The conductivity
coefficients decrease with air space width until a width of about % in. has
been reached, after which the width has but very little effect. In these
TABLE 1. CONDUCTANCES OF AIR SPACES a AT VARIOUS MEAN TEMPERATURES
MIAN
COITOUCTANCZS or AIR SPACES FOR VARIOUS WIDTHS IN INCHES
TBMP
DBG FAHR
0.128
0.250
0.364
0.493
0.713
1.00
1.500
20
2.300
1.370
1.180
1.100
1.040
1.030
1.022
30
2.385
1.425
1.234
1.148
1.080
1.070
1.065
40
2.470
1.480
1.288
1.193
1.125
1.112
1.105
50
2.560
1.535
1.340
1.242
1.168
1.152
1.149
60
2.650
1.590
1.390
1.295
1.210
1.195
1.188
70
2.730
1.648
1.440
1.340
1.250
1.240
1.228
80
2.819
1.702
1.492
1.390
1.295
1.280
1.270
90
2.908
1.757
1.547
1.433
1.340
1.320
1.310
100
2.990
1.813
1.600
1.486
1.380
1.362
1.350
110
3.078
1.870
1.650
1.534
1.425
1.402
1.392
120
3.167
1.928
1.700
1.580
1.467
1.445
1.435
130
3.250
1.980
1.750
1.630
1.510
1.485
1.475
140
3.340
2.035
1.800
1.680
1.550
1.530
1.519
150
3.425
2.090
1.852
1.728
1.592
1.569
1.559
^Thermal Resistance of Air Spaces by F. B. Rowley and A. B. Algren (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 35, 1929, p. 165).
coefficients radiation is a large factor, and if surfaces with low emissivity
coefficients are substituted for ordinary building materials the total
amount of radiant heat will be reduced. The reduction in radiant heat
caused by the low emissivity surface is independent of width of air space.
Air spaces properly formed in combination with metallic surfaces such as
aluminum foil, coated sheet steel, and other materials having a reflective
surface, possess heat repelling characteristics. Values of air spaces
lined with aluminum foil on one or both sides for widths of % in. and % in.
are shown in Table 2 of conductivities. A low emissivity coefficient is
dependent on the permanency of the reflective surface. If a bright clean
surface is covered with a thin layer of corrosive material its reflectivity is
appreciably reduced2.
In comparing the conductance coefficients for air spaces with and with-
out bright metallic surface lining it should be noted that the reduction in
heat transfer is substantially as great when one surface is lined as it is
when both surfaces are lined. The reason for this is that practically
95 per cent of the total radiant heat is intercepted by one surface lining
^Aluminum Foil Insulation (National Bureau of Standards Letter Circular No. LC465. June, 1936).
94
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
and there is but a small amount left to be stopped by the second surface
lining. The effect of any low emissivity surface in 'stopping the trans-
mission of radiant heat is the same regardless of whether it is on the high
or low temperature side of the air space. For materials such as aluminum
paint or bronze paint which stop only a small percentage of radiant heat
there is a greater percentage of gain by addition of a second surface lining.
PRACTICAL COEFFICIENTS
For practical purposes it is necessary to have average coefficients that
may be applied to various materials and types of construction without
the necessity of making tests on the individual material or combination of
materials. In Table 2 coefficients are given for a group of materials which
have been selected from various sources. Wherever possible the proper-
ties of material and conditions of tests are given. However, in selecting
and applying these values to any construction a reasonable amount of
caution is necessary; variations will be found in the coefficients for the
same materials, which may be partly due to different test methods used,
but which are largely due to variations in materials. The recommended
coefficients which have been used for the calculation of over-all coefficients
as given in Tables 3 to 12 are marked by an asterisk.
It should be recognized in these tables of calculated coefficients that
space limitations will not permit the inclusion of all the combinations of
materials that are used in building construction and the varied applications
of insulating materials to these constructions. Typical examples are given
of combinations frequently used, but any special construction not given in
Tables 3 to 12 can generally be computed by using the conductivity values
given in Table 2 and the fundamental heat transfer formulae. For
example, the tabulation of all of the values for multiple layers of insulating
materials would present extensive and detailed problems of calculations
for the varied application combinations, but the engineer having the
fundamental conductivity values can quickly obtain the proper coefficients.
Attention is called to the fact that the conductivity values per inch of
thickness do not afford a true basis for comparison between insulating
materials as applied, although they are frequently used for that purpose.
The value of an insulating material is measured in terms of its heat
resistance, which not only depends upon the thermal conductivity coef-
ficient per inch but also upon the thickness as installed and the manner, of
installation. For instance the material having a coefficient of 0.50 and
1 in. thick is equal in value to a material having a coefficient of 0.25 and
a thickness of J^ in. Certain types of blanket installations are designed
to be installed between the studs of a frame building in such manner as to
give two air spaces. In order to get the full value of such materials they
should be so installed that each air space is approximately 1 in. or more
in thickness and the air spaces should be sealed at the top and bottom to
prevent the circulation of air from one space to the other. Another
common error in installing such a material is to nail the blanket on the
outside of the studs underneath the sheathing, in which case one air
space is lost and also the thickness of the insulating material is materially
reduced at the studs. There are certain other types of insulation which
are very porous, allowing air circulation within the material if not
95
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
properly installed. The architect or engineer must carefully evaluate the
economic considerations involved in the selection of an insulating material
as adapted to various building constructions. Lack of good judgment in
the intelligent choice of an insulating material, or its improper installation,
frequently represents the difference between good or unsatisfactory
results. Refer to Chapter 7 for a discussion of wall condensation.
Computed Transmission Coefficients
Computed heat transmission coefficients of many common types of
building construction are given in Tables 3 to 13, inclusive, each con-
struction being identified by a serial number. For example, the coefficient
of transmission (IT) of an 8-in. brick wall and J^ in. of plaster is 0.46, and
the number assigned to a wall of this construction is 1-B, Table 3.
Example L Calculate the coefficient of transmission (IT) of an 8-in. brick wall with
J£ in. of plaster applied directly to the interior surface, based on an outside wind exposure
of 15 mph. It is assumed that the outside course is of hard (high density) brick having a
conductivity of 9.20, and that the inside course is of common (low density) brick having
a conductivity of 5.0, the thicknesses each being 4 in. The conductivity of the plaster is
assumed to be 3.3, and the inside and outside surface coefficients are assumed to average
1.65 and 6.00, respectively, for still air and a 15 mph wind velocity.
Solution, k (hard high density brick) - 9.20; x = 40 in.; k (common low density
brick) = 5.0; x « 4.0 in.; k (plaster) = 3.3; * = M in.;/i = 1.65;/0 - 6.0. Therefore,
6.0 T 9.20 ^ 5.0 ~*~ 3.3 "*" 1.65
^ 1
0.167 + 0.435 -i- 0.80 + 0.152 + 0.606
« 0.46 Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit difference in tempera-
ture between the air on the two sides.
The coefficients in the tables were determined by calculations similar
to those shown in Example 1, using Fundamental Formulae 3, 4 and 5
and the values of k (or C),/i, /0 and a indicated in Table 2 by asterisks.
In computing heat transmission coefficients of floors laid directly on the
ground (Table 10), only one surface coefficient (/i) is used. For example,
the value of U for a 1-in. yellow pine floor (actual thickness, 25/32 in.)
placed directly on 6-in. concrete on the ground, is determined as follows :
1
U = ~~; :rir: — = 0.48 Btu per hour per square foot per degree difference
I , U. fol , O.U
1.65 •" 0.80 12.62
in temperature between the ground and the air immediately above the floor.
Rigid insulation refers to the so-called board form which may be used
structurally, such as for sheathing. Flexible insulation refers to the
blankets, quilts or semi-rigid types of insulation.
Actual thicknesses of lumber are used in the computations rather than
nominal thicknesses. The computations for wood shingle roofs applied
over wood stripping are based on 1 by 4 in. wood strips, spaced 2 in. apart.
Since no reliable figures are available concerning the conductivity of
Spanish and French clay roofing tile, of which there are many varieties,
the figures for such types of roofs were taken the same as for slate roofs, as
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
TABLE 2. CONDUCTIVITIES (k) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS**
The coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness,
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DENSITY
(La PER Cu FT)
MEAN TEMP.
(DKG FAHR)
CoNDDcrivrrr (K)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C')
~l-« _,jo
>• 8
5 3
|
<J
Cement
Fine
Aggre-
0-No. 4
Coarse
*gj" Slump
No.4-H
Per
Cent
Voids
SAND AND GRAVEL,
CONCRETE—
1
1
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.00
2.00
2.75
2.75
3.50
3.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
2.75
2.75
4.50
4.50
5.50
5.50
0
8
1
11.5
10.9
11.2
13,9
13.9
14.6
14.6
14.7
14.7
144.7
145.7
144.5
142.5
142.5
141.1
141.1
139.2
139.2
142.3
75.06
74.77
75.00
75.50
74.74
73.30
74.89
74.50
75.15
13.10
12.90
13.20
12.10
12.40
12.40
12.10
12.85
12.50
12.62*
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
1
4)
4)
4)
4)
4)
4)
4)
4)
t!
(4)
Avg. Value for Sand and Gravel Concrete
LlMBSTONE CONCBETB
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
0
0
0
3
3
16.6
15.4
16.3
20.9
23.4
23.4
135.3
137.8
136.4
130.1
126.0
127.3
132.15
74.87
75.18
74.75
74.85
74.45
75.26
11.20
12.00
11.50
10.50
10.00
9.79
10.83
1 0.09
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.10
Avg. Value for Limestone Co
ncfftte
CINDBR CONCRETE
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
0
0
0
3
3
3
18.2
19.9
21.4
22.8
26.0
24.4
103.6
98.7
92.0
101.4
94.0
94.4
97.35
75.26
75.71
75.72
74.95
75.20
75.55
4.63
4.30
3.73
4.89
4.38
4.24
4.86
0.22
0.23
0.27
0.20
0.23
0.24
4)
I
4)
4)
Avg. Value for Cinder Concrt
>te
HATDITE ,„.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.00
2.75
3.50
2.00
2.75
2.75
3.50
2.75
4.50
5.50
2.75
4.50
4.50
5.50
0
0
0
4
4
4
4
18.0
19.8
21.8
21.2
22.2
22.2
23.9
80.7
75,0
71.7
78,8
72.4
72.4
71.0
74.57
74.82
75.75
74.82
74.76
75.39
75.49
75.46
4.15
3.78
3.67
4.38
3.89
3.86
4.00
3.96
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.23
0.26
0.26
0.25
4)
4)
3
3
4)
Avg. Value f or Haydite ,
AUTHORITIES:
JU. S. Bureau of Standards, tests based on samples submitted by manufacturers.
'A. C. Willard, L. C. Lichty, and L. A. Harding, tests conducted at the University of Illinois.
*J. C. Peebles, tests conducted at Armour Institute of Technology, based on samples submitted by
manufacturers.
*F. B. Rowley, tests conducted at the University of Minnesota.
5A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory.
•E. A. Allcut, tests conducted at the University of Toronto.
'Lees and Charlton.
8G. B. Wilkes, tests conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
*Recommended conductivities and conductances for computing heat transmission coefficients.
tFor thickness stated or used on construction, not per 1-in. thickness.
«For additional conductivity data see Chapters 3 and 15, 1937 A.S.R.E. Data Book.
klf outside surface of block is painted with an impervious coat of paint, add 0.07 to resistance for sand
and gravel blocks. Add 0.18 to resistance for cinder blocks. Add 0.17 to resistance for haydite blocks.
"Recommended value. See Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning, by Harding and Willard, revised
edition, 1932.
dSee A.S.H.V.E. Research Paper, Conductivity of Concrete, by F. C. Houghten and Carl Gutberlet
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 47).
<The 6-in., 8-in.t and 10-in. hollow tile figures are based on two cells in the direction of heat now. The
12-in. hollow tile is based on three cells in the direction of heat flow. The 16-in. hollow tile consists of one
10-in. and one 6-in. tile, each having two cells in the direction of heat flow.
"Roofing, 0.15-in.* thick (1.34 Ib per SQ ft), covered with gravel (0.83 Ib per sq ft), combined thickness
assumed 0.25.
• ASurface values were obtained on vertical surfaces and varying with the temperature differences. A
foil lined air space in a horizontal position will have a coefficient roughly three times greater if the heat
flow is upward rather than downward.
97
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. CONDUCTIVITIES \k) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS— Continued
The coeficients are expressed in Biu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DENSITY
(LB PER Cu FT)
IMEAN TEMP.
(DEQ FAHR)
CONDUCTIVITY (fc)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C)
g g
hi
EH
1
Fine Coarse per
• O-No. 4 No. 4-J^ , 01
EXPANDED BUBNED CLAY 1 , 8.00 18.4
STBAJC TREATED LIMESTONE SLAG- j 1 ; 7.00 27.1
PUIIICI; MTNED TN CAT.TF 1 ; 8.00 26.5
57.9
74.6
65.0
75.57
74.49
74.68
2.28
2.27
2.42
0.44
0.44
0.41
(4)
(4)
(4)
BY-PHODUCT OF MANUFACTURE ' 1 ,8.00 Modulus 25.5
OF PHOSPHATES ' 1 1 8.00 3.75 21.1
86.6
91.1
74.62
74.43
3.19
3.42
0.31
0.29
(4)
(4)
HATDIT
1 j 8.50 21.8
1 i 8.50 21.8
67.1
67.1
75.89
74.60
2.89
2.815
0.35
0.34
(4)
(4)
f • l « 16 l-w* CM cwwTfft ttocn
Sand and v 1 te
126.4
40
40"~
40
40
40"'
40
40
40
40
0.900
1.000
0.560
0.856
0.577
0.600
0.390
0.250
0.266
0.495
0.206
\
F
•*
,*
*
*
*
l.ll
1.00
1.79
1.17
1.73
1.66
2.56
4.00
3.76
2.02
4.85
(4)
2
4)
ti
4)
t!
i!
Sand and gravel aggregate used for calcu-
lations _
a- ]•
^j ^JL*
At
Cores filled with 5. 14 Ib density cork
Crushed limestone aggregate
134.3
86.2
Cinder aggregate ,_ ,
Cinder aggregate used for calculations— ~
Cores filled with 69.7 Ib density cinders
Cores filled with 5 . 12 Ib density cork-
J5J-
Cores filled with U.2 Ib density rock wool
TIftydite aggregate
67.7
Cores MeJTwith 5.06 Ib density cork
8>12
,,63.c*~« <*«**>
*«>',
Sand and gravel aggregate..™ „_
Sand and gravel aggregate used for calcu-
lations i , . - „
124.9
40
0.777f
O.SOOf*
0.531f*
0.237f*
0.468f
0.168f*
1.29
1,88
4.22
2.13
5.94
(4)
4)
tl
4)
4)
->}
L
Or
1
x_S*- '
If
T,
Cinder aggregate— ~—~-.—.-~..~— _...__..
Cores filled with 5.24 Ib density cork.
86.2
__,
40
40
40
40
Cores filledwith 5 .6 Ib density cork.
.5f -f
-.jvrf
Cinder aggregate-
Double waU with 1 in. air space between
1 in. space filled with 9.97 ID density rock wool
100.0
100.0
100.0
40
40
40
l.OOOf
0.358f
0.204f
1.00
2.70
4.90
4)
4)
4)
(4)
!>
— j run r~
= > i
, .s, ,
,.n *_
5x8x12 block sand and gravel aggregate™.
133.7
40
0.380f
2.6.?
JJ'^^E
gtjij
iin^1^
-rH*
1
-,*-•*-, -"
5x8x12 block sand and gravel aggregate*..
134.0
40
0.947f
1.06
(4)
Ti!
ilT
m
u»
For notes see Page 97.
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
TABLE 2.
CONDUCTIVITIES (k) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS — Continued
The coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square jopt per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness,
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DENSITY
(LB PER Cu FT)
II
li
CONDUCTIVITY (Jt)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C')
-M'rf* -T'O
T.T
3 «
t«
-aj
MASONRY MATERIALS
Low density
5.00*
9.20*
5.00*
12.00*
ll.SSfo1
16.36
1.06
1.44
1.80
2.18
1.66*
3.98
12.50*
12.00*
i.oot*
0.64f*
0.60f*
0.58f*
0.40f*
0.31t*
i.oot
0.60t
0.47t
0.46t*
1.66
2.96
12.00*
0.20
0.11
0.20
0.08
0.94
0.69
0.56
0.46
0.60
0.25
0.08
0.08
1.00
1.57
1.67
1.72
2.50
3.23
1.00
1.67
2.13
2.18
0.60
0.34
0.08
(5
1
(3)
(3)
(3)
(4)
(3)
High density
75
75
75
75
74
70
Damp or wet
CEMENT MORTAR. —
CONCRETE
STONE
SrrjCCO _ _
TILE.
Typical . . - —
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
51.2
101.0
Various ages and mixes'' .
Cellular
Cellular_
Cellular ..
Cellular
Typical fiber gypsum, 87.5% gypsum and
12.5% wood chips
Special concrete made with an aggregate of
hardened clay~—l-2~3 mix_-,..~
Typical- .
Typical ..
Typical hollow clay 4 in.)
TILE OR TBHRAZZO
Typical hollow clay 6 in.)*
Typical hollow clay 8 in.)* _ - ..- —
Typical hollow clay 10 in.)" -
Typical hollow clay 12 in,)*
Typical hollow clay 16 in,)* —
no"
100
105
"70"
76
(2)
8
@
Hollow clay (2 in.)H-in. plaster both sides —
Hollow clay (4 in.) J^-in. plaster both sides —
Hollow clay (6 in.) l/fcaa. plaster both sides. —
Hollow gypsum (4 in.) _
Solid gypsum _
Solid gypsuin_—..- - —
Typical flooring-
120.0
127.0
124.3
YlT
75.6
INSULATION— BLANKET
OR FLEXIBLE TYPES
FlBlR-
Typical
3.62
4.60
3.40
4.90
5.76
7.70
11.00
1.00
6.70
12.1
70
90
90
90
71
71
75
90
75
75
0.27*
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.28
0.26
0.28
0.25
0.24
0.25
0.40t
3.70
4.00
3.85
4.00
3.57
3.85
3.57
4.00
4.17
4.00
2.50
(3)
1)
1)
(1)
(3)
(3)
@
(3)
(4)
Chemically treated wood fibers held between
layers of strong pjiper/.,.. _ -.„- - -
Eel grass between strong paper/
Flax fibers between strong paper/.
Chemically treated hog hair between kraf t
paper/ —
Chemically treated hog hair between kraft
paper and asbestos pap?!1/ „ - -
Hair felt between layers "of paper/
Kapok between burlap or paper/
Jute fiber/ ... .
Ground paper between two layers, each %-in.
thick maae up of two layers of kraft paper
(sample %-in. thick) —
INSULATION— SEMI-
RIGID TYPE
FlBBR
Felted cattle h^>/
13.00
11.00
12.10
13.60
7.80
6.30
6.10
6.70
10.00
11.00
90
90
70
90
90
90
90
75
90
70
0.26
0.26
0.30
0.32
0.28
0.27
0.26
0.25
0.37
0.26
3.84
3.84
3.33
3.12
3.57
3.70
3.85
4.00
2.70
3.84
1)
1)
1)
i
i)
3)
K UK
Flax/ . — — - -
Flax and rye/
Felted hair and asbestos/ -
75% hair and 25% jute/
50% hair and 50% jute/ .. _
jute/ "' ._ ._
Felted jute and asbestos/ - .
Compressed peat moss
INSULATION—LOOSE
FILL OR BAT TYPE
"BY*™*
Made from ceiba fibers/
a « a « ^
1.90
1.60
75
75
0.23
0.24
4.35
4.17
(3)
(3)
For notes see page 97.
99
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. CONDUCTIVITIES (k) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS — Continued
The efficients are expressed in Btu fer hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness,
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DENSITY
(Ln PER Cu FT)
MEAN TEMP.
(DBG FAHR)
CONDUCTIVITY (fc)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C)
~ js ^|O
g Y E
|si 1
S S 5
INSLT.ATION -LOOSE
FILL OR BAT TYPE
—Continued
GLASS Wool
GRANULAR.
Fibrous material made from dolomite and
silica.— .... i •
1.50
9.40
1.50
4.20
6.20
30.00
24.00
18.00
12.00
34.00
26.00
24.00
19.80
18.00
ITlO
21.00
18.00
14.00
10.00
14.50
14.50
11.50
12.00
8.80
13.20
3.00
75
103
75
72
42
90
90
90
90
90
90
75
90
75
90
90
90
90
90
77
75
72
90
90
90
90
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.24
0.32
1.00
0.77
0.59
0.44
0.60
0.52
0.48*
0.35
0.34
0.27*
0.31
0.30
0.29
0.28
0.27*
0.33
0.38
0.31
0.41
0.41
0.36
0.31
3.70 (3)
3.70 (1)
3.70 (3)
4.17 (3)
3.12 3)
.00 1)
.30 1
.69 1
.27 1
.67 1
.92 1
2.08 3)
2.86 1)
2.94 3)
3.70 _
3.22 1)
3.33 1
3.45 1
3.57 1)
3.70 1)
3.03 1)
2.63 3)
3.22 3)
2.44 1
2.44 1
2.78 1)
3.22 1)
Fibrous material made from slag
Fibrous material 25 to 30 microns in dia-
meter, made from virgin bottle glass
Made from combined silicate of lime and
alumina
MINERAL WOOL.
RlORANULATZD COBK
ROCK WOOL
Made from expanded aluminum-magnesium
silicate
Cellular dry
« u
ti a.
Flaked dry and fluffy-'
pjasea, ary ana nuny
a u u u
u u u u
u u * u
All forms typical t
About 3to-in particles
Fibrous material made from rock .
SAWDUST^., ^ t _, T
It U U U U
ff u ft u a
tt It U « It
Rock wool with a binding agent
Rock wool with flax, straw pulp, and binder
Rock wool with vegetable fibers
Various ,
SHAVTWGS
Various from planer
From maple, beech and birch (coarse)
Redwood bark
INSULATION— RIGID
FEBBB „„
Typical
14760
10.60
7.00
5.40
14.50
10.00
15.00
17.90
15.20
54.00
16.10
19.30
24.20
13.50
13.80
17.00
15.90
15.00
90
90
90
90
90
75
71
78
70
75
81
86
72
70
70
68
72
70
52
72
0.30*
0.34
0.30
0.27
0.25
0.32
0.33*
0.28
0.33
0.36
0.32
1.07f
0.34
0.51
0.46
0.33
0.30
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.29
0.33
0.34
3.33 -
2.94 (1)
3.33 (1)
3.70 (1)
4.00 (1)
3.12 (1)
3.03 ._
3.57 3)
3.03 3)
3.12 4)
3.12 3)
0.93 3)
2.94 3
1.96 1
2.17 3)
3.03 3)
3.33 3
3.03 3
3.03 3
3.03 3)
3.03 6)
3.45 3)
3.03 3)
2.94 (1)
No added binder
tt a u
UK u
it it it
Asphaltic binder .._. ._.
Typical
Chemically treated hog hair covered with
film of asphalt
Madfl from 1*1171 staHn?
• " exploded wood fibers
• tt hard wood fibers
Insulating plaster 9/10-in. thick applied to
£|-in. plaster board base
M?M?e from licorice roots
Made from 85% magnesia and 15% asbestos
Made from shredded wood and cement
" a sjigar nans fiber, JL .
Sugar cane fiber insulation blocks encased in
asphalt membrane
Made from wheat straw --,,-,-,,
« wnnd fiber
«
B
*
8.50
15.20
16.90
«
u
90
BUILDING BOARDS
\SR-Kfrrnx
123.00
20.40
86
110
2.70
0.48
0.37 (1)
2.08 (2)
Corrugated asbestos board
For notes see Pa^e 97.
100
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
TABLE 2. CONDUCTIVITIES (k) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS— Continued
The coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DENSITY
(La PER Cu FT)
MBAN TBMP.
(DEQ FAHR)
CONDUCTIVITY (fc)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C)
~ \** ~ !cj
i i
«!
BUILDING BOARDS
—Continued
ASBESTOS ~
Pressed asbestos mill board _
Sheet MhfiRtns
60.50
48.30
86
110
0.84
0.29
1.19
3 45
(1)
?)
GYPSUM—— -...—
Gypsum between layers of heavy paper
Rigid, gypsum between layers of heavy
paper (H-in. thick)
62.80
53.50
70
90
1.41
2.60f
0.71
0.38
3)
(1)
PLASTER BOARD.._ _ „.
Gypsum muted with sawdust between layers
of heavy paper (0.39-in. thick)
(*$ in )
60.70
90
3.60f
3.73J*
0.28
0.27
(1)
(fcin.) -
—
2.82f*
0.35
-
ROOFING CONSTRUCTION
ROOTING . -
Asphalt, composition or prepared
70 00
75
6 50t*
0 15
0)
Built up-— iNP11 tniftk *" *"
3.53f*
0.28
Built up, bitumen and felt, gravel or slag
snrfaftftdff T T T
1.33
0.75
(2)
Plaster board, gypsum fiber concrete and
3-ply roof roaring ?V£ i^ thick
52 40
76
0.58f
1.72
4)
SHTNGT/I&S — -^ -.
AaWWi
65.00
75
6.00f*
0.17
3)
A«trhfl.|t
70.00
75
6.50t*
0.15
3)
RlfttA
201.00
10.37*
0 10
7)
Wood
1.28f*
0.78
PLASTERING MATERIALS
PLASTER
foment
8.00
0.13
(?)
Gyp?UTn typififtl
3.30*
0.30
Thifi1rr,P*s 3^ in
73
8.80t
0.11
(4)
METAL T,ATW ^NP PT.ASTTB^
Total thielcnfisa % in.
4.40t*
0.23
WOOD LATH AND PLASTER
54-in. plaster, total thickness % in
70
2. 50t*
0.40
(4)
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTIONS
FBAMD-
1-in, fir sheathing and buiMing paper
30
0.71t*
1.41
(4)
1-in. fir sheathing, building paper, and
20
O.SOf*
2.00
(4)
1-in. fir sheathing, building paper and stucco
Pine lap siding and building paper-~siding
4 in wi^e , !,
20
16
0.55
O.SSf*
1.82
1.18
(4)
(4)
Yellow pine tap siding. .--
1.28t*
0.78
FLOORING ._ -
Maple — across grain..^_ .. , ^1J..,
40.00
75
1.20
0.83
(3)
Bfttt'fisnip linoleum (M-"1 ) "
1.36f*
0.74
AIR SPACE AND SURFACE
COEFFICIENTS
Am ftPAdftH
Over %-in. faced with ordinary building
materials
40
I.IO"*
0.91
(4)
SURFACES, ORDINARY
fitill »ur (/i)
1.6St*
0.61
(4)
15 mph — (/o) . ,«..... , ,-
6. 00-*
0.17
(4)
SURFACE ROUGH STUCCO
p.oot*
0.11
(4)
SURFACE, BRIGHT ALTTMTVTTM
Still 9)f (/i)11
o.sot
1.25
(«)
AIR SPACES FACED WITH
BRIGHT ALUMINUM
FOIL
Air space, faced one side with bright alumi-
num foil over M-"1- win"fc
50
0.46f*
2.17
(4)
Air space, faced one side with bright alumi-
num foil iHj-in wide
50
0 62t
1.61
(4)
Air space,' faced both sides. with bright
aluminum foil, over %-in. wido , .,
Air space, faced both sides with bright
aluminum foiL ^-in wiH^,rT, T
50
50
0.41f*
O.S7f
2.44
1.75
(4)
(4)
For notes see Page 97.
101
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. CONDUCTIVITIES (A) AND CONDUCTANCES (C) OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS — Continued
The coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness,
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DBNBPrr
(La PER Cu FT)
LMEAN TEMP.
(Duo FAHR)
CONDUCTIVITY (Jk)
OR
CONDUCTANCE (C)
H* -<|o
AIR SPACES FACED WITH
BRIGHT ALUMINUM
FOIL—Continued
Air space divided in two with single curtain
of bright aluminum foil (both sides bright)
Each space over ?^i"in wide
50
0.23f*
4.35 (4)
Each gp&ce J^o-in. wide . . ,.,..,
SO
0.31f
3.23 (4)
Air space with multiple curtains of bright
aluminum foil bright on both sides,
curtains more than %-in. apart, ah* circu-
lation between spaces prevented:
2 curtains fonnjpg 3 npfurflfi
50
O.lSf*
6.78 (4)
3 curtains forming 4 spaces
50
O.llf*
9.22 (4
4 curtains forming 5 spaces L-.L^,,r
50
0.09f*
11.66 (4
SPACES FACED WITH NOX-
METALLIC REFLECTIVE
SURFACE
Fabric with non-metallic reflective surface
06 in. thick) placed in center of a 1M in-
ftir spare
70
0.33f
3.03 (4)
Core o'f fiber board coated two sides with
non-metallic reflective surface (% in.
thick) placed in space having approxi-
mately % in. air space on each side
Fiber board coated one side with non-
metallic reflective surface (% in. thick)
placed in space having approximately
*•£ in air space on each side
23.4
70
75
0.27f
0.49f
3.70 (3)
2.04 (3)
Air space divided in two with fabric faced
both sides with non-metallic reflective
surface, each space over %-in. wide
Air space over J^-in. wide faced one side
with non-metallic reflective surface
40
40
0.33f
0.67f
3.03 (4)
1.49 (4)
WOODS (Across Grain)
RA.TJU
20.0
90
0.58
1.72 (1)
8.8
90
0.38
2.63 )
7.3
90
0.33
3.03 )
CALIFORNIA. REDWOOD
QO7 TnoTfitdire
22.0
75
0.66
1.53 )
QCT
28.0
75
0.70
1.43 )
R°?
22.0
75
0.70
1.43 )
807
28.0
75
0.75
1.33 )
16or
22.0
75
0.74
1.35 )
Ifi^jj
28.0
75
0.80
1.25 4)
CYPRXSB
28.7
86
0.67
1.49 1)
DoijoffAs FIR
0% moisture „ . , ... „
26.0
75
0.61
1.64 4)
34.0
75
CT.67
1.49 4)
R<7
26.0
75
0.66
1.52 4)
fl^
34.0
75
0.75
1.33 4)
16% . ,1Lll „ t
26.0
75
0.76
1.32 4)
34.0
75
0.82
1.22 4)
EAHTWN Hmnx»Cif
Cty Tnniftf.nre
22.0
75
0.60
1 67 4)
ftor
30.0
75
0.76
1.32 4)
R%
22.0
75
0.63
1.59 4)
9P7
30.0
75
0.81
1.23 4)
16%
22.0
75
0.67
1.49 (4)
30.0
75
0.85
1.18 (4)
HARD MAPLJC.. ... „
0*7 mofctrire
40.0
75
1.01
0.99 (4)
QOT
46.0
75
1.05
0 95 4)
W/
40.0
75
1.08
0.93 4)
s%
46.0
75
1.13
0.89 4)
16%
40.0
75
1.15
0.87 4)
Ifi%
46.0
75
1.21
0.83 4)
For notes see Page 97.
102
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND T ABIDES
TABLE 2.
CONDUCTIVITIES (k) AND CONDUCTANCES (O OF BUILDING
MATERIALS AND INSULATORS — Continued
The coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit per 1 in. thickness,
unless otherwise indicated.
Material
Description
DKNSITT
(La pin Cu FT)
MEAN TEMP.
(DEQ FAHR)
CONDUCTIVITT (k)
on
CONDUCTANCB (C)
-'•* ^'0
s &
j
WOODS— Continued
LONGLIBAF YELLOW Pirns
0% moisture __„„, Tir, r
30.0
7S !
0.76
1.32
f4)
40.0
75
0.86
1.16
(4)
R<y
30.0
75
0.83
1.21
(4)
gar
40.0
75 !
0.95
1.05
(4)
Ifi% ril ... , __.,.,
30.0
7S
0.89
1.12
(4)
16%
40.0
75
1.03
0.97
(4)
MAHQGANT
34.3
86
0.90
1.11
(1)
MjLPT.TH
44.3
86
1.10
0.91
(1)
\IAPLIB OB OAK_
1.15*
0.87
NORWAY PINE
0% moisture -
22.0
75
0.62
1.61
(4)
32.0
75
0.74
1.35
4)
oCff
22.0
75
0.68
1.47
4)
ty?
32.0
75
0.83
1.21
4)
16% ,, L
22.0
75
0.74
1.35
4)
16%
32.0
75
0.91
1.10
4)
TJ CfWXBS
0% moisture ... L
22.0
75
0.67
1.49
4)
32.0
75
0.79
1.27
4)
ow
22.0
75
0.71
1.41
4)
gar
32.0
75
0.84
1.19
4)
169r
22.0
75
0.74
1.35
4)
16%
32.0
75
0.90
1.11
4)
RED OAK
0% m^i"? ure
38.0
75
0.98
1.02
4)
48.0
75
1.18
0.85
4)
oar
38.0
75
1.03
0.97
4)
oft?
48.0
75
1.24
0,81
4)
16%
38.0
75
1.07
0.94
4)
16%
48,0
75
1.29
0.78
4)
SHQBTLHAi1 YBLLOW PINTS
26.0
75
0.74
1.35
4)
36.0
75
0.91
1.10
4)
oar
26.0
75
0.79
1.27
4)
Offi?
36.0
75
0.97
1.03
4)
16?^
26.0
75
0.84
1.19
4^
16%
36.0
75
1.04
0.96
4)
BofT KLM
28.0
75
0.73
1.37
4)
QOT
34.0
75
0.88
1.14
L)
gar
28.0
75
0.77
1.30
4)
8y
34.0
75
0.93
1.08
4)
169^
28.0
75
0,81
1.24
4
jgar
34.0
75
0.97
1.03
t
SOFT MAPLE-
0^ moisture
36.0
75
0.89
1.12
4)
09*
42.0
75
0.95
1.05
4)
8?^
36.0
75
0.96
1.04
4)
007
42.0
75
1.02
0.98
4)
16^
36.0
75
1.01
0.99
4)
16*7
42.0
75
1.09
0.92
4
SUGAR PTNIE
0% moiB ure ...L.,^ ,„ .r
22.0
75
0.54
1.85
4
28.0
75
0.64
1.56
4
8v
22.0
75
0.59
1.70
4}
oof
28.0
75
0.71
1.41
4}
169^
22.0
75
0.65
1.54
4)
167
28.0
75
0.78
1.28
4)
VIRGINIA. PINB
0
34.3
86
0.96
1.04
1)
WEST COAST BJBMLOCK.
0% moisture -..r.
22.0
75
0.68
1.47
4)
30.0
75
0.79
1.27
4)
Ott?
22.0
75
0.73
1.37
4}
am
30.0
75
0.85
1.18
4)
16v
22.0
75
0.78
1.28
4)
jg07
30.0
75
0.91
1.10
4)
WH « p___
31.2
86
0.78
1.28
1)
YELLOW PTKB
1.00
1.00
3)
0.80*
1.25
For notes see Page 97.
103
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (U) OF MASONRY WALLS*
Coefficients are expressed in Blu per hour per square foot per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the air on the two sides,
and are based on a wind Telocity of 15 mph.
}
THICKNESS
T
YP
ICAL
OF
WALL
CONSTRUCTION TYPE OF WALL
MASONRY
No.
(INCHES)
r<
=3*5
aa=
a
3t
P*
i
=S^
3
*>H
^>
&
Solid Brick
Based on 4-in. hard brick and the remainder
8
12
1
2
^a
te*=
•***
=2**
£
s
•**.
^2
3?
t
common brick.
16
3
t
•3^
g
./TU&C(
«ss*^±±S
)N
Hollow Tile
Stucco Exterior Finish.
The 8-in. and 10-in. tile figures are based on
8
4
1
^5
!S7
B
two cells in the direction of flow of heat. The
10
Q
12-in. tile is based on three cells in the direc-
12
6
y
g
tion of flow of heat. The 16-in. tile consists
16
7
1
I
1
r
^
of one 10-in. tile and one 6-in. tile each having
*4K
UL
•»,
**^
r
r
two cells in the direction of heat flow.
c
t
C!
— "^
5
9
8
8
N.
Jar:
— %<?
e^i
12
9
L
^
P
°T^
^J
Limestone or Sandstone
16
10
c
Sfe
"^».
a?
^jx
?
24
11
Concrete (Monolithic)
These figures may be used with sufficient
6
10
12
13
accuracy for concrete walls with stucco
16
14
"^ -N,
v."j£
• (
exterior finish.
20
15
9
0.
^ '
:
6
16
„•
0
Cinder (Monolithic)
Conductivity k ~> 4.36
10
16
17
18
y
9
:•'
~A
20
19
-••••.
••»•!.
•"
*f
6
20
••I^J^-
Haydite (Monolithic)
10
21
Conductivity k = 3.96
16
22
20
23
Cinder Blocks
8
24
Cores filled with dry cinders, 69.7 Ib per cu ft.
Cores filled with granulated cork, 5.12 Ib
8
25
per cu ft.
8
26
Cores filled with rock wool, 14.2 Ib per cu ft.
Based on one air cell in direction of heat flow.
Cores filled with granulated cork, 5.24 Ib per
8
12
27
28
4^>
*-^
\
cu ft.
Concrete Blocks
12
29
8
30
a»-
^
\
Cores filled with granulated cork, 5.14 Ib per
=35333
SSE
"•53S.
*
y
cuft.
8
31
****
"-^
C
/
Or
Based on one air cell in direction of heat flow.
12
32
•—•l^
Haydite Blocks
8
33
Cores filled with granulated cork, 5.06 Ib per
cuft.
8
34
Haydite Blocks
12
35
Cores filled with granulated corkr 5.6 Ib per
cu ft.
12
36
•Computed from factors marked by * in Table 2.
*Based on the actual thickness of 2-in. furring strips.
104
CHAPTER 5, HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
INTERIOR FINISH
UNINSULATED WALLS
INSULATED WALLS
Plain walls — no in-
terior finish
g
S"
3
II
1
§1
5J2
'"'"'.3
§•*•»
O
!l!
S-P.S
Decorated building
board (M in.) with-
out plaster— furred
§"•$«
^
-S o
§£.
Si"!
g?3
3s|
lib
I1s5
si in*
-dlf^S
*l*89*3
j^y
Pi S-2«J2«\o"3
Plaster on metal
lath attached to fur-
ring strips (2 in.*)—
rock wool fill (155
in.&)«
gjp.si.1
52 till 1
llsSiJI
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
0.50
0.36
0.28-
0.46
0.34
0.27
0.30
0.24
0.20
0.32
0.25
0.21
0.30
0.24
0.20
0.23
0.19
0.17
0.22
0.19-
0-16-
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.23
0.19
0.17
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.20
0.17
0.15
0.40
0.39
0.30
0.25
0.38
0.37
0.29
0.24
0.26
0.26
0.22
0.19
0.28
9.27
0.22
0.19
0.26
0.26
0.22
0.19
0.20
0.20
0.17
0.16
0.20
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.12
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.20
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.097
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.71
0.58
0.49
0.37
0.64
0.53
0.45
0.35
0.37
0.33
0.30
0.25
0.39
0.34
0.31
0.26
0.37
0.33
0.30
0.25
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.25
0.23
0.22
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.23
0.21
0.20
0.18
0.79
0.62
0.48
0.41
0.70
0.57
0.44
0.39
0.39
0.34
0.29
0.27
0.42
0.37
0.31
0.28
0.39
0.34
0.29
0.27
0.27
0.25
0.22
0.21
0.26
0.24
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.27
0.25
0.22
0.21
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.23
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.46
0.33
0.22
0.19
0.43
0.31
0.22
0.18
0.29
0.23
0.17
0.15
0.30
0.24
0.18
0.15
0.29
0.23
0.17
0.15
0.22
0.18
0.15
0.13
0.21
0.18
0.14
0.13
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.22
0.18
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.09
0.19
0.16
0.13
0.12
0.44
0.30
0.21
0.17
0.41
0.29
0.20
0.17
0.28
0.22
0.16
0.14
0.29
0.23
0.17
0.14
0.28
0.22
0.16
0.14
0.21
0.17
0.14
0.12
0,21
0.17
0.14
0.12
0.16
0.14
0.11
0.10
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.21
0.18
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.19
0.16
0.13
0.11
0.42
0.31
0.39
0.29
0.27
0.23
0.28
0.23
0.27
0.22
0.21
0.18
0.20
0.17
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.21
0.18
0.12
0.11
0.19
0.16
0.22
0.23
0.37
0.21
0.22
0.35
0.17
0.19
0.25
0.18
0.18
0.26
0.17
0.18
0.25
0.14
0.15
0.19
0.14
0.14
0.19
0.12
0.12
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.19
0.09
0.09
0.11
0.13
0.14
0.17
0.20
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.16
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.10
0.14
0.09
0.13
0.56
0.52
0.32
0.34
0.32
0.24
0.23
0.17
0.14
0.24
0.12
0.21
0.41
0.49
0.39
0.46
0.27
0.30
0.28
0.32
0.27
0.30
0.21
0.23
0.20
0.22
0.15
0.16
0.13
0.14
0.21
0.23
0.12
0.12
0.18
0.20
0.36
0.34
0.26
0.26
0.24
0.19
0.19
0.15
0.13
0.19
0.11
0.17
0.18
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.13
0.08
0.12
0.34
0.32
0.25
0.25
0.24
0.19
0.18
0.14
0.12
0.19
0.11
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.08
0.11
0.08
0.10
eA waterproof membrane should be provided between the outer material and the insulation fill to
prevent possible wetting by absorption and a subsequent lowering of efficiency.
105
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 4. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (Z7) OF MASONRY WALLS
WITH VARIOUS TYPES OF VENEERS*
Coefficients are expressed in Blu per hour per square foot per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the air on the two sides,
and are based on a wind velocity of Iff mph.
TYPE OF WALL
TYPICAL
CONSTRUCTION
BACKING
WALL
No.
6 in.
4 in. Brick Veneer*
Hollow THe*
12 in.
4 in. Brick Veneer*
6 in.
10 in. Concrete
16 in.
8 in. Cinder Blocks
8 in. Cinder Blocks — Cores
filled with granulated cork,
5.12 Ib per cu ft.
12 in. Cinder Blocks
12 in. Cinder Blocks — Cores
filled with granulated cork,
5.24 Ib per cu ft.
4 in. Brick Veneer*
8 in. Concrete Blocks
8 in. Concrete Blocks — Cores
filled with granulated cork,
5.14 Ib per cu ft.
12 in. Concrete Blocks
8 in. Haydite Block
8 in. Haydite Block— Cores
filled with granulated cork,
5.06 Ib per cu ft.
12 in. Haydite Block
12 in. Haydite Block— Cores
filled with granulated cork,
5.6 per cu ft.
4 in. Cut-Stone Veneer*
Sin.
12 in. Common Brick
16 in.
6 in.
4 in. Cut-Stone Veneer1
Hollow me*
12 in.
4 in. Cut-Stone Veneer1
6 in.
10 in. Concrete
16 in.
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
puted from factors marked by * in Table 2.
d on the actual thickness of 2-in. furring strips.
<The 6-in., 8-in. and 10-in. tile figures are based on two cells in the direction of heat flow. The 12-in.
tHe is based on three cells in the direction of heat flow.
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
INTERIOR FINISH
UNINSULATED WALLS
INSULATE) WALLS
i
.5 S
§
3
3
If
g|
S3i
g-g
3
ii
PU 8
gg
li-p
ill
No plaster — deco-
rated rigid or build-
ing board interior
finish (ft in.)-
furred
§S
1
1
*§•« 1
|:§3
Plaster (J$ in.) on
cork board (1H in.)
setincementmortar
(H in.)
11 sill
Sj-slfll
§lt|
3i*Jk
aSif-*
j|jJ5g
slssa
Plaster (H in.) on
metal lath attached
to furring stripe
(2 in.*)— flexible in-
eulation (H in.) be-
tween furring strips
(one air space)
A
B
C
D
£
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
0.36
0.34
0.34
0.27
0.34
0.33
0.32
0.26
0.24
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.25
0.25
0.24
0.21
0.24
0.24
0.23
0.20
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.16
0.19
0.18
0.18
0.16
0.16
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.11
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.16
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.15
0.57
0.48
0.39
0.53
0.45
0.37
0.33
0.30
0.26
0.35
0.31
0.27
0.33
0.30
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.23
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.13
0.12
0 11
0.21
0.20
0.18
0.35
0.33
0.24
0.25
0.24
0.19
0.18
0.14
0.12
0.19
0.11
0.17
0.20
0.31
0.19
0.30
0.16
0.22
0.16
0.23
0.16
0.22
0.13
0.18
0.13
0.17
0.11
0.14
0.10
0.12
0.13
0.18
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.16
0.18
0.18
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.13
0.08
0.12
0.44
0.42
0.28
0.30
0.28
0.21
0.21
0.16
0.13
0.21
0.12
0.19
0.34
0.40
0.31
0.32
0.38
0.29
0.24
0.26
0.23
0.25
0.28
0.23
0.23
0.26
0.22
0.19
0.20
0.18
0.18
0.20
0.17
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.19
0.20
0.18
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.17
0.18
0.16
0.17
0.29
0.16
0.28
0.14
0.21
0,14
0.22
0.14
0.21
0.12
0.17
0.12
0.17
0.10
0.13
0.09
0.12
0.12
0.17
0.08
0.10
0.11
0.16
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.10
0.37
0.28
0.23
0.35
0.27
0.22
0.25
0.21
0.18
0.26
0.21
0.18
0.25
0.21
0.18
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.19
0.16
0.14
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.19
0.17
0.15
0.11
0.10
0.095
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.37
0.36
0.35
0.28
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.26
0.25
0.24
0.24
0.20
0.26
0.25
0.25
0.21
0.25
0.24
0.24
0.20
0.20
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.19
0.19
0.18
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.20
0.19
0.19
0.17
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.15
0.61
0.51
0.41
0.56
0.47
0.38
0.34
0.31
0.26
0.36
0.32
0.28
0.34
0.31
0.26
0.25
0.23
0.20
0.24
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.17
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.22
0.20
0.18
'Calculations include cement mortar (H in.) between veneer or facing and backing.
'Based on one air cell in direction of heat now.
/A waterproof membrane should be provided between the outer material and the insulation fill to
prevent possible wetting by absorption and a subsequent lowering of efficiency.
107
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 5. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (27) OF
VARIOUS TYPES OF FRAME CONSTRUCTION*
These coefficients ere expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the air on the two
sides, and are based on a wind velocity of 15 mph.
TYPICAL
CONSTRUCTION
i
'. EXTERIOR FINISH
i
TYPE OF SHEATHING
WALL
No.
rssT^fi
^
LJO^?;
^/Hfcvr
/WIVV J;
U*
/HtAT
"i ijr "^**
/HEAT
/WA
/Kt«
i
1
K" JM
MHG.
*80£
ttiHCi
•HWG
TtK<
P
KING
>UC1
1
rx
KIKS
«•,
1
1
J/.
r
\
1
\
c.\
>
Wood Siding or Clapboard
1 in. Wood*
65
2%2 in- Rigid Insulation
66
^ in. Plaster Board
67
Wood Shingles
1 in. Wood*
68
% in. Rigid Insulation*
69
% in. Plaster Board*
70
Stucco
1 in. Wood*
71
2%2 in. Rigid Insulation
72
M in. Plaster Board
73
Brick/ Veneer
1 in. Wood*
74
% in. Rigid Insulation
75
}i in. Plaster Board
76
"Computed from factors marked by * in Table 2.
plaste? board^0"**8 ^^ ^ be ^^ ^^ sufficient accuracy for plaster on wood lath or plaster on
•Based on the actual width of 2 by 4-in. studding, namely, 35i in.
108
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
INTERIOR FINISH
No INSULATION* BETWEEN STUDDING
INSULATION BETWEEN STUDDING
I
5
5
J3
3
i
5
J3
J
g
S
»
if
II
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•a
«»
ll
&
Is
Plaster (^ in.) on rigid insulation
(H in.) on studding
i
~i
s!
0
|3
Plaster tt£ in.) on corkboard UH in.)
on studding
No piaster — decorated rigid or build-
ing board interior finish (J-a in.)
1 in. wood sheathing,1* furring strips,
plaster (H in.) on wood lath
!.-
ji
o o
3-!s
SJi
£ tt_g
Plaster (£4 m.) on metal lath* on
studding — flexible insulation (?£ in.)
between studding and in contact with
sheathing
§3
5| |
«*
B.ST
c^i
.111
gr*
*-.s|
ill
PH^aJS
Plaster (H in.) on metal lathh on
studding — flexible insulation (1 in.)
between studding — 2 air spaces
Plaster (£4 in.) on metal lathfc on
studding— rock wool fill (3fi« in.c)
between studding"*
A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.19
0.15
0.11
0.19
0.17
0.20
0.17
0.15
0.12
0.072
0.23
0.24
0.23
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.18
0.14
0.19
0.17
0.13
0.10
0.070
0.31
0.33
0.31
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.23
• 0.19
0.24
0.20
0.17
0.13
0.076
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.19
0.15
0.11
0.19
0.17
0.20
0.17
0.15
0.12
0.072
0.19
0.20
0.19
0.15
0.12
0.10
0.16
0.14
0.16
0.14
0.11
0.094
0.066
0.24
0.25
0.24
0.19
0.15
0.11
0.19
0.19
0,19
0.17
0.15
0.12
0.071
0.30
0.31
0.30
0.22
0.16
0.12
0.22
0.19
0.23
0.20
0.17
0.13
0.076
0.27
0.29
0.27
0.20
0.16
0.12
0.21
0.15
0.22
0.19
0.14
0.11
0.074
0.40
0.43
0.40
0.26
0.19
0.14
0.28
0.22
0.29
0.24
0.20
0.14
0.081
0.27
0.28
0.27
0.20
0.15
0.12
0.21
0.17
0.21
0.18
0.16
0.12
0.074
0.25
0.26
0.25
0.19
0.15
0.11
0.19
OJL5
0.20
0.18
0.13
0.11
0.072
0.35
0.37
0.35
0.24
0.18
0.13
0.25
0.21
0.26
0.22
0.18
0.14
0.079
*Yellow pine or fir — actual thickness about % in.
•Furring strips between wood shingles and sheathing.
/Small air space and mortar between building paper and brick veneer neglected.
»A waterproof membrane should be provided between the outer material and the insulation fill to
prevent possible wetting by absorption and a subsequent lowering of efficiency.
AStud and rock wool fill areas combined.
109
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 6. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (U) OF FRAME INTERIOR WALLS
AND PARTITIONS**
Coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature
between the air on the two sides, and are based on still air (no wind) conditions on both sides.
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
WALL
No.
SINGLE
PARTITION
(FINISH
ON ONE
SIDE OF
STUDDING)
DOUBLE PARTITION
(FINISHED ON BOTH SIDES OP STUDDING)
Air
Space
Between
Studding
Flaked
Gffi*
Between
Studding
Rock
Wool
Fill*
Between
Studding
'Menble
Insulation
Between
Studding
(One Air
Space)
Stud Space Faced
One Side with
Bright Aluminum
Foil
TYPE OF WALL
A
B
C
D
E
F
Wood Lath and Plaster
On Studding
77
0.62
0.34
0.11
0.076
0.21
0.24
Metal Lath and Plaster*
On Studding
78
0.69
0.39
0,11
0.078
0.23
0.26
Plaster Board (% in.) and
Plaster* On Studding
79
0.61
0.34
0.10
0.075
0.21
0.24
M in. Rigid Insulation and
Plaster* On Studding
80
0.35
0.18
0.083
0.063
0.14
0.15
1 in. Rigid Insulation and
Plaster* On Studding
81
0.23
0.12
0.066
0.054
0.097
0.10
1H in. Corkboard and
Plaster* On Studding
82
0.16
0.081
0..052
0.044
0.070
0.073
2 in. Corkboard and
Plaster* On Studding
83
0.12
0.063
0.045
0.038
0.057
0.059
•Computed from factors marked by * in Table 2. 'Plaster on metal lath assumed %-in. thick.
*Thickness assumed 3^ inu 'Plaster assumed H-in- thick.
TABLE 7. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (27) OF MASONRY PARTITIONS^
Coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature
between the air on the two sides, and are based on still air (no wind) conditions on both sides.
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
W*S^^^
r
WALLS
WALLS
I
No.
PLAIN WALLS
(No PLASTER)
PLASTERED
ON ONE SIDE
PLASTERED
ON BOTH SIDES
TYPE OF WALL
A
B
C
4-in. Hollow Clay Tile
4-in. Common Brick
84
85
0.45
0.50
0.42
0.46
0.40
0.43
4-in. Hollow Gypsum Tile
86
0.30
0.28
0.27
2-in. Solid Plaster
87
0.53
•Computed from factors marked by * in Table 2.
110
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
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and
8. COEFF
e expressed in
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s
2i§j5
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factors marked
ed to be % in.
ed to be % in.
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111
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
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puted
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113
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 11. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (U) OF VARIOUS TYPES
OF FLAT ROOFS COVERED WITH BUILT-UP ROOFING*
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
WITHOUT CEILINGS
WITH METAL LATH
AND
PLASTER CEILINGS*
TYPE OF ROOF DECK
THICKNESS
OF
ROOF
DECK
(INCHES)
No.
Precast Cement Tile
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
m
Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood
1*
&
4»
Gypsum Fiber Concrete0
(2 in.) on Plaster Board
(Mm.)
Gypsum Fiber Concrete*
(3 in.) on Plaster Board
Gypsum Fiber Concrete*
(2 in.) on Rigid Insula-
lation Board (H in.)
Gypsum Fiber Concrete*
(2 in.) on Rigid Insula-
tion Board (1 in.)
10
12
Flat Metal Roofs
Coefficient of transmis-
sion of bare corrugated
iron (no roofing) is 1.50
Btu per hour per square
foot of projected area per
degree Fahrenheit dif-
ference in temperature,
based on an outside wind
velocity of 15 mph.
13
•Computed from factors marked by * in Table 2.
^Nominal thicknesses specified — actual thicknesses used in calculations.
•Gypsum fiber concrete- -87}$ per cent gypsum, 12H per cent wood fiber.
114
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
Coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the air on the two sides,
and are based on an outside wind velocity of 15 mph.
WITHOUT CEILING— UNDER SIDE OF
ROOF EXPOSED
WITH METAL LATH AND
PLASTER CEILINGS*
No Insulation
I
3
2
3
2
.2
c*>
1
I
3
5
.?
EJ
es
3
1
CM
|
1
i
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.5
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1
1
1
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A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
j
K
L
M
N
0
P
0.84
0.37
0.24
0.18
0.14
0.22
0.16
0.13
0.43
0.26
0.19
0.15
0.12
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.82
0.72
0.64
0.37
0.34
0.33
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.22
0.21
0.21
0.16
0.16
0.15
0.13
0.12
0.12
0.42
0.40
0.37
0.26
0.25
0.24
0.1Q
0.18
0.18
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.12
0.11
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.14
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.49
0.37
032
0.23
0.28
0.24
0.22
0.17
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.096
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.13
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.091
0.32
0.26
0.24
0.18
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.14
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.097
0.087
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.096
0.10
0.095
0.092
0.082
0.40
0.32
0.26
0.19
0.25
0.22
0.19
0.15
0.18
0.16.
0.15
0.12
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.17
0.15
0.14
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.08
0.27
0.23
0.20
0.16
0.19
0.17
0.16
0.13
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.09
0.10
0.097
0.09
0.08
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.10
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.097
0.091
0.087
0.077
0.95
0.39
0.25
0.18
0.14
0.23
0.17
0.13
0.46
0.27
0.19
0.15
0.12
0.18
0.14
0.11
dThese coefficients may be used with sufficient accuracy for wood lath and plaster, or plaster board and
plaster ceilings. It is assumed that there is an air space between the under side of the roof deck and the
upper side of the ceiling.
115
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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116
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
TABLE 13. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (£7) OF DOORS, WINDOWS, SKYLIGHTS
AND GLASS WALLS
Coefficients are based on a wind velocity of 15 mph, and are expressed in Biu per hour per square foot per
degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the air inside and outside of the door, window, skylight or watt
^ A . Windows and Skylights
DESCRIPTION ' L"
Single.-
Double--
Triple.-
0.45*
B. Solid Wood Doors*>,
NOMINAL
THICKNESS
INCHES
ACTUAL
THICKNESS U
INCHES
1
%
0.69
1/4
1K6 ; 0.59
1%
liKs
0.52
\%
IN
0.51
2
i«
0.46
2Ji
2N ; 0.38
3
25i
0.33
C. Glass Walls
DESCRIPTION
17
Hollow glass tile wall, 6 x 6 x 2 in. thick blocks
Wind velocity 15 mph, outside surface; still air, inside surface.-...
Still air, outside and inside surface.
0.60
0.48
«See Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning, by Harding and Willard, revised edition, 1932.
^Computed using C = 1.15 for wood; /i - 1.65 and/0 = 6.0.
"It is sufficiently accurate to use the same coefficient of transmission for doors containing thin wood
panels as that of single panes of glass, namely, 1.13 Btu per hour per square foot per degree difference
between inside and outside air temperatures.
it is probable that the values of U for these two types of roofs will
compare favorably.
The thicknesses upon which the coefficients in Tables 3 to 13, inclusive,
are based are as follows:
Brick veneer
Plaster and metal lath..
4 in.
Kin.
Plaster (on wood lath, plasterboard, rigid insulation, board
form, or corkboard)
Slate (roofing)
Stucco on wire mesh reinforcing
Tar and gravel or slag-surfaced built-up roofing.
1-in. lumber (S-2-S)
iH-in- lumber (S-2-S)
2-in. lumber (S-2-S) _„.
2j^-in. lumber (S-2-S)..
3-in. lumber (S-2-S).
4-in. lumber (S-2-S).,
Finish flooring (maple or oak)....,
Solid brick walls are based on 4-in. hard brick (high density) and the
remainder common brick (low density). Stucco is assumed to be 1-in.
thick on masonry walls. Where metal lath and plaster are specified, the
metal lath is neglected.
117
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The coefficients of transmission of the pitched roofs in Table 12 apply
where the roof is over a heated attic or top floor so the heat passes directly
through the roof structure including whatever finish is applied to the
underside of the roof rafters.
Combined Coefficients of Transmission
If the attic is unheated, the roof structure and ceiling of the top floor
must both be taken into consideration, and the combined coefficient of
transmission determined. The formula for calculating the combined
coefficient of transmission of a top floor ceiling, unheated attic space, and
pitched roof, per square foot of ceiling area, is as follows:
UT X £/ce
U - „ , tfce (6)
Ur + ^r
where
U — combined coefficient to be used with ceiling area.
Ur = coefficient of transmission of the roof.
£/ce = coefficient of transmission of the ceiling.
n = the ratio of the area of the roof to the area of the ceiling.
Stating the formula in terms of the total heat resistance of the ceiling
and roof,
In selecting the values to be used for Ur and C/ce it should be noted
that the under surface of the roof and the upper surface of the ceiling are
more nearly equivalent to the boundary surfaces of an internal air space
than they are to the external surfaces of a wall. It would be more nearly
correct to use a value of 2.2 rather than the usual value of 1.65 as coef-
ficients for these surfaces. In most cases this would make only a minor
change in U. It should be noted that the over-all coefficient should be
multiplied by the ceiling and not the roof area.
If the unheated attic space between the roof and ceiling has no dormers,
windows or vertical wall spaces the combined coefficients may be used
for^determining the heat loss through the roof construction between the
attic and top floor ceiling. If the unheated attic contains windows and
vertical wall spaces these must be taken into consideration in calculating
the roof area and also its coefficient Z7r. In this case an approximate
value of Z7r may be obtained as the summation of the coefficient of each
individual section such as the roof, vertical walls or windows times its
percentage of total area. This coefficient may be used with reasonable
accuracy in the above formulae. If, however, there are roof ventilators
such that the attic air is substantially at outside temperature, then the
roof should be neglected and only the coefficient for the 'top floor ceiling
construction used.
Basements and Unheated Rooms
The heat loss through floors into basements and into unheated rooms
kept closed may be computed by assuming a temperature for these rooms
118
CHAPTER 5. HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS AND TABLES
of 32 F. Additional information on the inside and outside temperatures
to be used in heat loss calculations is given in Chapter 7.
REFERENCES
Effects of Air Velocities on Surface Coefficients, by F. B. Rowley, A. B. Algren and
J. L. Blackshaw (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930} p. 123).
Wind Velocity Gradients Near a Surface and Their Effect on Film Conductance, by
F. C. Houghten and Paul McDermott (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 301).
Insulating Effect of Successive Air Spaces Bounded by Bright Metallic Surfaces, by
L. W. Schad (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 285).
Conductivity of Concrete, by F. C. Houghten and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 47).
Surface Coefficients as Affected by Direction of Wind, by F. B. Rowley and W. A.
Eckley (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 33).
Importance of Radiation in Heat Transfer Through Air Spaces, by E. R. Queer
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 77).
The Heat Conductivity of Wood at Climatic Temperature Differences, by F. B.
Rowley (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 329).
Insulating Value of Bright Metallic Surfaces, by F. B. Rowley (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 413).
Thermal Properties of Concrete Construction, by F. B. Rowley, A. B. Algren and
Clifford Carlson (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 42, 1936, p. 33).
Properties of Metal Foil as an Insulating Material, by J. L. Gregg (Refrigerating
Engineering, May, 1932).
Thermal Insulation with Aluminum Foil, by R. B. Mason (Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry, March, 1933).
Thermal Insulation of Buildings, Technical Paper No. 11 (American Architect,
May, 1934).
Thermal Properties of Concrete Construction, by F. B. Rowley, A. B. Algren and
Robert Lander (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning,
November, 1936, p. 621).
Radiation and Convection Across Air Spaces in Frame Construction, by G. B.
Wilkesand C. M. F. Peterson (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, August, 1937, p. 505).
Heat Insulation as Applied to Buildings and Structures, by E. A. Allcut, University
of Toronto, 1934.
House Insulation, Its Economies and Application, by Russell E. Backstrom (Report
of the National Committee on Wood Utilization, United States Government Printing
Office, 1931).
Heat Transmission Through Building Materials, by F. B. Rowley and A. B. Algren,
University of Minnesota Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 8.
Calculation of Heat Transmission, by Margaret Fishenden and Owen A. Saunders.
Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning, by Harding and Willard, Revised Edition,
1932.
Heat Transmission, by W. H. McAdams.
Industrial Heat Transfer, by Shack.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the coefficient U and how is it applied?
The coefficient U is the heat loss through walls, ceilings, and floors and the value depends
upon the construction and material, expressed in Btu per hour per square foot per degree
difference in temperature between the inside and outside. To determine the total heat
loss, multiply U for each material by the square feet of surface and the temperature
difference.
119
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
2 • Find the value of U for a 6-in. concrete wall with plaster on metal lath
attached to 2-in. furring strips with flanged J^-in. blanket insulation.
0.23 (Table 3, Wall 12L).
3 • A wall is built with two layers of J^-in. insulating material spaced 1 in.
apart; the air space is lined on one side with bright aluminum foil; mean
temperature is 40 F; still air on both sides of wall; k for insulating material
is 0.34. Calculate the value of U.
fl = 1.65; /0 = 1.65; a = 0.46
. l ft 397
"= 6'327
U - -J- - 0.158
4 • What is the inside surface temperature of a 6-in. solid concrete wall?
Inside ah*, 70 F; outside air, -20 F with 15 mph wind.
The temperature drop from point to point through a wall is directly proportional to the
heat resistance.
fl = 1.65; k for concrete = 12.62 ;/0 = 6.0
Over-all resistance R = + + JL .1
Temperature drop, inside air to surface — 1.65
Temperature drop, air to air 1.27
90
Temperature drop, inside air to surface = ., nfy „ , _g = 43
L.£( X l.oo
70 — 43 = 27 F, inside surface temperature of wall.
5 • How many inches of insulating material having a conductivity of 0.30
would be required, for the wall of Question 4, to raise the inside surface tem-
perature to 60 F?
Temperature drop, air to inside surface = 10 F; temperature drop, inside surface to out-
side air — 80 F. Therefore, the heat resistance from inside wall surface to outside air
must be eight times that from inside air to inside wall surface, or 8 X -rir- = 4.85. The
1.65
resistance for added material is, therefore,
485 - TO + = 4-19
4.19 X 0.30 - 1.25 in. of insulation.
6f, £-n unheated attic space in a residence has an equivalent pitched roof area
of 1560 sq ft and a ceiling area of 1200 sq ft. If 15 per cent of the roof area is
composed of vertical wall spaces having a value of U = 0.52, determine the
total heat loss per hour through the ceiling and roof for a temperature dif-
ference of 85 F, if U = 0.46 for the roof and U = 0.38 for the ceiling.
An approximate value of U for the roof is equivalent to the summation of coefficients
tor each individual section times its percentage of total area.
UT = (0.52 X 0.15) -f- (0.46 X 0.85) = 0.47.
Ratio of roof area, to ceiling = 1560 -f- 1200 = 1.3.
Substituting in Formula 6:
0.47 X 0.38
H = A U ft - /0) = 1200 X 0.235 X 85 = 23,900 Btu per hour.
120
Chapter 6
AIR LEAKAGE
Nature of Air Infiltration, Infiltration Through Walls, Window
Leakage, Door Leakage, Selection of Wind Velocity, Crack
Length used for Computations, Multi-Story Buildings, Heat
Equivalent of Air Infiltration
AIR leakage losses are those resulting from the displacement of heated
air in a building by unheated outside air, the interchange taking
place through various apertures in the building, such as cracks around
doors and windows, fireplaces and chimneys. This leakage of air must be
considered in heating and cooling calculations. (See Chapters 7 and 8.)
NATUBE OF Am INFILTRATION
The natural movement of air through building construction is due to
two causes. One is the pressure exerted by the wind; the other is the
difference in density of outside and inside air because of differences in
temperature.
The wind causes a pressure to be exerted on one or two sides of a
building. As a result, air comes into the building on the windward side
through cracks or porous construction, and a similar quantity of air
leaves on the leeward side through like openings. In general the resis-
tance to air movement is similar on the windward to that on the leeward
side. This causes a building up of pressure within the building and a
lesser air leakage than that experienced in single wa.ll tests as determined
in the laboratory. It is assumed that actual building leakages owing to
this building up of pressure will be 80 per cent of laboratory test values.
While there are cases where this is not true, tests in actual buildings
substantiate the factor for the general case. Tests on mechanically
ventilated classrooms of average construction have shown that air
infiltration acts quite independently of the planned air supply. Accor-
dingly, the heating or cooling load owing to air infiltration from natural
causes should be considered in addition to the ventilating load.
The air exchange owing to temperature difference, inside to outside, is
not appreciable in low buildings. In tall, single story buildings with
openings near the ground level and near the ceiling, this loss must be
considered. Also in multi-story buildings it is a large item unless the
sealing between various floors and rooms is quite perfect. This tempera-
ture effect is a chimney action, causing air to enter through openings at
lower levels and to leave at higher levels.
A complete study of all of the factors involved in air movement through
building constructions would be very complex* Some of the complicating
121
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
factors are: the variations in wind velocity and direction; the exposure of
the building with respect to air leakage openings and with ^ respect ^ to
adjoining buildings; the variations in outside temperatures asjnfluencing
the chimney effect; the relative area and resistance of openings on the
windward and leeward sides and on the lower floors and on the upper
floors; the influence of a planned air supply and the related outlet vents;
and the variation from the average of individual building units. A study
of infiltration points to the need for care in the obtaining of good building
construction, or unnecessarily large heat losses will result.
INFILTRATION THROUGH WALLS
Table 1 gives data on infiltration through brick and frame walls. The
brick walls listed in this table are walls which show poor workmanship
and which are constructed of porous brick and lime mortar. For good
workmanship, the leakage through hard brick walls with cement-lime
mortar does not exceed one-third the values given. These tests indicate
that plastering reduces the leakage by about 96 per cent; a heavy coat of
cold water paint, 50 per cent; and 3 coats of oil paint carefully applied,
28 per cent. The infiltration through walls ranges from 6 to 25 per cent
of that through windows and doors in a 10-story office building, with
imperfect sealing of plaster at the baseboards of the rooms. With perfect
sealing the range is from 0.5 to 2.7 per cent or a practically negligible
quantity, which indicates the importance of good workmanship in proper
sealing at the baseboard. It will be noted from Table 1, that the in-
filtration through properly plastered walls can be neglected.
The value of building paper when applied between sheathing and
shingles is indicated by Fig. 1, which represents the effect on outside
construction only, without lath and plaster. The effectiveness of plaster
properly applied is no justification for the use of low grade building paper
or of the poor construction of the wall containing it. Not only is it
TABLE 1. INFILTRATION THROUGH WALLS**
Expressed in cubic feet per square foot per hour
TTPB OF WALL
WIND VKLOCITT, MIUBS EBB HOUB
5
10
15
20
25
30
8Ji in. Brick TOL^gj-j-
1.75
0.017
4.20
0.037
7.85
0.066
12.2
0.107
18.6
0.161
22.9
0.236
i *> • T>— j-t» \\7 IT / i*ain. _„„„_.
1.44
0.005
3.92
0.013
7.48
0.025
11.6
0.043
16.3
0.067
21.2
0.097
13 in. Bnck Wall 1^^^^..
Frame Wall, with lath and plaster^
0.03
0.07
0.13
0.18
0.23
0.26
_ »The values given in this table are 20 per cent less than test values to allow for building up of pressure
in rooms and are based on test data reported in the papers listed at the end of this chapter.
BeVd *Ming P8intcd °f Cedar shingles' sheathi*g. building paper, wood lath and
122
CHAPTER 6. AIR LEAKAGE
0.45
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
INFILTRATION, C FH PER SQ FT OF WALL
FIG. 1. INFILTRATION THROUGH VARIOUS TYPES OF SHINGLE CONSTRUCTION
difficult to secure and maintain the full effectiveness of the plaster but
also it is highly desirable to have two points of high resistance to air flow
with an air space between them.
The amount of infiltration that may be expected through simple walls
used in farm and other shelter buildings, is shown in Fig. 2. The infil-
tration indicated in Figs. 1 and 2 is that determined in the laboratory and
should be multiplied by the factor 0.80 to give proper working values.
<r 0.40 - - -
g :::
140 160 180 200 220
INFILTRATION, C FH PER SQ FT OF WALL
FIG. 2. INFILTRATION THROUGH SINGLE SURFACE WALLS USED IN FARM AND
OTHER SHELTER BUILDINGS
123
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
WINDOW LEAKAGE
The amount of infiltration for various types of windows is given in
Table 2. The fit of double-hung wood windows is determined by crack
and clearance as illustrated in Fig. 3. The length of the perimeter opening
or crack for a double-hung window is equal to three times the width plus
two times the height, or in other words, it is the outer sash ^ perimeter
length plus the meeting rail length. Values of leakage shown in Table 2
for the average double-hung wood window were determined by setting
the average measured crack and clearance found in a field survey of a
large number of windows on nine windows tested in the laboratory. In
addition, the table gives figures for a poorly fitted window. All of the
figures for double-hung wood windows are for the unlocked condition.
Just how a window is closed, or fits when it is closed, has considerable
influence on the leakage. The leakage will be high if the sash are short,
if the meeting rail members are warped, or if the frame and sash are not
FIG. 3. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING CRACK AND CLEARANCE
fitted squarely to each other. It is possible to have a window with
approximately the average crack and clearance that will have a leakage
at least double that of the figures shown. Values for the average double-
hung wood window in Table 2 are considered to be easily obtainable
figures provided the workmanship on the window is good. Should it be
known that the windows under consideration are poorly fitted, the larger
leakage values should be used. Locking a window generally decreases its
leakage, but in some cases may push the meeting rail members apart and
increase the leakage. On windows with large clearances, locking will
usually reduce the leakage.
Wood casement windows may be assumed to have the same unit
leakage as for the average double-hung wood window when properly
fitted. ^ Locking, a normal operation in the closing of this type of window,
maintains the crack at a low value.
For metal pivoted sash, the length of crack is the total perimeter of the
movable or ventilating sections. Frame leakage on steel windows may be
neglected when they are properly grouted with cement mortar into brick
work or concrete. When they are not properly sealed, the linear feet of
sash section in contact with steel work at mullions should be figured at
25 per cent of the values for industrial pivoted windows as given in
Table 2.
124
CHAPTER 6. AIR LEAKAGE
H WINDOW. IN. OF WATER
D p H- j-
» 00 0 l\
{
y
-A/
-E
fl
/<
5U.U3
45.69
OZ
•=>
O
40.89g
CL
a
35,40s.
28.90 g
Q
$
20.42
0
1
I/
J
y
/
y
/
i
/
/
1
i
/
/ /
l\
y
/
/
\\
y
\\
/
f/
1
/
/
y
I
I
A
n
i
i
7
§
o. 04
\
1
/
A
B
C
D
-Without storm sash
-Storm sash, suspend
•Storm sash, fastened
With four turn button
-Same as C with wool
weatherstrip applied
to storm sash
ed
s
1
1
//
/
h
j
I
/
1
§
o
U4
*o->
7
f
I
/
V
)
VJ
/
X
i
o:
CL.
c
/
f
f
M
/
>
'l
50 100 150 200 250 300
INFILTRATION, CFH PER FOOT OF CRACK
FIG. 4. INFILTRATION THROUGH SASH PERIMETER OF WINDOW WITH AND WITHOUT
STORM SASH — J^-IN. CRACK AND J^-IN. CLEARANCE
Leakage values for storm sash are given in Figs. 4 and 5. When storm
sash are applied to well fitted windows, very little reduction in infiltration
is secured, but the application of the sash does give an air space which
reduces the heat transmission and helps prevent the frosting of the
windows. When storm sash are applied to poorly fitted windows, a
reduction in leakage of 50 per cent may be secured.
W, IN. OF WATER
:>»-•*-
DO K
\ If
y
{
^ WIND VELOCITY, MILES PER HOUR
1
y
-
7
li
/
M
/
/
/
^
/
(
/
)
/
z
*
f
/
s
]
s
jl
/
/
fl
^
PRESSURE DROP THROUG
£ g S
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
l\
\
/
*
A-Without storn
B- Storm sash, s
C- Storm sash, 1
with four tun
isash
uspend
^stened
i button
ed
s
/
/
/
/
/
s
^
^
+
-?
^
•*••
^
^
1
La
**
ts
E
&
0
!•
&
I
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 4
1NF1LTRATION.C F H PER FOOT OF CRACK
FIG. 5. INFILTRATION THROUGH SASH PERIMETER OF WINDOW WITH AND WITHOUT
STORM SASH— H-m. CRACK AND J^-IN. CLEARANCE
125
HEATING VENTIIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2, INFILTRATION THROUGH WINDOWS
Expressed in Cubic Feet per Foot of Crack per Hour&
Tr?« OF WINDOW
REMARKS
5
10
15
20
25
30
Double-Hung
Wood Sash
Windows
(Unlocked)
1 Around frame in masonry wall — not calkedb
3.3
8.2
14.0
20.2
27.2
34.6
Around frame In masonry wall — calkedb
0.5
1.5
2.6
3.8
4.8
5.8
Around frame in wood frame construction^
2.2
6.2
10.8
16.6
23.0
30.3
Total for average window, non-weather-
stripped, He-in. crack and ?&-in. clearancec.
Includes wood frame leakage^
6.6
21.4
39.3
59.3
80.0
103.7
Ditto, weatherstrippedd
4.3
15.5
23.6
35.5
48.6
63.4
Total for poorly fitted window, non- weather-
stripped, 5^-in. crack and ?£-m. clearance.*
Includes wood frame leakaged „
26.9
69.0
110.5
153.9
199.2
249.4
Ditto, weatlierstrippedd
5.9
18.9
34.1
51.4
70.5
91.5
Double-Hung
Metal
Windows*
Non-weatierstripped, locked
Non-weatherstripped, unlocked.
Weatherstripped, unlocked
20
20
6
45
47
19
70
74
32
96
104
46
125
137
60
154
170
76
Rolled
Section
Steel
Sash
Windows^
Industrial pivoteds, J4-in. crack.
Architectural projected, J^-in. crack**
Architectural projected, %-in. crackh .
52
15
20
6
14
3
8
108
36
52
18
32
10
24
176
62
88
33
52
18
38
244
86
116
47
76
26
54
304
112
152
60
100
36
72
372
139
182
74
128
48
92
Residential casement, l^-in. crack*
Residential casement, J^-in. crack*
Heavy casement section, projected, J^-in.
cracki .„ „
Heavy casement section, projected J^-in.
•eraeki
Hollow Metal, vertically pivoted windowf
30
88
145
186
221
242
WIND VELOCITY, MILES PIB HOUR
aThe values given In this table are 20 per cent less than test values to allow for building up of pressure in
rooms, and are based on test data reported in the papers listed at the end of this chapter.
f fcThe values given for frame leakage are per foot of sash perimeter as determined for double-hung wood
windows. Some of the frame leakage in masonry walls originates in the brick wall itself and cannot be
prevented by calking. For the additional reason that calking is not done perfectly and deteriorates with
tome, it is considered advisable to choose the masonry frame leakage values for calked frames as the average
determined by the calked and not-calked tests.
cThe fit of the average double-hung wood window was determined as }£-in. crack and ?&-in. clearance by
measurements on approximately 600 windows under heating season conditions.
dThe values given are the totals for the window opening per foot of sash perimeter and include frame
leakage and so-called elsewhere leakage. The frame leakage values included are for wood frame construction
but apply as well to masonry construction assuming a 50 per cent efficiency of frame calking.
•A %-in. crack and clearance represents a poorly fitted window, much poorer than average.
^Windows tested in place in building.
^Industrial pivoted, window generally used in industrial buildings. Ventilators horizontally pivoted
at center or slightly above, lower part swinging out.
_ ^Architectural projected made of same sections as industrial pivoted except that outside framing member
is heavier, and refinements in weathering and hardware. Used in semi-monumental buildings such as
schools. Ventilators swing in or out and are balanced on side arms. J^-in. crack is obtainable in the best
practice of manufacture and installation, Jfl-in. crack considered to represent average practice.
• Sf •** ^e ^esi«n and section shapes as so-called heavy section casement but of lighter weight. ki-£n. crack
practice* m P1"^^ <>f manufacture and installation, J^-in. crack considered to represent average
• u+ - - ^i "•— ££. se£tions- Ventilators swing in or out and stay set at any degree of opening. J^-in. crack
is obtainable m the best practice of manufacture and installation, fc-in. crack considered to represent
average practice.
With reasonable care in installation leakage at contacts where windows are attached to steel frame-
work and at muUions is negligible. With &-in. crack, representing poor installation, leakage at contact
Sndow? i^thfSbk18 * °ne"third' and at mullions about one-sixth of that given for industrial pivoted
126
CHAPTER 6. AIR LEAKAGE
DOO1 LEAKAGE
Doors vary greatly in fit because of their "large size and tendency to
warp. For a well fitted door, the leakage values for a poorly fitted double-
hung'wood window may be used. If poorly fitted, twice this figure should
be used. If weatherstripped, the values may be reduced one-half. A
single door which is frequently opened, such as might be found in a store,
should have a value applied which is three times that for a well fitted
door. This extra allowance is for opening and closing losses and is kept
from being greater by the fact that doors are not used as much in the
coldest and windiest weather.
The infiltration rate through swinging and revolving doors is generally
a matter of judgment by the engineer making cooling load determinations
and in the absence of adequate research data the values given in Table 3
represent current engineering practice. These values are based on the
average number of persons in a room at a specified time, which may also
be the same occupancy assumed for determining the outside ventilation
requirements outlined in Chapters 3 and 8.
TABLE 3. INFILTRATION THROUGH OUTSIDE DOORS FOR COOLING LOADS&
Expressed in Cubic Feet per Minute per Person in Room
APPLICATION
PA.IH 36 IN. SWINGING
DOOKS, SINGLE
ENTRANCEb
"D^r-ilr '
7.5
4.5
7.0
6.0
25.0
8.0
2.5
7.0
2.5
3.5
5.0
3.5
3.0
2.0
2.5
2.5
3.5
Tin? tvne.
Barber Shop
Drug Store -
Furrier
A/To.«'o QVirvn - •"
Men s onop
/"X-GC/N/i - -
Office Building
Public Building —
Restaurant -
Ql-n-id QfTvr*=- * * — —
aFor doors located m omy one wa.u <JL wiicxc v.^**, ^ — — - --------- - •„„:„„
Westibules with double pair swinging doors, infiltration may be assumed 75 per cent of swmgmg
on for 72 in. revolving doors may be assumed 60 per cent of swinging door values.
SELECTION OF WIND VELOCITY
Although all authorities do not agree upon the value of the wind veloc-
ity that should be chosen for any given locality, it is common engineering
practice to use the average wind velocity during the three coldest months
of the year. Until this point is definitely established the practice of
using average values will be followed. Average wind velocities for the
monlhs of December, January and February for various cities in the
United States and Canada are given in Table 2, Chapter /.
127
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In considering both the transmission and infiltration losses, the more
exact procedure would be to select the outside temperature and the wind
velocity corresponding thereto, based on Weather Bureau records, which
would result in the maximum heat demand. Since the proportion of
transmission and infiltration losses varies with the construction and is
different for every building, the proper combination of temperature and
wind velocity to be selected would be different for every type of building,
even in the same locality. Furthermore, such a procedure would necessi-
tate a laborious cut-and-try process in every case in order to determine
the worst combination of conditions for the building under consideration.
It would also be necessary to consider heat lag due to heat capacity in the
case of heavy masonry walls, and other factors, to arrive at the most
accurate solution of the problem. Although heat capacity should be con-
sidered wherever possible, it is seldom possible to accurately determine the
worst combination of outside temperature and wind velocity for a given
building and locality. The usual procedure, as explained in Chapter 7,
is to select an outside temperature which is not more than 15 F above
the lowest recorded, and the average wind velocity during the months
of December, January and February.
The direction of prevailing winds may usually be included within an
angle of about 90 deg. The windows that are to be figured for prevailing
and non-prevailing winds will ordinarily each occupy about one-half the
perimeter of the structure, the proportion varying to a considerable extent
with the plan of the structure. (See discussion of wind movement in
Chapter 36.)
CRACK LENGTH USED FOR COMPUTATIONS
In no case should the amount of crack used for computation be less
than half of the total crack in the outside walls of the room. Thus, in a
room with one exposed wall, take all the crack; with two exposed walls,
take the wall having the most crack; and with three or four exposed walls,
take the wall having the most crack; but in no case take less than half the
total crack. For a building having no partitions, whatever wind enters
through the cracks on the windward side must leave through the cracks
on the leeward side. Therefore, take one-half the total crack for com-
puting each side and end of the building.
The amount of air leakage is sometimes roughly estimated by assuming
a certain number of air changes per hour for each room, the number of
changes assumed being dependent upon the type, use and location of the
room, as indicated in Table 4. This method may be used to advantage as
a check on the calculations made in the more exact manner.
MULTI-STORY BUILDINGS
In tall buildings, infiltration may be considerably influenced by tem-
perature difference or chimney effect which will operate to produce a
head that will add to the effect of the wind at lower levels and subtract
from it at higher levels. On the other hand, the wind velocity at lower
levels may be somewhat^ abated by surrounding obstructions. Further-
more,^ the chimney effect is reduced in multi-story buildings by the partial
isolation of floors preventing free upward movement, so that wind and
128
CHAPTER 6. AIR LEAKAGE
TABLE 4. AIR CHANGES TAKING PLACE UNDER AVERAGE CONDITIONS EXCLUSIVE
OF AIR PROVIDED FOR VENTILATION
KIND OP ROOM OB BUILDING
NUMBER or AIR CHANGM
TAKING PLACE
PER Horn
Rooms, 1 side exposed I 1
Rooms, 2 sides exposed i 1J
Rooms, 3 sides exposed 2
Rooms, 4 sides exposed 2
Rooms with no windows or outside doors._
Entrance Halls —
Reception Halls
2 to 3
2
Living Rooms.— ........................................................................... i 1 to 2
Dining Rooms ,
Bath Rooms
Drug Stores
Clothing Stores
Churches, Factories, Lofts, etc..
Ito2
2
2 to 3
1
temperature difference may seldom cooperate to the fullest extent.
Making the rough assumption that the neutral zone is located at mid-
height of a building, and that the temperature difference is 70 F, the
following formulae may be used to determine an equivalent wind velocity
to be used in connection with Tables 1 and 2 that will allow for both wind
velocity and temperature difference:
- 1.75 a (1)
+ 1.75 b (2)
where
Mt — equivalent wind velocity to be used in conjunction with Tables 1 and 2.
j|f = wind velocity upon which infiltration would be determined if tem-
perature difference were disregarded.
a = distance of windows under consideration from mid-height of building
if above mid-height.
b — distance if below mid-height.
The coefficient 1.75 allows for about one-half the temperature difference head.
For buildings of unusual height, Equation 1 would indicate negative
infiltration at the highest stories, which condition may, at times, actually
exist.
Sealing of Vertical Openings
In tall, multi-story buildings, every effort should be made to seal off
vertical openings such as stair-wells and elevator shafts from the re-
mainder of the building. Stair-wells should be equipped with self-closing
doors, and in exceptionally high buildings, should be closed off into
sections of not over 10 floors each. Plaster cracks should be filled.
Elevator enclosures should be tight and solid doors should be used.
If the sealing of the vertical openings is made effective, no allowance
need be made for the chimney effect. Instead, the greater^wind move-
ment at the high altitudes makes it advisable to install additional heating
surface on the upper floors above the level of neighboring buildings, this
additional surface being increased as the height is increased. One
129
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
arbitrary rule is to increase the heating surface on floors above neighboring
buildings by an amount ranging from 5 per cent to 20 per cent. This extra
heating surface is required only on the windward side and^on windy days,
and hence automatic temperature control is especially desirable with such
installations.
In stair- wells that are open through many floor levels although closed
off from the remainder of each floor by doors and partitions, the strati-
fication of air makes it advisable to increase the amount of heating surface
at the lower levels and to decrease the amount at higher levels even to the
point of omitting all heating surface on the top several floor levels. One
rule is to calculate the heating surface of the entire stair-well in the usual
way and to place 50 per cent of this in the bottom third, the normal
amount in the middle third and the balance in the top third.
HEAT EQUIVALENT OF AIR INFILTRATION
Sensible Heat Loss
The heat required to warm cold outside air, which enters a room by
infiltration, to the temperature of the room is given by the equation:
HB = 0.24 Q d (ti - t0) (3)
where
Hs = heat required to raise temperature of air leaking into building from t0 to t{
Btu per hour.
0.24 = specific heat of air.
Q = volume of outside air entering building, cubic feet per hour.
d = density of air at temperature t0, pounds per cubic foot.
t\ — room air temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
t0 ~ outside air temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
Latent Heat Loss
When it is intended to add moisture to air leaking into a room for the
maintenance of proper winter comfort conditions, it is necessary to
determine the heat equivalent to evaporate the required amount of water
vapor, which may be calculated by the equation :
7000
where
Hi = heat required to increase moisture content of air leaking into building from
Mo to Mi, Btu per hour.
Q — volume of outside air entering building, cubic feet per hour.
d = density of air at temperature ti, pounds per cubic foot.
Mi — vapor density of inside air, grains per pound of dry air.
Mo = vapor density of outside air, grains per pound of dry air.
L = latent heat of vapor at MI, Btu per pound.
It is sufficiently accurate to use d = 0.075 Ib, in which case equation 3
reduces to 5 and if the latent heat of vapor is assumed for general condi-
tions as 1060 Btu per pound equation 4 reduces to 6.
Hs = 0.018 Q (ti - to) (5)
fli = 0.0114 Q (Mi - Mo) (6)
While a heating reserve must be provided to warm inleaking air on
the windward side of a building, this does not necessarily mean that the
130
CHAPTER 6. AIR LEAKAGE
heating plant must be provided with a reserve capacity, since the inleaking
air, warmed at once by adequate heating surface in exposed rooms, will
move transversely and upwardly through the building, thus relieving
other radiators of a^part of their load. The actual loss of heat of a building
caused by infiltration is not to be confused with the necessity for pro-
viding additional heating capacity for a given space. Infiltration is a
disturbing factor in the heating of a building, and its maximum effect
(maximum in the sense of an average of wind velocity peaks during the
heating season above some reasonably chosen minimum)must be met
by a properly distributed reserve of heating capacity, which reserve, how-
ever, is not in use at all places at the same time, nor in any one place at
all times.
REFERENCES
Air Leakage, by F. C. Houghten and C. C. Schrader (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 30, 1924, p. 105).
Air Leakage around Window Openings, by C. C. Schrader (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 30, 1924, p. 313).
Neutral Zone in Ventilating, by J. E. Emswiler (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 32,
1926, p. 59).
Infiltration through Plastered and Unplastered Brick Walls, by F. C. Houghten and
Margaret Ingels (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 33, 1927, p. 377).
Effect of Frame Calking and Storm Sash on Infiltration around and through Windows,
by W. M. Richtmann and C. Braatz (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928T p. 547).
Air Leakage on Metal Windows in a Modern Office Building, by F. C. Houghten and
M. E. O'Connell (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928, p. 321).
The Weathertightness of Rolled Section Steel Windows, by J. E. Emswiler and
W. C. Randall (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928, p. 527).
Air Leakage through a Pivoted Metal Window, by F. C. Houghten and M. E.
O'Connell (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928, p. 519).
Air Infiltration through Various Types of Brick Wall Construction, by G. L. Larson,
D. W. Nelson and C. Braatz (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 183).
Pressure Differences across Windows in Relation to W:ind Velocity, by J. E. Emswiler
and W. C. Randall (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 83).
Air Infiltration Through Various Types of Wood Frame Construction, by G. L.
Larson, D. W. Nelson and C. Braatz (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 99).
Air Infiltration Through Double-Hung Wood Windows, by G. L. Larson, D. W.
Nelson and R. W. Kubasta (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 571).
Flue Action in Tall Buildings, by H. L. Alt (Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning,
May, 1932).
Air Infiltration Through Steel Framed Windows, by D. 0. Rusk, V. H. Cherry and
L. Boelter (Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, October, 1932).
Investigation of Air Outlets in Class Room Ventilation, by G. L. Larson, D. W.
Nelson and R. W. Kubasta (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 463).
Influence of Stack Effect on the Heat Loss in Tall Buildings, by Axel Marin (A.S.H.
V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 377).
Wind Velocities Near a Building and Their Effect on Heat Loss, by F. C. Houghten,
J. L. Blackshaw, and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 387).
Fuel Saving Resulting from the Use of Storm Windows and Doors, by A. P. Kratz and
S. Konzo (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 42, 1936, p. 87).
The Infiltration Problem of Multiple Entrances, by A. M. Simpson and K. B. Atkinson
(A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, June, 1936).
Infiltration Characteristics of Entrance Doors, by A. M. Simpson (Refrigerating
Engineering, June, 1936).
Heating Requirements of an Office Building as Influenced by the Stack Effect, by
F. C. Houghten and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping
and Air Conditioning, July, 1937).
131
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What two natural forces cause infiltration?
c. Wind causes^ pressure to be exerted on one or two sides of a building with consequent
movement of air through openings.
i>. Temperature difference inside to outside causes a difference in density with con-
sequent entrance of air at lower openings and exit of air at higher openings.
2 • What is the neutral zone as applied to infiltration in buildings?
Due to temperature difference inside air tends to flow out of openings near the top of
the building and is replaced by outside air coming in at lower openings. At some height
no flow occurs in or out. This is referred to as the neutral zone and often is taken at the
mid-height of the building but may be higher or lower than this depending on several
factors.
3 • In what type of structure is infiltration due to temperature difference
of importance?
In tall open buildings, in multi-story buildings inadequately sealed between floors and
in stair- wells for multi-story buildings the temperature difference effect is important.
4 • What procedure is sometimes used to compensate for this temperature
or chimney effect in stair-wells?
One rulejs to place 50 percent of the calculated radiation in the bottom third, the normal
amount in the middle third and the remainder in the top third.
5 • Why is it customary to apply a correction factor to laboratory values before
calculating infiltration in buildings?
Most, if not all, laboratory values have been determined by exerting a certain wind
pressure across a single thickness of building construction. In actual building con-
struction the pressure drop due to wind velocity takes place in two steps, one through
the windward and the other through the leeward wall. Tests indicate that the leakage
in actual construction will be about 80 per cent of laboratory values and therefore this
factor has been applied in making up the tables in this chapter. The curves represent
laboratory data as taken with no correction applied.
6 • Is infiltration through walls of importance?
In the case of compound walls of good construction the heat loss due to infiltration is
usually negligibly low. In the case of single thickness walls without building paper
properly applied, the heat loss due to air leakage may be very high.
7 • How are the wind velocities and outside temperatures selected for infil-
tration calculations in heating?
It is common practice to take the average wind velocity for the three coldest months
and the temperature as 15 F above the coldest recorded by the Weather Bureau during
the proceeding 10 years.
80 Show the probable combined effects of infiltration due to temperature
difference and wind velocity on the ground floor and on the 15th floor of a 20-
story building 200 ft high with a 12 mph wind blowing.
At the ground floor the effective velocity is increased to:
Ke = V122 + 1.75 X 100 = 17.8 mph
At the 15th floor level it would be reduced to:
Me = V122 - 1.75 X 50 = 7.5 mph
9 • What is the value of storm sash in reducing infiltration?
The reduction depends on the relative fit of the window and the storm sash. Fig. 4
indicates for storm sash buttoned on a reduction at 20 mph from about 52 cfh per foot
of crack to 42 cfh. Fig. 5 indicates a reduction for a storm sash buttoned over a loosely
fitted window from 185 to 90 cfh.
132
Chapter 7
HEATING LOAD
Heat Demand Design Factors, Method of Procedure, Inside
and Outside Temperatures, Wind Velocity Effects, Auxiliary
Heat Sources, Wall Condensation, Heat Loss Computation
TO design any system of heating, the maximum probable heat^demand
must be accurately estimated in order that the apparatus installed
shall be capable of maintaining the desired temperature at all times. The
factors which govern this maximum heat demand — most of which are
seldom, if ever, in equilibrium — include the following:
1. Outside temperature. 1
2. Rain or snow. Outside Conditions
3. Sunshine or cloudiness. (The Weather)
4. Wind velocity. J
5. Heat transmission of exposed parts of building.
6. Infiltration of air through cracks, crevices and
open doors and windows.
7. Heat capacity of materials.
8. Rate of absorption of solar radiation by exposed
materials.
9. Inside temperatures.
10. Stratification of air.
11. Type of heating system.
12. Ventilation requirements.
13. Period and nature of^ occupancy.
14. Temperature regulation.
Building
Construction
Inside
Conditions
The inside conditions vary from time to time, the physical properties of
the building construction may change with age, and the outside conditions
are changing constantly. Just what the worst combination of all of these
variable factors is likely to be in any particular case is. therefore con-
iectural. Because of the nature of the problem, extreme precision in
estimating heat losses at any time, while desirable, is hard of attainment.
The procedure to be followed in determining the heat loss from any
building can be divided into seven consecutive steps, as follows:
1. Determine on the inside air temperature, at the breathing line or the i 30-in. line,
which is to be maintained in the building during the coldest weather. (See Table 1.) ^
2. Determine on an outside air temperature for design purposes, t^0 WfP1?1^;
temperatures recorded in the locality in question, which will provide for all but the
most severe weather conditions. Such conditions as may exist for only a few .consecu-
tive hours are readily taken care of by the heat capacity of the building itself.
(See Table 2.)
133
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3. Select or compute the heat transmission coefficients for outside walls and glass;
also for inside walls, floors, or top-floor ceilings, if these are next to unheated space;
include roof if next to heated space. (See Chapter 5.)
4. Measure up net outside wall, glass and roof next to heated spaces, as well as any
cold walls, floors or ceilings next to unheated space. Such measurements are made from
building plans, or from tie actual building.
5. Compute the heat transmission losses for each kind of wall, glass, floor, ceiling
and roof in the building by multiplying the heat transmission coefficient in each case
by the area of the surface in square feet and the temperature difference between the
inside and outside air. (See Items 1 and 2.)
6. Select unit values and compute the heat equivalent of the infiltration of cold air
taking place around outside doors and windows. These unit values depend on the kind or
width of crack and wind velocity, and when multiplied by the length of crack and the
temperature difference between the inside and outside air, the result expresses the heat
required to warm up the cold air leaking into the building per hour. (See Chapter 6.)
7. The sum of the heat losses by transmission (Item 5) through the outside wall and
glass, as well as through any cold floors, ceilings or roof, plus the heat equivalent (Item 6)
of the cold air entering by infiltration represents the total heat loss equivalent for any
building.
Item 7 represents the heat losses after the building is heated and under
stable operating conditions in coldest weather. Additional heat is
required for raising the temperature of the air, the building materials and
the material contents of the building to the specified standard inside
temperature.
The rate at which this additional heat is required depends upon the
heat capacity of the structure and its material contents and upon the
time in which these are to be heated.
This additional heat may be figured and allowed for as conditions re-
TABLE 1. WINTER INSIDE DRY-BULB TEMPERATURES USUALLY SPECIFIED*
TTFB 07 BUILDING
DwjFAHR
TYPH OP BUILDING
DB&FAHE
SCHOOLS
Class rooms
70-72
THEATERS —
Seating space
68-72
Assembly rooms. ..
68-72
Lounge rooms.
68-72
Gymnasiums
55-65
Toilets
68
Toilets and baths
70
Wardrobe and locker rooms
Kitchens.- .„
65-68
66
HOTELS —
Bedrooms and baths
70
Dining and lunch rooms.
65-70
Dining rooms
70
Playrooms.
60-65
Kitchens and laundries
fifi
Natatoriums. . «
75
Ballrooms
65-68
HOSPITALS—
Private rooms.
70-72
Toilets and service rooms.
FTOMES
68
70-72
Private rooms (surgical)
70-80
STORES.-. _
65-68
Operating rooms . , .
70-95
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
68-72
Wards
68
WARM AIR BATHS
I2fi
Kitchens and laundries.
66
STEAM BATHS
110
Toiler
68
FACTORIES AND MACHINE SHOPS
fin ft*?
Bathrooms-.
70-80
H OUNDRIES AND BOILER SHOPS
Kfkftn
PAINT SHOPS...
80
**• ^S«m08tT?>mf<i?ablef <5r'bulb temperature to be maintained depends on the relative humidity and
£ Chapter 3 ^"^ " conaidered together constitute what is termed the effective temperature.
134
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
quire, but inasmuch as the heating system proportioned for taking care
of the heat losses will usually have, a capacity about 100 per cent greater
than that required for average winter weather, and inasmuch as most
buildings may either be continuously heated or have more time allowed
for heating-up during the few minimum temperature days, no allowance
is made except in the size of boilers or furnaces.
INSIDE TEMPERATURES
The inside air temperature which must be maintained within a building
and which should always be stated in the heating specifications is under-
stood to be the dry-bulb temperature at the breathing line, 5 ft above the
floor, or the 30-in. line, and not less than 3 ft from the outside* walls.
Inside air temperatures, usually specified, vary in accordance with the use
to which the building is to be put and Table 1 presents values which con-
form with good practice.
The proper dry-bulb temperature to be maintained depends upon the
relative humidity and air motion, as explained in Chapter 3. In other
words, a person may feel warm or cool at the same dry-bulb temperature,
depending on the relative humidity and air motion. The optimum winter
effective temperature for sedentary persons, as determined at the A.S.H.
V.E. Research Laboratory, is 66 deg.1
According to Fig. 6, Chapter 3, for so-called still air conditions, a
relative humidity of approximately 50 per cent is required to produce an
effective temperature of 66 deg when the dry-bulb temperature is 70 F.
However, even where provision is made for artificial humidification, the
relative humidity is seldom maintained higher than 40 per cent during the
extremely cold weather, and where no provision is made for humidifica-
tion, the relative humidity may be 20 per cent or less. Consequently, in
using the figures listed in Table 1, consideration should be given to
whether provision is to be made for humidification, and if so, the actual
relative humidity to be maintained.
Temperature at Proper Level: In making the actual heat-loss compu-
tations, however, for the various rooms in a building it is often necessary
to modify the temperatures given in Table 1 so that the air temperature
at the proper level will be used. By air temperature at the proper level is
meant, in the case of walls, the air temperature at the mean height be-
tween floor and ceiling; in the case of glass, the air temperature at the
mean height of the glass; in the case of roof or ceiling, the air temperature
at the mean height of the roof or ceiling above the floor of the heated
room ; and in the case of floors, the air temperature at the floor level. In
the case of heated spaces adjacent to unheated spaces, it will usually be
sufficient to assume the temperature in such spaces as the mean between
the temperature of the inside heated spaces and the outside air tempera-
ture, excepting where the combined heat transmission coefficient of the
roof and ceiling can be used, in which case the usual inside and outside
temperatures should be applied. (See discussion regarding the use of
combined coefficients of pitched roofs, unheated attics and top-floor
ceilings Chapter 5.)
*See Chapter 3, p. 63.
135
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
High Ceilings: Research data concerning stratification of air in build-
ings are lacking, but in general it may be said that where the increase in
temperature is due to the natural tendency of jthe warmer or less dense
air to rise, as where a direct radiation system is installed, the temperature
of the air at the ceiling increases with the ceiling height. The relation,
however, is not a straight-line function, as the amount of increase per foot
of height apparently decreases as the height of the ceiling increases, ac-
cording to present available information2.
Where ceiling heights are under 20 ft, it is common engineering practice
to consider that the Fahrenheit temperature increases 2 per cent for each
foot of height above the breathing line. This rule, sufficiently accurate
for most cases, will give the probable air temperature at any given level
for a room heated by direct radiation. Thus, the probable temperature
in a room at a point 3 ft above the breathing line, if the breathing line
temperature is 70 F, will be
(1.00 + 3 X .02) 70 = 74.2 F.
With certain types of heating and ventilating systems, which tend to
oppose the natural tendency of warm air to rise, the temperature differ-
ential between floor and ceiling can be greatly reduced. These include
unit heaters, fan-furnace heaters, and the various types of mechanical
ventilating systems. The amount of reduction is problematical in certain
instances, as it depends upon many factors such as location of heaters,
air temperature, and direction and velocity of air discharge. In some
cases it has been possible to reduce the temperature between the floor
and ceiling by a few degrees, whereas, in other cases, the temperature at
the ceiling has actually been increased because of improper design, instal-
lation or operation of equipment. So much depends upon the factors
enumerated that it is not advisable to allow less than 1 per cent per foot
(and usually more) above the breathing line in arriving at the air tem-
perature at any given level for any of these types of heating and ventilating
systems, unless the manufacturers are willing to guarantee that the par-
ticular type of equipment under consideration will maintain a smaller
temperature differential for the specific conditions involved.
Temperature at Floor Level: In determining mean air temperatures
just above floors which are next to ground or unheated spaces, a tempera-
ture 5 deg lower than the breathing-line temperature may be used, pro-
vided the breathing-line temperature is not less than 55 F.
OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES
The outside temperature used in computing the heat loss from a build-
ing is seldom taken as the lowest temperature ever recorded in a given
locality. Such temperatures are usually of short duration and are rarely
repeated in successive years. It is therefore evident that a temperature
somewhat higher than the lowest on record may be properly assumed in
making the heat-loss computations.
3Temperature Gradient Observations in a Large Heated Space, by G. L. Larson, D. W. Nelson and
O. C. Cromer (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 243).
Tests of Three Heating Systems in an Industrial Type of Building, by G. L. Larson, D. W. Nelson and
John James (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 185).
136
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
The outside temperature to be assumed in the design of any heating
system is ordinarily not more than 15 deg above the lowest recorded tem-
perature as reported by the Weather Bureau during the preceding 10
years for the locality in which the heating system is to be installed. In
the case of massive and^well insulated buildings in localities where the
minimum does not prevail for more than a few hours, or where the lowest
recorded temperature is extremely unusual, more than 15 deg above the
minimum may be allowed, due primarily to the fly-wheel effect of the heat
capacity of the structure. The outside temperature assumed and used in
the design should always be stated in the heating specifications. Table 2
lists the coldest dry-bulb temperatures ever recorded by the Weather
Bureau at the places listed.
If Weather Bureau reports are not available for the locality in question,
then the reports for the station nearest to this locality are to be used,
unless some other temperature is specifically stated in the specifications.
In computing the average heat transmission losses for the heating season
in the United States the average outside temperature from October 1
to May 1 should be used.
WIND VELOCITY EFFECTS
The effect of wind on the heating requirements, of any building should
be given consideration under two heads:
1. Wind movement increases the heat transmission of walls, glass, and roof, affecting
poor walls to a much greater extent than good walls.
2. Wind movement materially increases the infiltration (inleakage) of cold air through
the cracks around doors and windows, and even through the building materials them-
selves, if such materials are at all porous.
Theoretically as a basis for design, the most unfavorable combination
of temperature and wind velocity should be chosen. It is entirely possible
that a building might require more heat on a windy day with a moderately
low outside temperature than on a quiet day with a much lower outside
temperature. However, the combination of wind and temperature which
is the worst would differ with different buildings, because wind velocity
has a greater effect on buildings which have relatively high infiltration
losses. It would be possible to work out the heating load for a^ building
for several different combinations of temperature and wind velocity which
records show to have occurred and to select the worst combination; but
designers generally do not feel that such a degree of refinement is justified.
Therefore, pending further studies of actual buildings, it is recommended
that the average wind movement in any locality during December,
January and February be provided for in computing (1) the heat trans-
mission of a building, and (2) the heat required to take care of the infiltra-
tion of outside air.
The first condition is readily taken care of, as explained in Chapter 5,
by using a surface coefficient /0 for the outside wall surface which is based
on the proper wind velocity. In case specific data are lacking for any
given locality, it is sufficiently accurate to use an average wind velocity of
approximately 15 mph which is the velocity upon which the heat trans-
mission coefficient tables in Chapter 5 are based.
In a similar manner, the heat allowance for infiltration through cracks
137
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS COMPILED FROM WEATHER BUREAU RECORDS**
COL. A
COL. B
COL.C
COL. D
COL. E
COL.F
State
City
Average
Temp.,
Oct. 1st-
May 1st
Lowest
Tempera-
ture
Ever
Reported
Average
Wind Vel-
ocity Dec.,
Jan., Feb.,
Miles per
Hour
Direction
of Prevail-
ing Wind,
Dec., Jan.,
Feb.
Ala..
Mobile
58.9
-1
10.4
N
Birmingham
53.8
-10
8.5
N
Ariz
Phoenix. —
59.5
12
6.4
E
Flagstaff.
35.8
-25
7.8
SW
Ark __
Fort Smith
50.4
-15
8.1
E
Little Rock
51.6
-12
8.7
NW
Calif
San Francisco
54.2
27
7.6
N
Los Angeles
58.5
28
6.3
NE
Colo
Denver
38.9
-29
7.5
S
Grand Junction
38.9
-21
5.3
NW
Conn.
New Haven
38.4
-15
9.7
N
D. C.
Washington
43.4
-15
7.1
NW
Fla
Jacksonville
62.0
10
9.2
NE
Ga
Atlanta
51.5
-8
12.1
NW
Savannah
58.5
8
9.5
NW
Idaho
Lewiston
42.3
-23
5.3
E
Pocatello
35.7
-28
9.6
SE
111
Chicago
36.4
-23
12.5
W
Springfield
39.8
-24
10.1
NW
Ind
Indianapolis.
Evansville
40.3
45.1
-25
-16
11.5
9.8
SW
S
Iowa
Dubuque...
33.9
-32
7.1
NW
Sioux City
32.6
-35'
11.6
NW
Kans
Concordia
39.8
-25
8.1
S
Ky.
Dodge City
Louisville
41.4
45.3
-26
-20
9.8
9.9
NW
SW
La
New Orleans
61.6
7
8.8
N
Shreveport
56.2
-5
8.9
SE
Me
Eastport.
31.5
-23
12.0
W
Portland
33.8
-21
9.2
NW
Md
Baltimore.
43.8
-7
7.8
NW
Mass.
Boston.
38.1
-18
11.2
W
Mich
Alpena
29.6
—28
12 4
W
Detroit
35.8
-24
12.7
SW
Marquette
28.3
-27
11.1
NW
Minn
Duluth
24 3
—41
12.6
SW
Minneapolis.
29.4
-33
n!s
NW
Miss
Vicksburg.
56.8
-1
8.3
SE
Mo
St. Joseph
St. Louis
40.7
43.6
-24
-22
9.3>
11.6
NW
S
Mont
Springfield
44.3
34.0
-29
-49
10.8
SE
W
Havre
27.6
-57
~o
SW
Nebr
Lincoln
37.0
-29
10.5
S
North Platte
35.4
-35
8.5
W
Nev „..
Tonopah.
39.4
-10
10.0
SE
Winnemucca
37.9
-28
8.7
NE
N. H. ..
Concord
33.3
-35
6.6
NW
N. T.
N.Y.::::::::::
Atlantic City
Albany
41.6
35.2
-9
-24
15.9
8.1
NW
S
Buffalo
34.8
-20
17.2
W
New York
40.7
-14
17.1
NW
^United States data from U. S. Weather Bureau.
Canadian data from Meteorological Service of Canada.
138
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
TABLE 2. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS COMPILED FROM WEATHER BUREAU RECORDS*
(Continued)
COL. A
COL.B
COL. C
COL. D
CouE
CoL,F
State
or
Province
City
Average
Temp.,
Oct. 1st-
May 1st
Lowest
Tempera-
ture Ever
Reported
Average
Wind Vel-
ocity Dec.,
Jan., Feb.,
Miles per
Hour
Direction
of Prevail-
ing Wind,
Dec., Jan.,
Feb.
N. M
N. C
N. Dak
Ohio
Santa Fe.
Raleigh.-.
Wilmington
Bismarck
Devils Lake
Cleveland
38.3
50.0
54.2
24.6
20.3
37 2
-13
-2
5
-45
-44
— 17
7.8
8.2
8.5
9.1
10.6
13 0
NE
SW
sw
NW
W
sw
Okla
Oreg
Pa
R I
Columbus
Oklahoma City
Baker
Portland
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Providence.
39.9
47.9
35.2
46.1
42.7
41.0
37.2
-20
-17
-24
-2
-6
-20
-17
12,0
12.0
6.9
7.5
11.0
11.7
12.8
sw
N
SE
S
NW
W
NW
s. c
Charleston
57.4
7
10.6
SW
S Dak.
Columbia
Huron
54.0
28.2
-2
-43
8.1
10.6
NE
NW
Tenn
Rapid City.
Knoxville
Memphis
33.4
47.9
51.1
-34
-16
-9
8.2
7.8
9.7
W
SW
s
Texas
Utah
El Paso
Fort Worth
San Antonio
Modena..
Salt Lake City
53.5
55.2
60.6
36.3
40.0
-5
-8
4
-24
-20
10.4
10.4
8.0
8.8
6.7
NW
NW
NE
W
SE
Vt
Va
Wash
W. Va.
Burlington
Norfolk.
Lynchburg.
Richmond
Seattle
Spokane
Elkins
31.5
49.3
46.8
47.0
44.8
37.7
39.4
-29
2
-7
-3
3
-30
-28
11.8
12.5
7.1
7.9
11.3
7.1
6.6
S
N
NW
SW
SE
SW
W
Wis
Parkersburg.™
Green Bay
42.6
30.0
-27
-36
7.5
10.4
SW
SW
Wyo.
Alta.
B. C
La Crosse~
Milwaukee..
Lander
Edmonton
Victoria
31.7
33.4
30.7
30.0
23.0
43.9
-43
-25
-41
-40
-57
- 1.5
7.3
11.5
6.0
5.0
6.5
12.5
s
W
NW
SW
sw
N
Man
N B
Vancouver
Winnipeg
Fredericton
42.0
17.5
27.0
2
-47
35
4.5
10.0
9.6
E
NW
NW
N. S
Ont.
Yarmouth
London
35.0
32.6
-12
-27
14.2
10.3
NW
SW
Ottawa
Port Arthur
Toronto
26.5
22.4
32.9
-34
-37
-26.5
8.4
7.8
13.0
NW
NW
SW
P. E. I
Que
Charlottetown
Montreal
29.0
27.8
-27
-29
9.4
14.3
sw
sw
Sask.._
Yukon
Quebec
Prince Albert
Dawson
24.2
15.8
2.1
-34
-70
-68
13.6
5.1
3.7
sw
W
s
^United States data from U. S. Weather Bureau.
Canadian data from Meteorological Service of Canada.
139
HEATING VENTIUITING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and walls (Tables 1 and 2, Chapter 6) must be based on the proper wind
velocity for a given locality. In the case of tall buildings special attention
must be given to infiltration factors. (See Chapter 6).
In the past many designers have used empirical exposure factors which
were arbitrarily chosen to increase the calculated heat loss on the side or
sides of the building exposed to the prevailing winds. It is also possible
to differentiate among the various exposures more accurately by calcu-
lating the infiltration and transmission losses separately for the different
sides of the building, using different assumed wind velocities. Recent
investigations show, however, that the wind direction indicated by
Weather Bureau instruments does not always correspond with the
direction of actual impact on the building walls, due to deflection by
surrounding buildings.
The exposure factor, which is still in use by many engineers, is usually
taken as 15 per cent, and is added to the calculated heat loss on the side or
sides exposed to what is considered the prevailing winter wind. There is a
need for actual test data on this point, and pending the time when it can
be secured, the question must be left to the judgment of the designing
engineer. It should be remembered that the values of U in the tables in
Chapter 5 are based on a wind velocity of 15 mph and that the infiltration
figures are supposed to be selected from the tables in Chapter 6 to cor-
respond to the wind velocities given in Table 2 of the present chapter.
The Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning Contractors National Associ-
ation has devised a method8 for calculating the square feet of equivalent
direct radiation required in a building. This method makes use of ex-
posure factors which vary according to the geographical location and the
angular situation of the construction in question in reference to pre-
vailing winds and the velocity of them.
AUXILIARY HEAT SOURCES
The heat supplied by persons, lights, motors and machinery should
always be ascertained in the case of theaters, assembly halls, and in-
dustrial plants, but allowances for such heat sources must be made only
after careful consideration of all local conditions. In many cases, these
heat sources should not be allowed to affect the size of the installation at
all, although they may have a marked effect on the operation and con-
trol of the system. In general, it is safe to say that where audiences are
involved, the heating installation must have sufficient capacity to bring
the building up to the stipulated inside temperature before the audience
arrives. In industrial plants, quite a different condition exists, and heat
sources, if they are always available during the period of human occu-
pancy, may be substituted for a portion of the heating installation. In
no case should the actual heating installation (exclusive of heat sources)
be reduced below that required to maintain at least 40 F in the building.
Electric Motors and Machinery
Motors and the machinery which they drive, if both are located in the
room, convert all of the electrical energy supplied into heat, which is
•See Standards of Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association.
140
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
retained in the room if the product being manufactured is not removed
until its temperature is the same as the room temperature.
If power is transmitted to the machinery from the outside, then only
the heat equivalent of the brake horsepower supplied is used. In the
first case the Btu supplied per hour = Motor horsepower and
Efficiency of motor
in the second case Btu per hour = bhp X 2546, in which 2546 is the
Btu equivalent of 1 hp-hour. In high-powered mills this is the chief
source of heating and it is frequently sufficient to overheat the building
even in zero weather, thus requiring cooling by ventilation the year
round.
The heat (in Btu per hour) from electric lamps is obtained by multi-
plying the watts per lamp by the number of lamps and by 3.415. One
cubic foot of producer gas gives off about 150 Btu per hour; one cubic
foot of illuminating gas gives off about 535 Btu per hour; and one cubic
foot of natural gas gives off about 1000 Btu per hour. A Welsbach
burner averages 3 cu ft of gas per hour and a fish-tail burner, 5 cu ft
per hour. For information concerning the heat supplied by persons,
see Chapter 3.
In intermittently heated buildings, besides the capacity necessary
to care for the normal heat loss which may be calculated according to
customary rules, additional capacity should be provided to supply the
heat necessary to warm up the cold material of the interior walls, floors,
and furnishings. Tests have shown that when a cold building has had its
temperature raised to about 60 F from an initial condition of about 0 F,
the heat absorbed from the air by the material in the structure may vary
from 50 per cent to 150 per cent of the normal heat loss of the building.
It is therefore necessary, in order to heat up a cold building within a
reasonable length of time, to provide such additional capacity. If the
interior material is cold when people enter a building, the radiation of
heat from the occupants to the cold material will be greater than is
normal and discomfort will result. (See Chapter 3.)
WALL CONDENSATION
Condensation in the interior surfaces4 of buildings may cause irrep-
arable damage to manufactured articles and machinery. It often results
in short-circuiting of electric power, and causes disintegration of roof
structures not properly protected.
The prevalence of moisture on a surface is caused by the contact of
the warm humid air in a building with surfaces below the dew-point
temperature. It can be eliminated by (1) raising the surface temperature
with increased air velocities passing over the surface, or adding a sufficient
thickness of insulation, and (2) by lowering the humidity which is often
not possible due to manufacturing processes.
The condensation of moisture within walls5 is an important problem
with may types of construction under adverse conditions. The tempera-
*Preventing Condensation on Interior Building Surfaces, by Paul D. Close (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 36, 1930, p. 153).
"Condensation within Walls, by F. B. Rowley, A. B. Algren and C. E. Lund (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL
SECTION, Healing, Piping and Air Conditioning, January, 1938).
141
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
tures of the various parts of a wall are controlled by the type and amount
of insulation used and the vapor densities in the corresponding sections
are controlled by the type of vapor barriers installed. The transmission
of heat and vapor through a wall should be considered together, and in
most cases the proper combination of insulation and vapor barriers will
eliminate the possibilities of condensation within walls. A consideration
often overlooked in problems of condensation within walls is that a vapor
barrier should be placed on the warm side and not on the cold side of
a wall.
HEAT LOSS COMPUTATION EXAMPLE
Buift-up Cooftoq on 3* Coocr«Ve Hoof Deck
5fe U UnqAwfcnol Ax* MorHi * S
#e— 1
net 1 — IS Window* «od»
l.f r »de 4'JfUuLt.
fcron 1
nor i* 5*St&neConcra£e0n
faec-fn-p 3-Ond«rCooc«t«
j'£ OR Dirt -7
•outh
Lenqlb ttrf-0*
\
S
O
I
r
orCra
Solid V
&~
xxlDoow
-BP
5
FIG. 1. ELEVATION OF FACTORY BUILDING
Philadelphia, Pa.
-6F
..Northwest
60 F
1. LOCATION
2. LOWEST OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE. (Table 2)
3. BASE TEMPERATURE: In this example a design temperature 10 F above lowest
on record instead of 15 F is used. Hence the base temperature —
(- 6 + 10) = + 4 F.
4. DIRECTION OF PREVAILING WIND (during Dec., Jan., Feb.)
5. BREATHING-LINE TEMPERATURE (5 ft from floor)
6. INSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE AT ROOF:
The air temperature just below roof is higher than at the breathing line.
Height of roof is 16 ft, or it is 16 — 5 « 11 ft above breathing line. Allowing
2 per cent per foot above 5 ft, or 2 X 11 — 22 per cent, makes the tem-
perature of the air under the roof = 1,22 X 60 = 73.2 F.
7. INSIDE TEMPERATURE AT WALLS:
The air temperature at the mean height of the walls is greater than at
the breathing fine. The mean height of the walls is 8 ft and allowing 2 per
cent per foot above 5 ft, the average mean temperature of the walls is
1.06 X 60 = 63.6 F. By similar assumptions and calculations, the mean
temperature of the glass will be found to be 64.2 F and that of the doors
61.2 F.
8. AVERAGE WIND VELOCITY (Table 2)
9. OVER-ALL DIMENSIONS (See Fig. 1)...
10. CONSTRUCTION:
..11.0 mph
120 x 50 x 16 ft
Walls — 12-in. brick, with %-in. plaster applied directly to inside surface.
Roof — 3-in. stone concrete and built-up roofing.
142
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
Floor — 5-in. stone concrete on 3-in. cinder concrete on dirt.
Doors— One 12 ft x 12 ft wood door (2 in. thick) at each end.
Windows — Fifteen, 9 ft x 4 ft single glass double-hung windows on each side.
11. TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS:
Walls— (Table 3, Chapter 5, Wall 2B) U = 0.34
Roof— (Table 11, Chapter 5, Roofs 2A and 3A) U = 0.77
Floor— (Table 10, Chapter 5, Floors 5A and 6A) U = 0.63
Doors— -(Table 13B, Chapter 5) U = 0.46
Windows— (Table 13A, Chapters) U - 1.13
12. INFILTRATION COEFFICIENTS:
Windows— Average windows, non-weatherstripped, Ke-in- crack and
5^4-in. clearance. The leakage per foot of crack for an 11-mile wind
velocity is 25.0 cfh. (Determined by interpolation of Table 2,
Chapter 6.) The heat equivalent per hour per degree per foot of
crack is taken from Chapter 6.
25.0 X 0.018 = 0.45 Btu per deg Fahrenheit per foot of crack.
Doors — Assume infiltration loss through door crack twice that of windows
or 2 X 0.45 = 0.90 Btu per deg Fahrenheit per foot of crack.
Walls— As shown by Table 1, Chapter 6, a plastered wall allows so little
infiltration that in this problem it may be neglected.
13. CALCULATIONS: See calculation sheet, Table 3.
TABLE 3.
CALCULATION SHEET SHOWING METHOD OF ESTIMATING HEAT LOSSES OF
BUILDING SHOWN IN FIG. 1
PART OF BUILDING
WIDTH
IN
FEET
HEIGHT
IN
FEET
NET SUR-
FACE AREA
OR CRACK
LENGTH
COEFFI-
CIENT
TEMP.
DIFF.
TOTAL
BTU
North Wall:
Pn>k, M-1"^ piaster , .,
60
12
Ipair
16
12
doors
656
144
60
0.34
0.46
0.90
59.6
57.2
57.2
13,293
3,789
1,544*
Poors (2-ii?T wood) ,
Min- ^rac.k -. '
West Wall:
Ttriclc, J^-in . pfastfr
120
15x4
Double
Windov
16
9
Hung
re (15)
1380
540
450
0.34
1.13
0.45
59.6
60.2
60.2
27,964
36,734
6,095a
niass (Siiigte)L_
^ in Cr?»cV .... ~ , -
South Wall
Same as North Wall
18,626
TCaat Ws^l ,
Same as West Wall
70,793
Roof, 3-in. concrete and slag-
surfaced built-up roofing
50
120
6000
0.77
69.2
319,704
Floor, 5-in. stone concrete on
3-in. cinder concrete.^_..____
50
120
6000
0.63
5b
18,900
GRAND TOTAL of heat required for building in Btu pet
honr ,-,- L _^ 1L
517.442
aThis building has no partitions and whatever air enters through the cracks on the windward side must
leave through the cracks on the leeward side. Therefore, only one-half of the total crack will be used in
computing infiltration for each side and each end of building.
bA 5 F temperature differential is commonly assumed to exist between the air on one side of a large
floor laid on the ground and the ground.
143
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the relation between the sensible heat loss from a building and the
heat required for humidification?
A house with a volume of 14,000 cu ft has a heat loss 120 Mbh for standard uninsulated
frame construction and a 70 F temperature difference. Assuming a leakage rate of
1J^ air changes per hour it would require about 10 Mbh to maintain a relative humidity
of 45 per cent when the outside air is 0 F and 50 per cent relative humidity. By using
an insulation such as rock wool, the sensible heat loss of this house may be reduced to
approximately 77 Mbh. The insulation does not affect the humidification load, which
now assumes greater importance.
2 • What inside dry-bulb temperatures are usually assumed for: (a) homes,
(b) schools, (c) public buildings?
Referring to Table 1:
a. 70 to 72 F.
b. Temperature varies from 55 to 75 F, depending on the room. Classrooms, for instance,
are usually specified as 70 to 72 F.
c. 68 to 72 F.
3 • How is the outside temperature selected for use hi computing heat losses?
The outside temperature used in computing heat losses is generally taken from 10 to 15 F
higher than the lowest recorded temperature as reported by the Weather Bureau during
the preceding 10 years for the locality in which the heating system is to be installed.
In some cases where the lowest recorded temperature is extremely unusual, the design
temperature is taken even higher than 15 F above the lowest recorded temperature.
4 • What are the effects of wind movement on the heating load?
a. Wind movement increases the heat transmission of walls, glass, and roof; it affects
poor walls to a much greater extent than good walls.
b. Wind movement materially increases the infiltration (inleakage) of cold air through
the cracks around doors and windows, and even through the building materials them-
selves if such materials are at all porous.
5 • Calculate the heat given off by eighteen 200-watt lamps.
200 X 18 X 3.415 - 12,294 Btu per hour.
6 • A two-story, six-room, frame house, 28-ft by 30-ft foundation, has the
following proportions :
Area of outside walls, 1992 sq ft.
Area of glass, 333 sq ft.
Area of outside doors, 54 sq ft.
Cracks around windows, 440 ft.
Cracks around doors, 54 ft.
Area of second floor ceiling, 783 sq ft.
Volume, first and second floors, 13,010 cu ft.
Ceilings, 9 ft high.
The minimum temperature for the heating season is — 34 F, and the required
inside temperature at the 30-in. level is 70 F. The average number of degree
days for a heating season is 7851, and the average wind velocity is 10 mph,
northwest. *
The walls are constructed of 2-m. by 4-in. studs with wood sheathing, building
paper, and wood siding on the outside, and wood lath and plaster on the inside.
Windows are single glass, double-hung, wood, without weatherstrips. The
second floor ceiling is metal lath and plaster, without an attic floor. The roof
is of wood shingles on wood strips with rafters exposed. The area of the roof is
20 per cent greater than the area of the ceiling. Select values for the following :
(a) U for walls; (b) U for glass; (c) U for second floor ceiling; (d) U for roof;
144
CHAPTER 7. HEATING LOAD
(e) U for ceiling and roof combined; (f) air leakage, cubic feet per hour per foot
of window crack; (g) air leakage, cubic feet per hour per foot of door crack.
a. 0.25 (Table 5, Chapter 5).
b. 1.13 (Table 13, Chapter 5).
c. 0.69 (Table 8, Chapter 5).
d. 0.46 (Table 12, Chapter 5).
e. 0.31 (Equation 6, Chapter 5).
/. 21.4 (Table 2, Chapter 6).
g. 42.8, which is double the window leakage.
7 • Using the data of Question 6, calculate the maximum Btu loss per hour for
the various constructions, and show the percentage of the total heat which is
lost through each construction described.
Assume 2 per cent rise in temperature for each foot in height. The average temperature
will be 72.8 F for walls, doors, and windows, and 79.1 F for the second floor ceiling.
a. Outside walls
b. Glass
c. Doors
d. Second floor ceiling
e. Air leakage, windows
/. Air leakage, doors
Total
46,200 Btu loss
34,950 Btu loss
5,670 Btu loss
24,050 Btu loss
15,750 Btu loss
3,865 Btu loss
35.4 per cent of total
26.7 per cent of total
4.4 per cent of total
18.4 per cent of total
12.1 per cent of total
3.0 per cent of total
130,485 Btu loss 100.0 per cent of total
8 • For the house in Question 6, place 1-in. insulation in the outside walls and
second floor ceiling; k for insulation = 0.34. Use weatherstrip on doors and
windows, and double glass on the windows; G = 0.55. Calculate or select the
following values: (a) U for walls; (b) U for glass; (c) U for second floor ceiling;
(d) U for combination of ceiling and roof; (e) air leakage, cubic feet per hour
per foot of door crack; (f) air leakage, cubic feet per hour per foot of window
crack.
a. 0.144
b. 0.55
c. 0.23
d. 0.16
e. 15.5
/. 31.0
9 • Calculate the maximum Btu loss per hour and show the percentage loss by
each channel for the house as insulated in Question 8.
a. Outside walls
b. Glass
c. Doors
d. Ceiling
e. Air leakage, windows
/. Air leakage, doors
Total
26,650 Btu loss
17,000 Btu loss
5,670 Btu loss
12,420 Btu loss
11,400 Btu loss
2,795 Btu loss
35.1 per cent of total
22.4 per cent of total
7.4 per cent of total
16.4 per cent of total
15.1 per cent of total
3.6 per cent of total
75,935 Btu loss 100.0 per cent of total
10 • From the results of Questions 7 and 9, calculate the Btu saved and the
percentage saved by each change in construction.
UNINSULATED
INB^™
BTU SAVED
Fra CENT SATED
a. Outside walls
b. Glass
c. Doors
d. Ceiling
46,200
34,950
5,670
24,050
15,750
3,865
26,650
17,000
5,670
12,420
11,400
2,795
19,550
17,950
0
11,630
4,350
1,070
42.3
51.4
0
48.3
27.6
27.7
f. Air leakage, windows
/. Air leakage, doors.
145
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
11 • From the results of Questions 7 and 9, calculate the heat loads per heating
season in Btu and note the savings by better construction.
The 7851 degree days for the heating season multiplied by 24 hours, times the Btu loss
per hour for 1 F drop in temperature gives the Btu load per heating season.
Saving - 262,000,000 - 152,500,000 = 109,500,000 Btu.
12 • The dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity at the ceiling of a
mixing room in a bakery are 80 F and 60 per cent, respectively. The roof is a
4-in. concrete deck covered with built-up roofing. If the lowest outside tem-
perature to be expected is — 10 F, what thickness of rigid fiber insulation will be
required to prevent condensation?
From Table 11, Chapter 5, U for the uninsulated roof = 0.72. From Table 2, Chapter 5,
k for rigid fiber insulation = 0.33. From the psychrometric chart the dew-point of air
at 80 F and 60 per cent relative humidity is 65 F. The ceiling temperature, therefore,
must not drop below 65 F if condensation is to be prevented.
When equilibrium is established, the amount of heat flowing through any component
part of a construction is the same for each square foot of area.
Therefore,
U [80 - (-10) ] = 1.65 (80 - 65)
where
U is the transmittance of the insulated roof.
Solving the equation, U = 0.275.
The resistance of the insulated roof = ~ 0_, = 3.64.
The resistance of the uninsulated roof = 77-^7 — 1.39.
U.7J
The resistance of the insulation = 3.64 — 1.39 = 2.25.
Resistance per inch of insulation = n Q0 = 3.0.
U.oo
Since a resistance of 2.25 is required, and 1 in. of insulation has a resistance of 3, one inch
will be sufficient to prevent condensation.
The same result might have been obtained by selecting an insulated 4-in. concrete slab
having a U of less than 0.275 from Table 11, Chapter 5. This 4-in. concrete slab with
1-in. rigid insulation has a U of 0.23 which is safe.
146
L
Chapter 8
COOLING LOAD
Conditions of Comfort, Design Outside Temperatures, Com-
ponents of Heat Gain, Normal Heat Transmission, Solar
Heat Transmission, Sun Effect Through Windows, Heat
Emission of Occupants, Heat Introduced by Outside Air, Heat
Emission of Appliances
OAD calculations for summer air conditioning are more complicated
, y than heating load calculations for the reason that there are several
more factors to be considered. Because of the variable nature of some of
the contributing load components and the fact that they do not neces-
sarily impose their maximum effect simultaneously, considerable care
must be exercised in determining their phase relationship in order that
equipment of proper capacity may be selected to maintain specified
indoor conditions.
CONDITIONS OF COMFORT
The conditions to be maintained in an enclosure are variable ^ and
depend upon several factors, especially the outside design conditions,
duration of occupancy and relationship between air motion, dry-bulb and
wet-bulb temperatures. Information concerning the proper effective
temperature to be maintained is given in Chapter 3, where are also tabu-
lated the most desirable indoor conditions to be maintained in summer for
exposures over 40 min (see Table 2, Chapter 3).
DESIGN OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES
Summer dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of various cities are
given in Table 1. It will be noted that the temperatures are not the maxi-
mums but the design temperatures which should be used In air condition-
ing calculations. The maximum outside wet-bulb temperatures as given
in Weather Bureau reports usually occur only from 1 to 4 per cent of the
time, and they are therefore of such short duration that it is not practical
to design a cooling system covering this range. The temperatures shown
in Table 1 are in part based on available design conditions known ^to be
successfully applied and for those localities where this information is
lacking they are based on a study of the hourly temperatures in New York
City from which factors were derived and applied to the average maxi-
mum dry- and wet-bulb temperatures for other cities. This study covered
a twenty-year record of Weather Bureau temperatures. The design
147
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. DESIGN DRY- AND WET-BULB TEMPERATURES, WIND VELOCITIES, AND
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR JUNE, JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER
STATE
CITY
DESIGN
DST-BULB
DESIGN
WET-BULB
SUMMER WIND
VELOCITY
MPH
PREVAILING
SUMMER WIND
DIRECTION
Ala
Birmingham
Mobile
95
95
78
80
5.2
8.6
S
sw
Ariz
Phoenix
105
76
6.0
w
Ark. . .
Little Rock
95
78
7.0
NE
Calif.
Los Angeles
90
70
6.0
SW
Colo.
San Francisco
Denver
90
95
65
64
11.0
6.8
sw
S
Conn
New Haven
95
75
7.3
S
Dela.
D. C.
Wilmington
Washington
95
95
78
78
9.7
6.2
sw
S
Fla.
Jacksonville,
95
78
8.7
sw
Tampa
94
79
7.0
E
Ga
Atlanta
95
75
7.3
NW
Idaho . ...
Savannah
Boise., _....
95
95
78
65
7.8
5.8
SW
NW
Ill
Ind _.
Iowa
Kansas
Ky.
Lav: ::
Maine.
Md
Mass.
Mich
Minn ~
Miss.
Mo
Mont_
Chicago _
Peoria
Indianapolis
Des Moines „
Wichita
Louisville
New Orleans
Portland-
Baltimore.-
Boston
Detroit
Minneapolis.-
Vicksburg
Kansas City.
St. Louis.
Helena
95
95
95
95
100
95
95
90
95
92
95
95
95
100
95
95
75
76
76
77
75
76
79
73
78
75
75
75
78
76
78
67
10.2
8.2
9.0
6.6
11.0
8.0
7.0
7.3
6.9
9.2
10.3
8.4
6.2
9.5
9.4
7.3
NE
S
SW
sw
S
sw
sw
S
sw
sw
sw
SE
sw
S
sw
sw
Nebr
Nev .
N. H.
N. J.
N. Y.
Lincoln
Reno
Manchester
Trenton
Albany
95
95
90
95
92
75
65
73
78
75
9.3
7.4
5.6
10.0
71
S
w
NW
sw
s
Buffalo
New York
93
95
75
75
12.2
12.9
sw.
sw
N. M..
Santa Fe
90
65
6 5
SE
N. C.
Asheville.
90
75
5.6
SE
N. Dak _
Ohio
Okla
Ores..
psZ :. ...
Wilmington
Bismarck
Cleveland
Cincinnati
Oklahoma City
Portland
Philadelphia-
95
95
95
95
101
90
95
79
73
75
78
76
65
78
7.8
8.8
9.9
6.6
10.1
6.6
97
SW
NW
S
sw
s
NW
SW
R. I „
S. C
S. Dak
Tenn.
Pittsburgh
Providence.
Charleston
Greenville.
Sioux Falls
Chattanooga
95
93
95
95
95
95
75
75
80
76
75
77
9.0
10.0
9.9
6.8
7.6
6 5
NW
NW
SW
NE
S
SW
Memphis
95
78
7.5
sw
148
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
TABLE 1. DESIGN DRY AND WET-BULB TEMPERATURES, WIND VELOCITIES, AND
WIND DIRECTIONS FOR JUNE, JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER (Continued)
STATE
Crrr
DESIGN
DET-BCLB
SUMMER WIND i PBIVAUJNG
VELOCITY i SUMMER WIND
Mm
JLHRECriON
Texas
Dallas
100
78
9.4
s
Galveston.. _
95
SO
9.7
s
San Antonio
100
78
7.4
SE
Houston
95
78
7.7
S
El Paso,...
100
69
6.9
E
Utah
Salt Lake City
95
67
8.2
SE
Vt
Burlington
90
73
8.9
S
Va
Norfolk......
95
78
10.9
S
Richmond
95
78
6.2
SW
Wash.
Seattle.
85
65
7.9
S
Spokane ....
90
65
6.5
SW
W. Va
Parkersburg
• 95
75
5.3
SE
Wise.
Madison.
95
75
8.1
SW
Milwaukee.
95
75
10.4
s
Wyo. _
Cheyenne.
95
65
9.2
s
temperatures given are not exceeded more than 5 to 8 per cent of the time
during a cooling season of 1200 hours in June, July, August and September
for an average year.
COMPONENTS OF HEAT GAIN
A cooling load determination is composed of five components which
may be classified in the following manner:
1. Normal heat transfer through windows, walls, partitions, doors, floors, ceilings, etc.
2. Transfer of solar radiation through windows, walls, doors, skylights, or roof.
3. Heat emission of occupants within enclosures.
4. Heat introduced by infiltration of outside air or controlled ventilation.
5. Heat emission of mechanical, chemical, gas, steam, hot water and electrical
appliances^located within enclosures.
The components of heat gain, classified by source are further classified
as sensible and latent heat gain.
The first two components fall into the classification of sensible heat
gain, that is, they tend to raise the temperature of the air within the
structure. The last three components not only produce sensible heat
gain but they may also tend to increase the moisture content of the air
within the structure.
Normal Heat Transmission
By normal heat transmission, as distinguished from solar heat trans-
mission is meant the transmission of heat through windows, walls,
partitions, etc. from without to interior of enclosure by virtue of difference
between outside and inside air temperatures. This load is calculated in a
149
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
8
I
CO
8
nia
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
manner similar to that described in Chapter 7 (except that flow of heat
is reversed) by means of the formula:
Ht = AU(h-t) (1)
where
Ht = heat transmitted through the material of wall, glass, floor, etc., Btu per hour.
A — net inside area of wall, glass, floor, etc., square feet.
t = inside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
t0 = outside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
U = coefficient of transmission of wall, glass, floor, etc., Btu per hour per square foot
per degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature (Tables 3 to 13, Chapter 5),
Solar Heat Transmission
Calculations of the solar heatjtransmitted through walls and roofs
are difficult to determine because of periodical character of heat flow and
time lag due to heat capacity of construction.
The variation in solar intensity normal to sun in Btu per square foot
per hour on a horizontal surface, and on east, west, and south walls is
given in Fig. 1. The curves are drawn from A.S.H.V.E. Laboratory data
obtained by pyrheliometer, are based on sun time and apply for a per-
fectly clear day on August 1 at a north latitude of 40 deg. A study of
these curves discloses the periodic relationship and wide variation in
solar intensity on various surfaces. It will be observed that both the roof
and south wall radiation curves are in exact phase relationship with each
other and that whereas the east and west wall radiation curves overlap
those for roof and south wall, they do not overlap each other. This phase
relationship has an important bearing on the cooling load. Failure to
consider the periodical character of heat flow resulting from diurnal
movement of the sun and the lag due to heat capacity of the structure,
which determine the timing and magnitude of the heat wave flowing
through the wall, may result in a large error in load calculations.
The values of solar intensity appearing in Fig. 1 must not be confused
with the actual heat transmission through the wall for much of this heat
intensity on an outside surface is in part reflected and in part wiped off by
convection to the outside air. A mathematical solution for the deter-
mination of solar heat transmission has been developed but the equations
involved are too complex for practical application.1 From results of this
investigation and earlier studies,2 the Research Laboratory has prepared
Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 which give the solar intensity (I) for various hours of
the day against walls of various orientations and horizontal surfaces and
the solar radiation ( JG ) transmitted through windows of various orien-
tations as well as skylights at various hours of the day. These values are
shown for north latitudes from 30 to 45 deg.
It should be noted that the values for (7) represent the rate of solar
intensity impinging against and not transmitted through walls and roofs
whereas values for (7G) represent actual rate of heat transmission through
windows and skylights. Since the amount of solar intensity actually
1Heat Transmission as Influenced by Heat Capacity and Solar Radiation, by F. C. Houghten, J. L.
Blackshaw, E. W. Pugh and Paul McDennott (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 231).
Absorption of Solar Radiation in its Relation to the Temperature, Color, Angle and Other Character-
istics of the Absorbing Surface, by F. C. Houghten and Carl Gutberlet (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol.
36, 1930, p. 137). - . _ . . .
151
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. SOLAR RADIATION IMPINGING AGAINST WALLS HAVING SEVERAL ORIENTATIONS,
AND A HORIZONTAL SURFACE, AND THE RADIATION TRANSMITTED THROUGH GLASS
FOR THE SAME ORIENTATIONS
For 30 Deg Latitude on the twenty-first of July, in Btu per sqft per hour
SUN
NORTHEAST EAST SOUTHEAST SOUTH SOUTHWEST i WIST
NORTHWEST
HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
TnoB
I
IG , I
IG I
IG I ' 1G I I IG
4:59
0
0 0
0 0
0 ; '
!
0
0
5:00; 1
0.9 1
0.9 0.3
02 • ' ,
0.01
0.005
6:00 47
41 51
44 , 24
17 :
9
5
7:00
136
106 160
140 , 90
68 ' ;
68
47
8:00
151
122 205
177 136
105
147
116
9:00
127
91 189
156 , 140
104
8 1
214
182
10:00! 79
47 , 141
103 122
85
31 12
j
265
231
11:00 21
6 ' 78
45 85
52
45 21
296
261
12:00
• 36
15 50 24
36
15
305
269
1:00
45 21
85
52
78
45
21
6
296
261
2:00
31 12
122
85
141
103
79
47
265
231
3:001 ',
8 1
140
104
189
156
127
91
214
182
4:00
136
105
205
177
151
122
147
116
5:00
90
68
160
140
136
106
68
47
6:00j
24
17
51
44
47
41
9
5
7:00;
0.3
0.2
1
0.9
1
0.9
0.01
0.005
7:01
;
1
j o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
TABLE 3. SOLAR RADIATION IMPINGING AGAINST WALLS HAVING SEVERAL ORIENTATIONS,
AND A HORIZONTAL SURFACE, AND THE RADIATION TRANSMITTED THROUGH GLASS
FOR THE SAME ORIENTATIONS
For 85 Deg Latitude on the twenty-first of July, in Btu per sqft per hour.
i
STO Nosn
TtMB!
HAST
&
5T
Soum
3EAST
Soi
JTH
SOTJTI
[WEST
Wi
car
NORTI
3WEST
HORE
SUR
jONTAL
PACT
I
IG
/
IG
I
IG
J
'o
" 7
IG
/
IG
7
IG
7
IG
4:461 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5:od 9
8
9
8
3
2
0.01
0.007
6:00! 67
58
72
63
35
26
15
8
7:00 142
120
174
152
103
78
77
53
8:00! 150
120
209
181
145
114
151
120
9:00 118
10:00 60
83
32
191
143
157
104
154
139
118
101
26
55
8
27
214
264
181
230
11:00 2
0.1
75
43
103
67
72
41
291
256
12:00
55
28
78
46
55
28
300
265
l:oJ
72
41
103
67
75
43
2
0.1
291
256
2:00
55
27
139
101
143
104
60
32
264
230
3:00!
26
8
154
118
191
157
118
83
214
181
4:00|
145
114
209
181
150
120
151
120
5:00;
103
78
174
152
142
120
77
53
6:00!
35
26
72
63
67
58
15
8
7:00
3
2
9
8
9
8
0.01
0.007
7:14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
152
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
TABLE 4. SOLAR RADIATION IMPINGING AGAINST WALLS HAVING SEVERAL ORIENTATIONS
AND A HORIZONTAL SURFACE, AND THE RADIATION TRANSMITTED THROUGH GLASS
FOR THE SAME ORIENTATIONS
For 40 Deg Latitude on the twenty-first of July, in Bin per sqft per hour.
SUN
TIME
NORTHEAST
EAST
SOUTHEAST SOUTH SOUTHWEST WEST ISORTI
, HORIZONTAL
IWEST i SURFACE
T
j.
G
/G , J
JG L
JG 7
7G l
'G
4:31 0
0
0
0 0 : 0 '
\ 0 0
5:00, 14
12
14
12
-
3 i ; ;
1 1
0.2
6:00
72
63
80
70
40 29
19 11
7:001 143
120
180
158
112
87
; 82
57
8:00 143
111
211
182
155
124
8
2
152
121
9:00
104
69
192
158
168
133
46
22
|
]
213
178
10:00
46
22
143
104
156
117
77
45
!
j
255
225
11:00
75
43
121
83
95
60
15 , 4
i
284
249
12:00
73
42
103
67
73 1 42
293
258
1:00
15
4
95
60
121
83
75
43
284
249
2:00
77
45
156
117
143
104
46
22
25S
225
3:00
46
22
168
133
192
158
104
69
213
178
4:00
8
2
155
124
211
182
143
111
152
121
5:00
112
87
180
158
143
120
82
57
6:00
i
40
29
80
70
72
63
19
11
7:00
5 3
14
12
14
12
1
0.2
7:29
0 0
0
0
0
o
0
0
1
TABLE 5. SOLAR RADIATION IMPINGING AGAINST WALLS HAVING SEVERAL ORIENTATIONS
AND A HORIZONTAL SURFACE, AND THE RADIATION TRANSMITTED THROUGH GLASS
FOR THE SAME ORIENTATIONS
For 45 Deg Latitude on the twenty-first of July, in Btu per sqft per hour.
SUN
TIME
NORTHEAST
EAST
SOUTHEAST
SOUTH
SOUTHWEST
WEST
NOETHWEST
HORIZONTAL
SUMACS
J
*G
J
*G
J
'G
J
*G
7
'G
I
'G
I
*G
r
*G
4:26
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5:00
25
22
24
21
9
6
2
07
6:00
89
77
99
88
52
39
26
15
7:00
149
125
194
170
125
99
90
63
8:00
140
109
219
189
171
139
22
8
156
123
9:00
92
58
194
160
183
148
65
36
210
177
10:00
33
13
144
106
171
134
98
63
251
217
11:00
75
43
139
101
121
83
32
13
274
240
12:00
91
67
128
90
91
67
282
247
1:00
32
13
121
83
139
101
75
43
274
240
2:00
98
63
171
134
144
106
33
13
251
217
3:00
65
36
183
148
194
160
92
58
210
177
4:00
22
8
171
139
219
189
140
109
156
123
5:00
125
99
194
170
144
125
90
63
6:00
52
39
99
88
89
77
26
15
7:00
9
6
24
21
25
22
2
0.7
153
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
transmitted through a surface depends upon the nature of the exterior
surface of wall or roof construction, it is necessary, in order to determine
actual amount of solar heat transmission, to apply correction factors to
the values of (I). Solar radiation factors and solar absorption coefficients
have been determined3 as indicated in Fig. 2 and Table 6 respectively.
0.20
0.18
0.14
U.Q.I:
I
SL.
-U
C0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 07
WALL TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT, Uw
FIG. 2. SOLAR RADIATION FACTORS
.8
The solar heat conduction through a wall or roof exposed to the sun
may be expressed by the formula:
- A Fal
(2)
where
HR — Solar heat transmission, Btu per hour.
A - Area of wall or roof, square feet.
F = Percentage (expressed as a decimal) of the absorbed solar radiation which is
transmitted to the inside (Fig. 2) .
a = Percentage (expressed as a decimal) of the incident solar radiation which is
absorbed by the surface (Table 6).
/ - Actual intensity of solar radiation striking surface. Btu per hour per square
foot (Tables 2r 3, 4 and 5).
*A Rational Heat Gain Method for the Determination of Air Conditioning Cooling Loads, by F. H.
Faust, L. Levine and F. 0. Urban (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41. 1935? £ 327)7
154
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
The total amount of heat conducted through a wall exposed to the sun
is the sum of Ht and H& from Formulas 1 and 2.
The calculation of heat transmission through walls and roofs does not
take into consideration the heat capacity of the structure nor the con-
TABLE 6. SOLAR ABSORPTION COEFFICIENTS FOR DIFFERENT BUILDING MATERIALS
SURFACE MATERIAL
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
(a)
Very Light Colored Surfaces
White stone
Very light colored cement
White or light cream-colored paint
0.4
Medium Dark Surfaces
Asbestos shingles
Unpainted wood
Brown stone
Brick and red tile
Dark-colored cement
Stucco
Red, green or gray paint
0.7
Very Dark Colored Surfaces
Slate roofing
Tar roofing materials
Very dark paints
0.9
sequent time lag in the transmission of heat. In the case of massive walls
the time lag may amount to several hours4. Thus in many cases the wall
transmission cannot be added directly to the cooling load from dther
sources because the peak of the wall transmission load may not coincide
TABLE 7. TIME LAG IN TRANSMISSION OF SOLAR RADIATION THROUGH WALLS AND ROOFS
TYPE AND THICKNESS OF WAIJ. OB ROOF
Tom LAG,
HOTJHS
2-in. oine
\Yz
— i*i. ^.*^^- — -
o-in. concrete
3
4rin. gypsum
2^
3-in. concrete and 1-in. cork. . ~
2
2-in. iron and cork (equivalent to %-in. concrete and 2.15-in. cork)
4-in. iron and cork (equivalent to 5J^-in. concrete and 1.94-in. cork) . , .
2^
7H
8-in. iron and cork (equivalent to 16-in. concrete and 1.53-in. cork)
19
22-in. brick and tile wall
10
with the peak of the total cooling load and may even occur after the
cooling system has been shut down for the day. The data in Table 7 were
taken from A.S.H.V.E. research papers and whereas they result from a
study of experimental slabs, they give an approximate idea of the time lag
to be expected in various structures.
<Loc. Cit. Notes 1 and 2.
155
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Sun Effect Through Windows
Windows present a problem somewhat different from that of opaque
walls, because they permit a large percentage of the solar^ energy to pass
through undiminished ; only a small percentage (approximately 10 per
cent) is reflected. This fact permits the solar heat gain through windows
to be expressed by the simple formula:
where
(3)
HG = Solar radiation transmitted through a window, Btu per hour.
^G = Area of glass, square feet.
^G — Amount of solar radiation transmitted directly through the glass, Btu per hour
per square foot (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5).
Values for solar heat transmission through glass as determined by
Formula 3 apply only to unshaded windows. Tests at the A.S.H.V.E.
Research Laboratory* have determined the percentages of heat from
solar radiation actually delivered to a room with bare windows and with
various types of outdoor and indoor shading. The data in Table 8 are
taken from these tests.
TABLE 8. SOLAR RADIATION TRANSMITTED THROUGH BARE AND SHADED WINDOWS
TTPB OF APPUBTENANCB
FINISH
FACING
SUN
PEB CENT
TO ROOM
Bare window glass.. ..
97
Canvas awniner .
Plain
28
Canvas awning
Aluminum
22
Inside shade, fully drawn
Aluminum
45
Inside shade, one-half drawn . .
Buff
68
Inside Venetian blind, fully covering window, slats at 45 deg
Outside Venetian blind, fully covering window, slats at 45 deg....
Aluminum
Aluminum
58
22
The percentage values in this table were obtained by dividing the total
amount of heat actually entering through the shaded window by the total
amount of heat calculated to enter through a bare window (solar radiation
plus glass transmission based on observed outside glass temperature).
For bare windows on which the sun shines, the transmission of heat from
outside air to glass is small or negative because the glass temperature is
raised by the solar radiation absorbed. Therefore, in calculating the
total heat gain through windows on the sunny sides of buildings, it is
sufficiently accurate to determine the total cooling load due to the win-
dow, as the solar radiation times the proper factor from Table 8 and to
neglect the heat transmission through the glass caused by the difference
between the temperatures of the inside and outside air.
Although Table 8 shows that 97 per cent of the heat from solar radia-
tion is delivered to a room through bare window glass, more recent tests6
*Radiation of Energy Through Glass, by J. L. Blackshaw and F. C. Houghten (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 93). Studies of Solar Radiation Through Bare and Shaded Windows, by F. C.
Houghten, Carl Gutberlet, and J. L. Blackshaw (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 101).
•Cooling Requirements of Single Rooms in a Modern Office Building, by F. C. Houghten, Carl Gutberlet,
and Albert J. Wahl (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 53).
156
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
have indicated that in the case of a building having floors of high heat
capacity such as concrete floors on which the solar radiation falls, approxi-
mately one-half of the heat entering a bare window is absorbed by the
floor and does not immediately become a part of the cooling load but is
delivered back to the air in the building at a slow rate over a period of
24 hours or longer.
The maximum solar intensity on any surface is of limited duration as
shown in Fig. 1. In the case of windows the total energy impinging on the
glass before and after the time of maximum intensity is further reduced
by increased shading^ of the glass from the frame, or wall. The cooling
load due to solar radiation therefore does not have to be calculated as a
steady load. Another point which should be noted is that the maximum
solar radiation load on the east wall occurs early in the morning when the
outside temperature is low.
In a paper7 by the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory it was shown that
ordinary double strength window glass transmits no measurable amount
of energy radiated from a source at 500 F or lower; that it transmits only
6.0 and 12.3 per cent of the total radiation from surfaces at 700 F and
1000 F, respectively; and that it transmits 65.7 per cent of the radiation
from an arc lamp, 76.3 per cent of the radiation from an incandescent
tungsten lamp, and 89.9 per cent of the radiation from the sun. Thus,
glass windows in a room constitute heat traps, which allow rather free
transmission of radiant energy into the room from the sun to warm objects
in it, but do not allow the transmission of re-radiated heat from these
same objects.
Tests have been made which indicated that sunshine through window
glass is the most important factor to contend with in the cooling of an
office building. At times it was shown to account for as much as 75 per
cent of the total cooling necessary. Because of the importance of the
sunshine load, cooling systems should be zoned so that the side of the
building on which the sun is shining can be controlled separately from the
other sides of the building. If buildings are provided with awnings so
that the window glass is shielded from sunshine, the amount of cooling
required will be reduced and there will also be less difference in the cooling
requirements of different sides of the building. The total cooling load
for a building exposed to the sun on more than one side is of course less
than the sum of the maximum cooling loads in the individual rooms since
the maximum solar radiation load on the different sides occurs at different
times. In determining the total cooling load for a building if the time
when the maximum load occurs is not obvious, the load should be calcu-
lated for various times of day to determine the times at which the sum
of the loads on the different sides of the building is a maximum.
Heat Emission of Occupants
The heat and moisture given off by human beings under various states
of activity are shown in Figs. 8 to 11 and Table 4 of Chapter 3. It will be
observed that the rate of sensible and latent heat emission by human
beings varies greatly depending upon state of activity. In many applica-
tions this component becomes a large percentage of total load.
Txx:. Cit. Note 5.
157
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Heat Introduced by Outside Air
An allowance must be made for the heat and moisture in the outside
air introduced for ventilation purposes or entering the building through
cracks, crevices, doors, and other places where infiltration might occur.
The volume of air entering due to infiltration may be estimated from
data given in Chapter 6. Information on the amount of outside air
required for ventilation will be found in Chapter 3 .
In the event the volume of air entering an enclosure due to infiltration
exceeds that required for ventilation, the former should be used as a basis
for determining the portion of the load contributed by outside air. Where
volume of air required for ventilation exceeds that due to infiltration it is
assumed that a slight positive pressure will exist within the enclosure with
a resulting exfiltration instead of infiltration. In this case the air required
for ventilation is used in determining outside air load.
The sensible heat gain resulting from the outside air introduced may be
determined by the following formula:
Hs = 0.24 X 60 do Q (to - 0 (4)
where
Hs — sensible heat to be removed from outside air entering the building, Btu per hour.
Q = volume of outside air entering building, cubic feet per minute.
do - density of air, pounds of dry air per cubic foot at temperature t0.
to = temperature of outside air, degrees Fahrenheit.
t = temperature of inside air, degrees Fahrenheit.
The total heat gain resulting from outside air introduced may be deter-
mined by the following formula:
H = 60 do Q (h0 - h) (5)
where
H — total heat to be removed from outside air entering the enclosure, Btu per hour.
Q = volume of outside air entering enclosure, cubic feet per minute.
do = density of air, pounds of dry air per cubic foot of air (at temperature /0).
fio = heat content of mixture of outside dry air and water vapor, Btu per pound of
dry air (at temperature t0).
h = heat content of mixture of inside dry air and water vapor, Btu per pound of
dry air (at temperature t).
The latent heat gain resulting from outside air introduced may be
determined by the following formula:
Hi = H - Hn (6)
where
Hi - latent heat to be removed, Btu per hour.
H — total heat to be removed, Btu per hour.
Hs = sensible heat to be removed, Btu per hour.
Heat Emission of Appliances
Heat generating appliances which give off either sensible heat or both
sensible and latent heat in an air conditioned enclosure may be divided
158
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
into three general classes of equipment or devices:
1. Electrical appliances.
2. Gas appliances.
3. Steam heating appliances.
In the first group may be found such devices as lights, motors, toasters,
waffle irons, etc. The capacities of most electrical devices may be
determined from the watt capacity indicated on their^ name plates.
The Btu equivalent of heat generated per hour is determined by multi-
plying the watt capacity by 3.4 (one watthour is equivalent to 3.413 btu).
The capacities of electric motors are usually expressed in terms of
horsepower instead of watts. If the motor efficiency is known, the watts
input may be calculated from the formula:
= 746 (hp) (7)
n
where
P = motor input, watts.
hp — motor load, horsepower.
n = motor efficiency (expressed as a decimal).
When the motor efficiency is not known the heat equivalent of ej?c^ic?;1
input can be approximately determined by applying data given in 1 able V>.
HEAT GENERATED BY MOTORS
NAMEPLATE EATING HORSEPOWER
TTHUT GAIN IN BTTJ PEE HOUR PEE HORSEPOWER
Connected Load in Same Room
Connected Load Outside of Room
Ysto %
Hto3
3 to 20
4250
3700
2950
1700
1150
400
In the second group belong such appliances as coffee urns, gas ranges,
ste£n tables, broilers, hot plates, etc. For heat generating capacities
of such appliances refer to Table 10.
Considerable judgment must be exercised in the use of data given in
Table 10. Consideration must be given to time of day when appliances
are used and the heat they contribute to the space at time of peak .load.
Only those appliances in use at the time of the peak load need be con-
sidered. Consideration must also be given to the way appliances ar
installed, whether products of combustion are vented to a flue, whethe
products of combustion escape into the space to be conditioned or whethe
appliances are hooded allowing part of the heat to escape through «
stSk?onnected with the hood. There are no generally acceptoi dafe
available on the effects of venting and shielding heating appliances but i
TbeSed tiiat when the appliances are properly hooded wi* a pomtij
fan exhaust system through the hood that 50 per cent of the heat will b^
SnvSed up SS the hood and the balance of 50 per cent will be dissipate.
S the Sac? to be conditioned. Where latent as well as sensible heat i
Sv?n off, h is usually safe to assume that all latent heat will be remove,
by a properly designed and operated vent or hood.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 10.
HEAT GAIN FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
SOURCE
BTU PK.
s. HOUR
Sensible La
tent Total
Electric Heating Equipment
Electrical Equipment — Dry Heat— No Evaporated \\ ater _ -
Electric Oven — Baking — -
Electric Equipment— Heating Water— Stewing, Boiling, etc
Electric Lights and Appliances per Watt (Dry Heat)_
Electric Lights and Appliances per Kilowatt (Dry Heat) —
Electric Motors per Horsepower
100%
80%
50%
3.4
3413
2546
90%
1200
600
*
*
8000
1025
300
850
3200
*
*
2050
2050
0%
20%
50%
0
0
0
10%
2000
1200
600
*
2000
0
800
0
1300
*
*
0
0
100%
100%
100%
3.4
3413
2546
100%
2400
1200
3400
7500
10000
1025
1100
850
4500
4600
9000
2050
2050
Coffee Urn — Large, IS in. Diameter— Single Drum.— - —
Coffee Urn— Approx. Connected Load per Gallon of Capacity
Electric Range — Small Burner.
Electric Range"" Large Burner - ....... — ~ ...........—-. —
Electric Range — Oven.. - -
Electric Ra.nze— AVarming Compartment — ....... ,- -,., ..
Steam Table— Per Square Foot of Top Surface
Baker's Oven Per Cubic Foot of Volume . --—. ............. ...... ...*——.......
Frying Griddles— Per Square Foot of Top Surface
Hair Dryer in Beauty Parlor— ^600 w
Permanent Wave Machine in Beauty Parlor— 24-25 w Units
Gas Burning Equipment
Gas Equipment — Dry Heat — No Water Evaporated
Gas Heated Oven — Baking. • . -. •— «
90%
67%
50%
12000
5000
*
*
5000
3000
500
2500
400
540
2250
2250
4500
2250
900
540
135
10%
33%
50%
6000
5000
*
*
5000
3000
500
2500
900
60
250
250
500
250
100
60
15
100%
100%
100%
10000
18000
10000
12000
10000
18000
250
100000
100
250
2500
10000
6000
1000
5000
1300
600
2500
2500
5000
3000
3000
1800
3000
1800
5000
3000
5000
2500
1000
600
150
Gas Equipment— Heating Water— Stewing, Boiling, etc
Stove, Domestic Type — No Water Evaporated — Per Medium Size Burner.
Gas Heated Oven*— Domestic Type — -
Stove Domestic Type— Heating Water— Per Medium Size Burner ...„ - -
Residence Gas Range — Giant Burner (About 5J^j in. Diameter*) .. ,-
Residence Gas Range — Medium Burner (About 4 in, Diameter) ,..,
Residence Gas Range — Double Oven (Total Size 18 in. x 18 in. x 22 in. High)
Residence G&s Range— "Pilot . ......—— ....... ...,,„„-,-„ , T,™-,
Restaurant Range— 4 Burners and Oven _. —
Cast-iron Burner — Low Flame — Per Hole....-— ~ —
Cast-iron Burner — High Flame — Per Hole™. ..
Sinnneritjg Burner - — ............
Coffee Urn — Large, 18 in. Diameter— Single Drum
Coffee Urn — Small," 12 I'TV Diameter — Single PT™
Coffee Urn — Per Gallon of Rated Capacity .. .-.
Egg Boiler — Per Egg Compartment —
Steam Table or Serving Table — Per Square Foot of Top Surface ,.- ... r ,,„_
Dish Warmer — Per Square Foot of Shelf,- ^ — ,- -, - -*
Cigar Lighter— Continuous Flame Type- — -
Curling Iron Heater ~ -
Bunsen Type Burner — Large — Natural Gas
Bunsen Type Burner~— Large-— • Artificial Gas..................... ................... ..............
Bunsen Type Burner~~SmalV~~Natural Gas
Bunsen Type Burner — Small — Artificial Gas -,-„ ,-,--,-
Welsbacli "Burner — Natural Gas —
Welsbach Burner — Artificial Gas
Fish-tail Burner — Natural Gas , .,....„,, ^ -, -—-, -, -T
Fish-tail Burner — Artificial Gas. . . — —
Lighting Fixture Outlet — Large, 3 Mantle 480 C.P
Lighting Fixture Outlet — Small, 1 Mantle 160 C.P
One Cubic Foot of Natural Gas Generates
One Cubic Foot of Artificial Gas Generates
One Cubic Foot of Producer Gas Generates- _
Steam Heated Equipment
Steam Heated Surface Not Polished — Per Square Foot of Surface
Steam Heated Surface Polished — Per Square Foot of Surface
330
130
80
400
220
110
2000
1200
2500
300
0
0
0
0
0
0
2000
1200
2500
800
330
130
80
400
220
110
4000
2400
5000
1100
Insulated Surface, Per Square Foot .... ......... _... ...u.^.
Bare Pipes, Not Polished Per Square Foot of Surface.-
Bare Pipes, Polished i*er Square Foot of Surface. ,„
Insulated Pipes, Per Square Foot— . -
Coffee Urn— Large( 18"in. Diameter — "Single PniTTL
Coffee Urn — Small, 12 in. Diameter — Single Drum
Egg Boiler — Per Egg Compartment .. ...
Steam Table — Per Square Foot of Top Surface
Miscellaneous
Heat Liberated By Food per person, as in a Restaurant
Heat Liberated from Hot Water used direct and on towels per hour — Barber Shops |
30
100
30
200
60
300
'"Per cent sensible and latent heat depends upon use of equipment; dry heat, baking or boiling.
160
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
GENERAL
From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that the determination of
the maximum cooling load is rather complicated by reason of the variable
nature of contributing load components. If the time when the maximum
load occurs is not obvious the load should be calculated for various times
of the day to determine the probable time at which the sum of the various
component loads is a maximum.
Application of the foregoing data in determining cooling load require-
ments is illustrated in Example 1.
Store room
/<-
b
fe
Ceiling height, 12-V
-54-'0"-
8'x6' 14'x6' H'x6'
FIG. 3. PLAN DIAGRAM OF CLOTHING STORE
14'x6'
Example 1. Determine cooling load requirements for a clothing store illustrated in
Fig. 3 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, Latitude 40 deg. This is a one-story building
located on a corner and it faces south and west. Assume building on east and north
sides conditioned.
Wall construction, 8 in. hollow tile, 4 in. brick veneer, plaster on walls, U = 0.33
(Table 4, Wall 38 B, Chapter 5).
Roof construction, 2 in. concrete, % in. rigid insulation, metal lath and plaster
ceiling, U = 0.26 (Table 11, Wall 2 J, Chapter 5).
Floor, maple flooring on yellow pine, no ceiling below, U = 0.34 (Table 8, Wall
1 D, Chapter 5).
Partition, wood lath and plaster on both sides of studding, U = 0.34 (Table 6,
Wall 77 B, Chapter 5).
Show windows, provided with awnings and thin panel partition at rear.
Front doors, 2 ft 6 in. x 7 ft (glass panelled), U - 1.13 (Table 13 A, Chapter 5).
Side door, 3 ft x 7 ft (solid, 1% in. thick), U = 0.51 (Table 13 B, Chapter 5),
Occupancy, 10 clerks, 40 patrons.
Lights, 4200 w.
Outside design conditions, dry-bulb 95 F; wet-bulb 75 F.
Inside design conditions, dry-bulb 80 F; wet-bulb 67 F.
Basement temperature, 85 F.
Store room temperature, 88 F.
161
HEATING VENTHATINO AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Solution: The normal heat transmission through various surfaces shown in load
calculations are determined by application of Formula 1.
It is quite obvious from the shape and exposure of this store that the maximum sun
load will exist on the west wall. Since the west wall has a large glass area with a negligible
time lag, the peak load may be expected at 4:00 p.m. at which time, from Table 4,
IG - 182. JG f°r south glass at 4:00 p.m. is 2. Because of the small amount of solar
radiation transmitted through the south glass, the transmission due to temperature
difference has also been included. Assuming time lag in roof and walls to be 2 hours, the
corresponding values for 7 for south and west walls and roof will be those shown in Table
4 for 2:00 p.m. They are respectively 77, 143 and 258. A time lag of 1 hour was assumed
for the west door amounting to I = 192. By substituting these values in equations 2
and 3 the solar heat load is determined.
To determine the heat gain from the outside air it is necessary first to determine the
volume of the outside air to be introduced. Since the show windows are sealed so as not
to permit infiltration and since there are only three doors in this store through which
infiltration can take place, it is obvious that infiltration of air will be a negligible quan-
tity. The volume of the store is 21,600 cu ft. Good practice indicates that in a store
of this character there should be a minimum of from ltol% outside air changes per hour.
On a basis of 1}4 air changes the volume of outside air to be ^introduced would be 32,400
cfh. By reference to Chapter 3 it will be noted that the minimum ventilation require-
ments are 10 cfm per person. On this basis the ventilation requirements would be
30,000 cfh. Since this will produce approximately IJi outside air changes per hour,
30,000 cfh will be considered in this application.
To determine load imposed by occupants it will be found from Table 4, Chapter 3
that the average person standing at rest will dissipate 225 Btu sensible heat and 206
Btu latent heat per hour.
NORMAL TRANSMISSION LOAD:
SURFACE
DIMENSIONS
AREA
SQ FT
U
TEMP. DIFF.
DEGP
BTTJ PBB
HOUR
S Glass
S Wall
W Wall
WDoor
Roof
Floor
N Partition
Total
2(2 ft 6 in. x 7ft) +
2(10 ft x 6 ft)
(30 ft x 12 ft) -155
(GO ft x 12 ft) -321
3 ft x 7 ft
60 ft x 30 ft
26 ft x 54 ft
30 ft x 12 ft
155
205
399
21
1800
1404
360
1.13
0.33
0.33
0.51
0.26
0.34
0.34
15
15
15
15
15
5
8
2,627
1,015
1,975
161
7,020
2,387
979
16,164
SUN LOAD:
SURFACE
DIMENSIONS
AREA
SQ FT
. F
a
JOB
*G
SHADE
FACTOR
BUT PEE
HOUR
SWall
S Glass
W Glass
WDoor
W Wall
Roof
Total
3(14 ft x 6 ft) +
(8 ft x 6 ft)
205
155
300
21
399
1800
0.078
0.118
0.078
0.062
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.9
77
2
182
192
143
258
0.28
0.28
862
87
15,288
333
3,113
25,914
45,597
OUTSIDE AIR HEAT GAIN:
Sensible heat, Hs = 0.24 X 60 d0 Q (tQ - f) (Formula 4).
Q = 50 X 10 = 500 cfm.
Density of air at 95 F dry-bulb and 75 F wet-bulb for a barometric pressure of 29.92 in.
is 0.07089 Ib per cubic foot (Table 4, Chapter 1).
Dew-point of outdoor air is 66 F (psychrometric chart).
162
CHAPTER 8. COOLING LOAD
Partial pressure of vapor is 0.64378 in. Hg. (Pressure of saturated vapor at 66 F,
Table 6, Chapter 1).
a622
°-622
= a°137 lb water vapor per
pound dry air (Formula 5 a, Chapter 1).
- — : - n nlQ- = 0.986 lb dry air per pound outside air.
1 plUS U.Uloi
do = 0.07089 X 0.986 = 0.0699 lb dry air per cubic foot outside air.
H6 =- 60 X 500 X 0.0699 X 0.24 (95-80) - 7549 Btu per hour.
Total heat, H = 60 dQ Q (h0 - K) (Formula 5).
h0 = 38.46 Btu per pound dry air at 75 F wet-bulb (Table 6, Chapter 1).
h = 31.51 Btu per pound dry air at 67 F wet-bulb (Table 6, Chapter 1).
H = 60 X 0.0699 X 500 (38.46 - 31.51) = 14,574 Btu per hour.
Latent heat gain from outside air = 14,574 — 7549 = 7025 Btu per hour.
PEOPLE HEAT GAIN:
50 X 225 = 11,250 Btu per hour, sensible heat.
50 X 206 = 10,300 Btu per hour, latent heat.
LIGHT HEAT GAIN:
4200 X 3.413 = 14,335 Btu per hour.
SUMMARY:
CQMPOHPSNT OF LQAI»
BTU FBI
i HOUB
Sensible
Latent
Normal Transmission Load ..
Sun Load
16,164
45,597
Outside Air Heat Gain..
People Heat Gain— - -
Light Heat Gain !_ .,
7,549
11,250
14,335
7,025
10,300
TotaL -
94,895
17,325
TOTAL LOAD:
94,895 + 17,325
112,220 Btu per hour.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • The outdoor and indoor temperatures are 90 F and 78 F, respectively. What
is the amount of heat transmitted per hour through a 7 ft by 4 ft north window?
Ht = 28 X 1.13 (90-78) « 380 Btu per hour. (Equation 1, Chapter 8 and Table 13 A,
Chapter 5).
2 • a. If a restaurant has two 10 gal gas-heated coffee urns, what is the cooling
load due to them?
b. What is the cooling load due to four 1350 w burners on an electric range?
a. 2 X 10 X 1000 = 20,000 Btu per hour (Table 10).
b. 4 X 1350 - 5400 w - 5.4 kw.
5.4 X 3413 = 18,430 Btu per hour (Table 10).
3 • a. What is the maximum heat transmission for a flat roof located in Pitts-
burgh (latitude 40 deg) exposed to the sun with the outdoor and indoor tem-
163
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
perature 95 F and 80 F, respectively? The roof is of uninsulated 6 in. concrete
with its underside exposed, and -with a black upper surface.
b. What time of day will maximum cooling load due to the roof exist?
a. Ht + Hjt = [A U (t0 - t)] + [A Fal\ (Formulas 1 and 2).
U for roof = 0,64 (Table 11, Wall 4 A, Chapter 5).
F - 0.147 (Fig. 2).
a - 0.9 (Table 6).
/ = 293 (Table 4).
Ht + HR = [1 X 0.64 (95-80)] + [1 X 0.147 X 0.9 X 293] « 48.5 Btu per square
foot per hour.
b. Maximum sun intensity occurs at noon (Table 4). Maximum effect in cooling load
will occur at 3 p.m. (Table 7).
4 • a. What is the maximum rate of heat delivered to a room through a hare
window in the west wall of a building located in New Orleans (30 deg latitude)?
h. What tune of day will it occur?
c. What will maximum rate be if window is protected by awning?
a. HG = AG!G (Formula 3).
7G = 177 (Table 2).
HG = 1 X 177 = 177 Btu per square foot per hour.
6. At 4 p.m. (Table 2).
c. 177 X 0.28 = 49.6 Btu per square foot per hour (Table 8).
5 • What is the heat gain per cubic foot of outside air introduced, under the
following conditions if the barometric pressure is 29.5 in. Hg.?
Outdoor temperatures, 90 F dry-bulb and 75 F wet-bulb.
Inside temperatures, 78 F dry-bulb and 65 F wet-bulb.
Density of air at 90 F dry-bulb, 75 F wet-bulb and 29.5 in Hg. is 0.0705 Ib per cubic foot
(Table 4, Chapter 1).
Dew-point of outdoor air is 68.2 F (psychrometric chart).
Pressure of saturated vapor at 68.2 F is 0.6946 in. Hg. (Table 6, Chapter 1).
W - 0.622 (-JIT?) = 0.622 (29 S^QSQ^ ) " °'°15 lb water vaP°r Per Poun^ dry
air (Formula oa, Chapter 1).
— 0.985 Ib dry air per pound outside air.
j — r-
d0 = 0.0705 X 0.985 = 0.06944 Ib dry air per cubic foot outside air.
Heat content outside dry air at 75 F wet-bulb = 38.46 Btu per pound.
Heat content inside dry air at 65 F wet-bulb = 29.96 Btu per pound.
Total heat, H » 0.06944 (38.46 - 29.96) = 0.59 Btu per cubic foot.
6 • A 7 X 4 ft west window is equipped with an inside aluminum finished
Venetian blind which is adjusted to fully cover the window when the sun shines.
The^net glass area is 75 per cent of the total area of the window. What is the
cooling load due to the window at 10 a.m. and 4 p.m.? Temperatures are:
10 a.m., outside 85 F and inside 77 F; 4 p.m., outside 95 F and inside 80 F.
Latitude 40 deg.
10 a.m.: Ht = 28 X 1.13 (85-77) = 253 Btu per hour (Equation 1, and Table 13A,
Chapter 5).
4 p.m.: 28 X 0.75 = 21 sq ft net glass area.
HG «* 21 X 182 X 0.58 = 2217 Btu per hour (Tables 4 and 8).
164
Chapter 9
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Classification of Coal, Air for Combustion, Draft Required,
Combustion of Anthracite, Firing Bituminous Coal, Burning
Coke, Hand Firing, Classification and Use of Oil, Classification
and Use of Gas
THE choice of fuel for heating is a question of economy, cleanliness,
fuel availability, operation requirements, and control. The principal
fuels to be considered are coal, oil, and gas.
CLASSinCATION OF COALS
The complex composition of coal makes it difficult to classify it intc
clear-cut types. Its chemical composition is some indication but coals
having the same chemical analysis may have distinctly different burning
characteristics. Users are mainly interested in the available heat pei
pound of coal, in the handling and storing properties, and in the burning
characteristics. A description of the relationship between the qualitiei
of coals and these characteristics requires considerable space; a treatmen
applicable to heating boilers is given in U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 276
A classification of coals is given in Table 1, and a brief description of th<
kinds of fuels is given in the following paragraphs, but it should b
recognized that there are no distinct lines of demarcation between th
kinds, and that they graduate into each other:
Anthracite is a clean, dense, hard coal which creates very little dust in ^ handling. ^ '.
is comparatively hard to ignite but it burns freely when well started. It is non-cakin!
it burns uniformly and smokelessly with a short flame, and it requires little attention 1
the fuel beds between firings. It is capable of giving a high efficiency in the commc
types of hand-fired furnaces. A tabulation of the quality of the various anthraci
sizes will be found in U. S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations No. 3283.
Semi-anthracite has a higher volatile content than anthracite, it is not as hard ax
ignites somewhat more easily; otherwise its properties are similar to those of anthracit
Semi-bituminous coal is soft and friable, and fines and dust are created by handling
It ignites somewhat slowly and burns with a medium length of flame.^ Its caking pr
perties increase as the volatile matter increases, but the coke formed is relatively wea
Having only half the volatile matter content of the more abundant bituminous coals
can be burned with less production of smoke, and it is sometimes called smokeless co
The term bituminous coal covers a large range of coals and includes many types havi
distinctly different composition, properties, and burning characteristics. The coals rat
from the high-grade bituminous coals of the East to the poorer coals of the West. Th
caking properties range from coals which completely melt, to those from which 1
volatiles and tars are distilled without change of form, so that they are^ classed as n<
caking or free-burning. Most bituminous coals are strong and non-friable enough
permit of the screened sizes being delivered free from fines. In general, they ign
165
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
easily and burn freely ; the length of flame varies with different coals, but it is long. Much
smoke and soot are possible especially at low rates of burning.
Sub-bituminous coals occur in the western states; they are high in moisture when
mined and tend to break up as they dry or when exposed to the weather; they are liable
to ignite spontaneously when piled or stored. They ignite easily and quickly and have a
medium length flame, are non-caking and free-burning; the lumps tend to break into
small pieces if poked; very little smoke and soot are formed.
Lignite is of woody structure, very high in moisture as mined, and of low heating
value; it is clean to handle. It has a greater tendency than the^sub-bituminous coals to
disintegrate as it dries, and it also is more liable to spontaneous ignition. Freshly mined
lignite, because of its high moisture, ignites slowly. It is non-caking. The char left after
the moisture and volatile matter are driven off burns very easily, like charcoal. The
lumps tend to break up in the fuel bed and pieces of char falling into the ashpit continue
to burn. Very little smoke or soot is formed.
Coke is produced by the distillation of the volatile matter from coal. The type of
coke depends on the coal or mixture of coals used, the temperatures and time of distil-
lation and, to some extent, on the type of retort or oven; coke is also produced as a
residue from the destructive distillation of oil.
TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF COALS BY RANK/
Legend: F.C. = Fixed Carbon. V.M. = Volatile Matter. Btu = British thermal units.
CLASS
GEOUP
LIMITS o? FECED CARBON OR BTU
MINERAL-MATTER-FRBZ BASIS
REQUISITE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
i. Meta-anthracite
Dry F.C., 98 per cent or more (Dry
V.M., 2 per cent or less)
I. Anthracite
2 Anthracite
Dry F.C., 92 per cent or more and less
than 98 per cent (Dry V.M., 8 per
cent or less and more than 2 per cent)
Dry F.C., 86 per cent or more and less
than 92 per cent (Dry V.M., 14 per
Non-agglutinating0
3 Semi-anthracite
cent or less and more than 8 per cent)
1 Low volatile bituminous coal —
Dry F.C., 77 per cent or more and less
than 86 per cent (Dry V.M., 23 per
cent or less and more than 14 per
cent)
2. Medium volatile bituminous coal
Dry F,C., 69 per cent or more and less
than 77 per cent (Dry V.M., 31 per
cent or less and more than 23 per
I^_ Bituminous0— '
cent)
3. High volatile A bituminous coal.
Dry F.C., less than 69 per cent (Dry
V.M., more than 31 per cent); and
moist6 Btu, 14,000* or more
4. High volatile B bituminous coal..
Moist* Btu, 13,000 or more and less
than 14,000*
5 High volatile C bituminous coal-
Moist Btu, 11,000 or more and less
than 13,000*
Either agglutinating
or non-weathering*
f
I. Sub-bituminous A coal
Moist Btu, 11,000 or more and less
Both weathering and
|
than 13,000*
non-agglutinating
III. Sub-bituminous.,
2. Sub-bituminous B oo^-l .„.,_ .... ,
Moist Btu 9500 or more and less
than 11,000*
3. Sub-bituminous C coal
Moist Btu 8300 or more and less
than 9500*
:1 T lignite
Moist Btu less than 8300
Consolidated
2 "Rro^ra coal . ri
Moist Btu less than 8300
Unconsolidated
•If agglutinating, classify in low-volatile group of the bituminous class.
*Moist Btu refers to coal containing its natural bed moisture but not including visible water on the
surface of the coal.
•Pending the report of the Subcommittee on Origin and Composition and Metbods of Analysis, it is
recognized that there may be non-caking varieties in each group of the bituminous class.
*Coals having 69 per cent or more fixed carbon on tbe dry, mineral-matter-free basis shall be classified
according to fixed carbon, regardless of Btu.
•There are three varieties of coal in the Higb- volatile C bituminous coal group, namely, Variety 1,
agglutinating and non-weathering; Variety 2, agglutinating and weathering; Variety 3, non-agglutinating
and non-weathering.
/Adapted from .4 .S.T.lf. Standards on Coal and Coke, p. 68, American Society for Testing Materials,
Philadelphia, 1934.
166
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
High-temperature cokes. Coke as usually available is of the high-temperature type,
and contains between 1 and 2 per cent volatile matter. High-temperature cokes are sub-
divided into beehive coke of which comparatively little is now sola for domestic use, by-
product coke, which covers the greater part of the coke sold, and gas-house coke. The
differences among _ these three cokes are relatively small; their denseness and hardness
decrease and friability increases in the order named. In general, the lighter and more
friable cokes ignite and burn the more easily.
Low-temperature cokes are produced at low coking temperatures, and only a portion
of the volatile matter is distilled off. Cokes as made by various processes under develop-
ment have contained from 10 to 15 per cent volatile matter. In general, these cokes
ignite and burn more readily than high-temperature cokes. The properties of various
low-temperature cokes may differ more than those of the various high-temperature cokes
because of the differences in the quantities of volatile matter and because some may be
light and others briquetted.
The sale of petroleum cokes for domestic furnaces has been small and is generally
confined to the Middle West. They vary in the amount of volatile matter they contain,
but all have the common property of a very low ash content, which necessitates the
use of refractory pieces to protect the grates from being burned.
In order to obtain perfect combustion a definite amount of air is re-
quired for each pound of fuel fired. A deficiency of air supply will result
in combustible products passing to the stack unburned, An excess of air
absorbs heat from the products of combustion and results in a greater loss
of sensible heat to the stack.
Total Air Required. The theoretical amount of air required per pound
of fuel for perfect combustion is dependent upon the analysis of the fuel ;
TABLE 2. POUNDS OF AIR PER POUND OF FUEL AS FIRED
ANTHRACITE
Con
Sma-BrruMiNOTJS
BlTUHINOTTS
LlGNTTI
9.6
11.2
11.2
10.3
6.2
however, for estimating purposes the theoretical air required for different
grades of fuel may roughly be taken from Table 2. An excess ^of about
50 per cent over the theoretical amount is considered good practice under
usual operating conditions.
The amount of excess air, based upon the laws of combustion, can be
determined by its relation to the percentage of CO* (carbon dioxide) in
the products of combustion. This relationship is shown by the curves
(Fig. 1) for high and low volatile coals and for coke. In hand-fired fur-
naces with long periods between firings the combustion goes through a
cycle in each period and the quantity of excess air present varies.
Secondary Air. The division of the total into primary and secondary
air necessary to produce the same rate of burning and the same excess air
depends on a number of factors which include size of fuel, depth of fuel
bed, and diameter of firepot. The ratio of the secondary to the primary
air increases with decrease in the size of the fuel pieces, with increase in
the depth of the fuel bed, and with increase in the area of the firepot; the
ratio also increases with increase in rate of burning.
Size of the fuel is a very important factor in fixing the quantity of
secondary air required for non-caking coals. With caking coals it is not
167
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
22
20
18
o
g 14
' I I
YV XjL
\V\
Low-volatile .
./bituminous coa
J High - volatile •_
'bituminous coal
~~20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
EXCESS AIR, PER CENT
FIG. 1* RELATION BETWEEN C03 AND EXCESS AIR IN GASES OF COMBUSTION
so important because small pieces fuse together and form large lumps.
Fortunately a smaller size fuel gives more resistance to air flow through
the f uel^ bed and thus automatically causes a larger draft above the fuel
bed, which draws in more secondary air through the same slot openings.
In spite of this, ^a small size fuel requires a larger opening of the door
slots; for a certain size for each fuel no slot opening is required, and for
larger sizes too much excess air gets through the fuel bed.
It is impossible to establish a single rule for the correct slot opening for
all types and sizes of fuels and for all rates of burning. Furthermore, the
s
iflojlw
/
s
/
*
s
^
/
/
?
/
'
±J
/
/
/
\
Y
.>
/
/
in
/
w
,<<
7
/
/
/
/
/
>v
/
/
s
/
*
/
/
Sfc
ttdc
*ed
f
/
EATEOFBim
NING, POUNDS PER SQ. FT. PBH HR.
From U. S, Bureau of Mi
nes.
FIG. 2. RELATIVE AMOUNT OF FIRE DOOR SLOT OPENING REQUIRED IN A GIVEN
FURNACE TO GIVE EQUALLY GOOD COMBUSTION FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE
COKE OF VARIOUS SIZES WHEN BURNED AT VARIOUS RATES
168
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
size of slot opening is dependent on whether the ashpit damper is open
or closed. It is better to have too much than too little secondary air; the
opening is too small if there is a puff of flame when the firing door is opened.
Fig. 2, taken from the 17. S. Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
No. 2980, shows the relationship of the slot opening, for a domestic fur-
nace, to the size of coke and the rate of burning; these openings are with
the ashpit ^damper wide open, and would be less if the available draft
permits of its being partly closed. The same openings are satisfactory for
anthracite.
Bituminous coals require a large amount of secondary air during the
period subsequent to a firing in order to consume the gases and to reduce
the smoke. The smoke produced is a good indicator, and that opening is
best which reduces the smoke to a minimum. Too much secondary air
will cool the gases below the ignition point, and prove harmful instead of
beneficial The following suggestions will be helpful:
1. In cold weather, with high combustion rates, the secondary air damper should be
half open all the time.
2. In very mild weather, with a very low combustion rate, the secondary air damper
should be closed all the time.
3. For temperatures between very mild and very cold, the secondary air damper
should be in an intermediate position.
4. For ordinary house operation, secondary air is needed after each firing for about
one hour.
Draft Requirements
The draft required to effect a given rate of burning the fuel as measured
at the smokehood is dependent on the following factors:
1. Kind and size of fuel.
2. Combustion rate per square foot of grate area per hour.
3. Thickness of fuel bed.
4. Type and amount of ash and clinker accumulation.
5. Amount of excess air present in the gases.
6. Resistance offered by the boiler passes to the flow of the gases.
7. Accumulation of soot in the passes.
Insufficient draft will necessitate additional manipulation of the fuel
bed and more frequent cleanings to keep its resistance down. Insufficient
draft also restricts the control by adjustment of the dampers.
The quantity of excess air present has a marked effect on the draft
required to produce a given rate of burning, and it is often possible to
produce a higher rate by increasing the thickness of the fuel bed.
Combustion of Anthracite1
An anthracite fire should never be poked, as this serves to bring ash to
the surface of the fuel bed where it melts into clinker.
Egg size is suitable for large firepots (grates 24 in. and over) if the fuel
can be fired at least 16 in. deep. The air spaces between the pieces of coal
are large, and for best results this coal should be fired deeply.
lSee reports published by Anthracite Industries Laboratory, Primes, Pennsylvania.
169
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Stove size coal is the proper size of anthracite for many boilers and
furnaces used for heating buildings. It burns well on grates at least 16 in.
in diameter and 12 in. deep. The only instructions needed for burning
this type of fuel are that the grate should be shaken daily, the fire should
never be poked or disturbed, and the fuel should be fired deeply and
uniformly.
Chestnut size coal is in demand for firepots up to 20 in. in diameter, with
a depth of from 10 to 15 in.
Pea size coal is often an economical fuel to burn. It is relatively low
in price. When fired carefully, pea coal can be burned on standard grates.
It is well to have a small amount of a larger fuel on hand when building
new fires, or when filling holes in the fuel bed. Care should be taken to
shake the grates only until the first bright coals begin to fall through the
grates. The fuel bed, after a new fire has been built, should be increased
in thickness by the addition of small charges until it is at least level with
the sill of the fire door. This keeps a bed of ignited coal in readiness
against the time when a sudden demand for heat shall be made on the
heater. A very satisfactory method of firing pea coal consists of drawing
the red coals toward the front end and piling fresh fuel toward the back
of the fire-box.
Pea size coal requires a strong draft and therefore the best results
generally will be obtained by keeping the choke damper open, the cold-
air check closed, and by controlling the fire with the air-inlet damper only.
Pea size can^also be fired in layers with stove or egg size anthracite and
its use in this manner will reduce the fuel costs and attention required.
^ Buckwheat size coal for best results requires more attention than pea
size coal, and in addition the smaller size of the fuel makes it more difficult
to burn on ordinary grates. Greater care must be taken in shaking the
grates than with pea coal on account of the danger of the fuel falling
through the grate. In house heating furnaces the coal should be fired
lightly and^more frequently than pea coal. When banking a buckwheat
coal fire it is advisable after coaling to expose a small spot of hot fire by
putting a poker down through the bed of fresh coal. This will serve to
ignite ^the gas that will be distilled from the fresh coal and prevent an
explosion of gas within the firepot, which in some cases depending upon the
thickness of the bed of fresh coal is severe enough to blow open the doors
and dampers of the furnace. A good draft is required and consequently
the fire is best controlled by the air-inlet damper only. Where frequent
attention can be given and care exercised in manipulation of the grates this
fuel can be burned satisfactorily without the aid of any special equipment.
In general it will be found more satisfactory with buckwheat coal to
maintain a uniform heat output and consequently to keep the system
warm all the time, rather than to allow the system to cool off at times
and then to attempt to burn the fuel at a high rate while warming up. A
uniform low fire will minimize the clinker formation and keep the clinker
in an easily broken up condition so that it readily can be shaken through
the grate.
Forced draft and small mesh grates are frequently used for burning
buckwheat anthracite. For best results and a higher degree of con-
venience, domestic stokers are used.
170
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
No. 2 buckwheat anthracite, or rice size, is used only in domestic
stokers. No. 3 buckwheat anthracite, or barley, has no application in
domestic heating.
Firing Bituminous Coal
Bituminous coal should never be fired over the entire fuel bed at one
time. A portion of the glowing fuel should always be left exposed to
ignite the gases leaving the fresh charge.
Air should be admitted over the fire through a special secondary air
device, or through a slide in the fire door or by opening the fire door
slightly. If the quantity of air admitted is too great the gases will be
cooled below the ignition temperature and will fail to burn. The fireman
can judge the quantity of air to admit by noting when the air supplied
is just sufficient to make the gases burn rapidly and smokelessly above the
fuel bed.
The red fuel in the firebox, before firing, excepting only a shallow layer
of coke on the grate, should be pushed to one side or forward or back-
ward to form a hollow in which to throw the fresh fuel. Some manu-
facturers recommend that all red fuel be pushed to the rear of the firebox
and that the fresh fuel be fired directly on the grate and allowed to ignite
from the top. The object of this is to reduce the early rapid distillation
of gases and to reduce the quantity of secondary air required for smoke-
less combustion.
It is well to have the bright fuel in the firebox so placed that the gases
from the freshly fired fuel, mixed with the air over the fuel bed, pass
over the bed of bright fuel on the way to the flues. The bed of bright
fuel then supplies the heat to raise the mixture of air and gas to the
ignition temperature, thereby causing the gaseous matter to burn and
preventing the formation of smoke.
The fuel bed should be carried as deep as the size of fuel and the
available draft permit, in order to have as much coked fuel as possible
for pushing to the rear of the firebox at the time of firing. A deep fuel
bed allows the longest firing intervals.
If the coal is of the caking kind the fresh charge will fuse into one
solid mass which can be broken up with the stoking bar and leveled from
20 min to one hour after firing, depending on the temperature of the
firebox. Care should be exercised when stoking not to bring the bar up
to the surface of the fuel as this will tend to bring ash into the high
temperature zone at the top of the fire, where it will melt and form
clinker. The stoking bar should be kept as near the grate as possible
and should be raised only enough to break up the fuel. With fuels requir-
ing stoking it may not be necessary to shake the grates, as the ash is
usually dislodged during stoking.
The output obtained from any heater with bituminous coal will usually
exceed that obtainable with anthracite, since soft coal burns more rapidly
than hard coal and with less draft. Soft coal, however, will require
frequent attention to the fuel bed, because it burns unevenly, even
though the fuel bed may be level, forming holes in the fire which admit
too much air, chilling the gases over the fuel bed and reducing the
available draft.
171
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Semi-bituminous coal is fired as bituminous coal, and because of its
caking characteristics it requires practically the same attention. The
Pocahontas Operators Association recommends the central cone method of
firing, in which the coal is heaped on to the center of the bed forming a
cone the top of which should be level with the middle of the firing door.
This allows the larger lumps to fall to the sides, and the fines to remain in
the center and be coked. The poking should be limited to breaking down
the coke without stirring, and to gently rocking the grates. It is recom-
mended that the slides in the firing door be kept closed, as the thinner fuel
bed around the sides allows enough air to get through.
Burning Coke
Coke is a very desirable fuel and usually will give satisfaction as soon
as the user learns how to control the fire. Coke ignites and burns very
rapidly with less draft than anthracite coal. In order to control the air
admitted to the fuel it is very important that all openings or leaks into
the ashpit be closed tightly. A coke fire responds more rapidly than an
anthracite fire to the opening of the dampers. This is an advantage in
warming up the system, but it also makes it necessary to watch the
dampers more closely in order to prevent the fire from burning too rapidly.
A deep fuel bed always should be maintained when burning coke. The
grates should be shaken only slightly in mild weather and should be
shaken only until the first red particles drop from the grates in cold
weather. Since coke weighs only about half as much as anthracite per
cubic foot only about half as much can be put in the firepot, so it will be
necessary to fire oftener. The best size of coke for general use, for small
firepots where the fuel depth is not over 20 in., is that which passes over
a 1 in. screen and through a 1 J^ in. screen. For large firepots where the
fuel can be fired over 20 in. deep, coke which passes over a 1 in. screen and
through a 3 in. screen can be used, but a coke of uniform size is always
more satisfactory. Large sizes of coke should be either mixed with fine
sizes or broken up before using.
Dustless Coal
The practice of treating the more friable coals to allay the dust they
create is increasing. The coal is sprayed with a solution of calcium
chloride or a mixture of calcium and magnesium chlorides. Both these
salts are very hygroscopic and their moisture under normal atmospheric
conditions keeps the surface of the coal damp, thus reducing the dust
during delivery and in the cellar, and obviating the necessity of sprinkling
the coal in the bin.
The coal is sometimes treated at the mine, but more usually by the
local distributor just before delivery. The solution is sprayed under high
pressure, using from 2 to 4 gal or from 5 to 10 Ib of the salt per ton of
coal, depending on its friability and size.
Pulverized Coal
Installations of pulverized coal burning plants in heating boilers are of
the unit type, in which the pulverized coal is delivered into the furnace
immediately after grinding, together with the proper amount of preheated
172
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
air. With ^this apparatus, where the necessary furnace volume is ob-
tainable, high efficiencies can be obtained.
A 150-hp boiler has generally been considered the smallest size for
which pulverized fuel is feasible. Complications are introduced if an
installation with a single boiler has to take care of very light loads.
Hand Firing
Hand firing is the oldest and the most widely used method of burning
coal for heating purposes. To keep the fuel bed in proper condition where
hand firing is used, the following general rules should be observed:
1. Remove ash from fuel bed by shaking the grates whenever fresh fuel is fired. This
removes ash from the fire, enables the air to reach the fuel, and does away with the for-
mation of clinker which is melted ash.
2. Supply the boiler with a deep bed of fuel. Nothing is gained by attempting to
fire a small amount of fuel. A deep bed of fuel secures the most economical results.
3. Remove ash from ashpit at least once daily. Never allow ash to accumulate up
to the grates. If the ash prevents the air from passing through, the grate bars will
burn out and much clinker trouble will be experienced.
The principal requirements for a hand-fired furnace are that it shall have
enough grate area and correctly proportioned combustion space. The
amount of grate area required is dependent upon the desired combustion
rate.
The furnace volume is influenced by the kind of coal used. Bituminous
coals, on account of their long-flaming characteristic, require more space
in which to burn the gases of combustion completely than do the coals
low in volatile matter. For burning high volatile coals provision should
be made for mixing the combustible gases thoroughly so that com-
bustion is complete before the gases come in contact with the relatively
cool heating surfaces. An abrupt change in the direction of flow tends to
mix the gases of combustion more thoroughly. Anthracite requires
practically no combustion space.
CLASSIHCATION OF OILS
Uniform oil specifications were prepared in 1929 by the American Oil
Burner Association, in cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute,
the U. S. Bureau of Standards, the American Society for Testing Materials
and other interested organizations. Oil fuels were classified into six
groups, as indicated by Table 3. When these specifications were prepared,
it was generally accepted that the first three grades were adapted to
domestic use, while the last three were suitable only for commercial and
industrial burners.
^ Today domestic -installations may use No. 4 oil of the so-called heavy
oil group, when and if said oil very closely follows the specifications of
No. 3. Up-to-date listing by the Underwriter's Laboratories should be
referred to before a No. 4 grade of fuel is used which merely meets
Commercial Standards CS 12-35.
Since the specifications as originally drawn provide for maximum limits
only for the several grades, this differentiation has not proved stable.
Realizing how unsatisfactory it is to have specifications which permit the
173
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. COMMERCIAL STANDARD FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS*
A. Detailed Requirements for Domestic Fuel Oils*
GRADE OF OIL
APPROX.
Bxu
PER
GAL."
FLASH POINT
WATER
AND
SEDIMENT,
MAXIMUM
CARBON
RESIDUE
MAXIMUM
DISTILLATION
TEST
VISCOSITY
MAXIMUM
Min. Max.
Max. 1 Min.
No. 1
Domestic
Fuel Oil
A light distillate
oil for use in
burners requir-
ing a high grade
fuel.
139,000
100 F 150 F
or legal
0.05%
0.02%
10% point
420 F
End point
600 F
No. 2
Domestic
Fuel Oil
A medium distil-
late oil for use
in burners re-
quiring a high
grade fuel.
141,000
125 F 190 F
or legal
0.05%
0.05%
10% point
90% point
620 F
End point
600 F
No. 3
Domestic
Fuel Oil
A distillate fuel
oil for use in
burners where a
low viscosity oil
is required.
143400
150 F i 200 F
or legal'
0.1%
0.15%
90% point
620 F
Saybolt
Universal
at 100 F
70 seconds
•Adapted from "Fuel Oils," p. 2, U. S, Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards, Commercial
Standard CS18-S5, Washington, 1935.
&POUT Point Maximum is 15 F. Lower or higher pour points may be specified whenever required by
conditions of storage and use. However, these specifications shall not require a pour point less than 0 F
under any conditions.
"Government specifications do not give Btu per gallon, but they are noted here for information only.
B. Detailed Requirements for Industrial Fuel Oils*
GRADE OF On.
APPROX.
BTU
PER
GAL.«
FLASH POINT,
WATER
AND
SEDIMENT,
MAXIMUM
ASH
MAXIMUM
VISCOSITY,
MAXIMUM
Min.
Max.
No. 4.
Industrial Fuel Oil
An oil known to the trade as a light fuel
oil for use in burners where a low vis-
cosity industrial fuel oil is required.
144,500
150 F
See
Note*
1-0%
0.1%
Saybolt
Universal
at 100 F
500 seconds
No. 5
Industrial Fuel Oil
Same as Federal Specifications Board
specification for bunker oil "B" for
burners adapted to the use of indus-
trial fuel oil of medium viscosity.
146,000
150 F
1.0%
0.15%
Saybolt
Furol
at 122 F
100 seconds
No. 6
Industrial Fuel Oil
Same as Federal Specifications Board
specification for bunker oil "C" for
burners adapted to oil of high viscosity
150,000
150 F
2.0%
Saybolt
Furol
at 122 F
300 seconds
«*Pour point may be specified whenever required by conditions of storage and use. However, these
specifications shall not require a pour point less than 15 F under any conditions.
•Whenever required, as for example in burners with automatic ignition, a maximum flash point may
be specified. However, these specifications shall not require a flash point less than 250 F under any con-
ditions.
174
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
substitution of one grade for another, the U. 5. Bureau of Standards in
cooperation with the American Society for Testing Materials is figuring
on a new set of specifications providing for definite limits for each grade.
When these specifications are adopted, it is expected that the National
Board of Fire Underwriters will retest all burners using oils of the maximum
specifications for the grade so that if a burner is approved for a certain
grade it will burn any oil meeting the specifications for that particular
grade.
Several burners adapted to industrial use have recently been listed for
automatic operation with No. 5 oil. Usually oils No. 5 or 6 require
preheating for proper operation, but where conditions are favorable, No.
5 can be used without the equipment that this entails.
There are two reasons for the trend to lower grades of oil. While the
lighter ^oils contain slightly more heat units per pound, the weight per
gallon increases more rapidly than the decrease in heat units per pound,
and oil is bought by the gallon. As a consequence, while a No. 1 oil may
contain 139,000 Btu per gallon, oil No. 5 may test 146,000 Btu per gallon,
or 6 per cent more. Usually there is a differential of 3 to 4 cents between
the No. 1 and No. 5 oils, so that the economy of buying the heavier fuels
is apparent; there remains the economic utilization of the heat content of
the heavier oils.
The cost of oil fuel is dependent also upon the amount that can be
delivered at one time, and the method of delivery. Common practice has
split the tank of the truck delivering oils for domestic use into compart-
ments of 150 to 500-gal capacity, and these unit dumps are made the basis
of price. Where a truck can be connected to a storage-tank fill and
quickly discharge its oil by pump, the price obviously can be less than
where a smaller quantity must be drawn off in 5-gal cans and poured.
For similar reasons an installation that can be supplied from a tank car
on a siding provides for a lower unit fuel cost than one where the oil
must be trucked, even in the large trucks holding 2,000 gal or more that
are used for distributing the heavier oils.
GAS CLASSIFICATION
Gas is broadly classified as being either natural or manufactured.
Natural gas is a mechanical mixture of several combustible and inert
gases rather than a chemical compound. Manufactured gas as dis-
tributed is usually a combination of certain proportions of gases produced
by two or more processes, and is often designated as city gas.
When gas is burned a large amount of water vapor is produced as one
of the products of combustion. This ordinarily escapes up the chimney,
carrying away with it a certain amount of heat. However, when the heat
value of gas is determined in an ordinary calorimeter, this water vapor
is condensed and the latent heat of vaporization that is given up during
the condensation is reported as a portion of the heat value of the gas.
The heat value so determined is termed the gross or higher heat value and
this is what is ordinarily meant when the heat value of gas is specified.
The heat that is reclaimed by the condensation of the water vapor
amounts to about 10 per cent of the total heat value. It is impractical
to utilize the entire higher heat value of the gas in any house-heating
175
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
appliance, because to do so it would be necessary to cool the products of
combustion down below their dew point, which is ordinarily in the
neighborhood of 130 F.
The actual dew point in the chimney is different from the theoretical
value because excess air is admitted not only at the burner but also at the
backdraft diverter which lowers the dew point.
Natural gas is the richest of the gases and contains from 80 to 95
per cent methane, with small percentages of the other combustible
hydrocarbons. In addition, it contains from 0.5 to 5.0 per cent of CO*,
and from 1 to 12 or 14 per cent of nitrogen. The heat value varies from
700 to 1500 Btu per cubic foot, the majority of natural gases averaging
about 1000 Btu per cubic foot. Table 4 shows typical values for the
four main oil fields, although values from any one field vary materially.
Table 4 also gives the calorific values of the more common types of
manufactured gas. Most states have legislation which controls the distri-
bution of gas and fixes a minimum limit to its heat content. The gross
or higher calorific value usually ranges between 520 and 545 Btu per cubic
foot, with an average of 535. A given heat value may be maintained and
yet leave considerable latitude in the composition of the gas so that as
distributed the composition is not necessarily the same in different dis-
TABLE 4. REPRESENTATIVE PROPERTIES OF GASEOUS FUELS,
BASED ON GAS AT 60 F AND 30 IN. HG.
GAS
BnjMBCuFr
SPECIFIC
GBATHT,
Am -
1.00
Ant RxQtnBXD
FOE COMBUS-
TION,
(CuFr)
PRODUCTS or COMBUSTION
THEOBBTZCAL
FLAME TEM-
PEBATUHB,
(DEO FAHB)
TTigh
(Gross)
Low
(Net)
Cubic Feet
ULTI-
MATE
GO*
Dry
Basis
COt
H0
Total
with
N*
Natural gas —
California
1200
1087
0.67
11.26
1.24
2.24
12.4
12.2
3610
Natural gas —
Mid-Conti-
nental
967
873
0.57
9.17
0.97
1.92
10.2
11.7
3580
Natural gas —
Ohio
1130
1025
0.65
10.70
1.17
2.16
11.8
12.1
3600
Natural gas —
Pennsylvania
1232
1120
0.71
11.70
1.30
2.29
12.9
12.3
3620
Retort coal gas
575
510
0.42
5.00
0.50
1.21
5.7
11.2
3665
Coke oven gas
588
521
0.42
5.19
0.51
1.25
5.9
11.0
3660
Carburetted
water gas
536
496
0.65
4.37
0.74
0.75
5.0
17.2
3815
Blue water gas
308
281
0.53
2.26
0.46
0.51
2.8
22.3
3800
Anthracite pro-
ducer gas
134
124
0.85
1.05
0.33
0.19
1.9
19.0
3000
Bituminous
producer gas
150
140
0.86
1.24
0.35
0.19
2.0
19.0
3160
Oil gas
575
510
0.35
4.91
0.47
1.21
5.6
10.7
3725
176
CHAPTER 9. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
tricts, nor at successive times in the same district. There are limits to the
variation allowable, because the specific gravity of the gas depends on its
composition, and too great a change in the specific gravity necessitates a
change in the adjustment of the burners of small appliances.
Table 4 shows that a large proportion of the products of combustion
when gas is burned may consist of water vapor, and that the greater the
proportion of water vapor, the lower the maximum attainable C0$ by gas
analysis. The table also shows that a low calorific value does not neces-
sarily mean a low flame temperature since, for example, natural gas has a
theoretical flame temperature of 3600 F and blue water gas of 3800 F,
although it has a calorific value less than one third that of natural gas.
The quantity of air given in Table 4 is that required for theoretical
combustion, but with a properly designed and installed burner the excess
air can be kept low. The division of the air into primary and secondary
is a matter of burner design and the pressure of gas available, and also of
the type of flame desired.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Differentiate between the general characteristics of hard and soft coals*
Hard coals contain fixed carbon in large proportions and in addition more ash is present
especially in the smaller sizes. Soft coals have an increasing percentage of carbon in
combination with hydrogen which is volatile and will distill off under high temperature,
producing smoke.
2 • Name several important properties of coal from a utilization standpoint.
a. Caking tendency, whether none, weak, or strong.
b. Quantity of volatile matter.
c. Friability.
d. Fusibility of the ash.
3 • What are the main data commonly available that fix the qualities of coal,
and do these tell the whole story?
a. Calorific value, Btu per pound.
b. Proximate analysis giving percentages of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash,
and sulphur.
c. Temperature at which the ash softens.
d. Screen sizes.
Other important qualities not usually given are the friability of the coal, its caking
tendency, and the qualities of the volatile matter. The percentage of ash and its fusion
temperature do not tell how the ash is distributed or how much of it is less fusible lumps
of slate or shale.
4 • Are there available complete and sufficient data on gas and oils to fix their
burning properties and furnace requirements?
Yes. Because gas and oils are of simple and uniform composition, data are available to
fix their burning properties and furnace requirements, but the ability to control their
combustion is somewhat less determinable.
5 • What effect does moisture in fuels have on their efficiency?
With any solid fuel, latent and sensible heat are lost at the stack when moisture is dried
out of the fuel in burning, and when its hydrogen is burned. Therefore, such fuels as
sub-bituminous coal and lignite, which are high in moisture content, have a low efficiency.
However, these efficiencies may be improved if the stack gases are cooled to room tem-
perature, by heating the feed water, for example.
177
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
6 • What are the advantages of a sized fuel for heating furnaces?
Because a sized fuel encourages a more uniform flow of air through the bed, the burning
will be more uniform, and the bed will be less liable to develop holes and will require less
attention. Uniformity of fuel size is more desirable as the area of the bed becomes
smaller; it is less important with fuels that cake, but with sized fuels the caking will be
more uniform and the air flow through the bed will be steadier. In addition, ash and
pieces of slate are less likely to be segregated and to form lumps of clinker.
7 • Does the size of a fuel affect the quantity of air required to burn it at a
given rate?
The total air required to give the same gas analysis at the stack^is independent of the
size of the fuel burned, but for non-caking fuels the ratio of the air passing through the
fuel bed to the total air entering the burner base decreases, for the same^thickness of bed,
as the size of the fuel becomes smaller; this decrease is very rapid for sizes less than one
inch. For coals that cake, this ratio will depend on the way the caked bed is broken up
and on the size of the resulting pieces.
8 • Is the volatile matter which is given off when coals are burned of the same
nature in all coals?
No. The products given off by coals when they are heated differ materially in the ratios
by weight of the gases to the oils and tars. No heavy oils or tars are given off by anthra-
cite, and very small quantities are given off by semi-anthracite. As the volatile matter
in the coal increases to as much as 40 per cent of ash-free and moisture-free coal, in-
creasing amounts of oils and tars are given up. For coals of higher volatile content, the
relative quantity of oils and tars decreases, so it is low in the sub-bituminous coals and
in lignite.
9 • Is smoke a primary product hi the burning of fuels?
Visible smoke may include very small particles of carbon, oil, tar, water (condensed
steam), and ash. Of these, the oils, tars, and ash are mainly primary products, and the
water is partly primary. The carbon, which usually comprises the greater part of the
smoke, results from the breaking up by heat of oils, tars, and such gases as methane, so
it may be considered a secondary product.
10 • Is the sulphur in coals detrimental to combustion?
Not so far as is known, but its complete combustion gives only 25 per cent as much heat
as is given by the same weight of carbon. Sulphur is undesirable because it causes cor-
rosion of flues and stacks, and also because its gases pollute the atmosphere, and damage
buildings and vegetation.
11 • How do deposits of soot on the surfaces of a boiler or heater affect the
quantity of fuel burned?
There are two effects. The scot acts as an insulating layer over the surface and reduces
the heat transmission to the water or air; the Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations
No. 3272 shows that the loss of seasonal efficiency is not as great as has been believed and
should not be over 6 per cent because the greater part of the heat is transmitted through
the firepot. The soot clogs the passages and reduces the draft; the loss of efficiency
from this action may be much more, and also the lack of draft results in unsatisfactory
heating.
178
Chapter 10
CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
Natural Draft, Mechanical Draft, Characteristics of Natural
Draft Chimneys, Determining Chimney Sizes, General Equa-
tion, Chimney Construction, Chimneys for Gas Heating
THE design and construction of a chimney is so important a part
of the heating engineer's work that a general knowledge of draft
characterictics and calculations is essential.
Draft, in general, may be defined as the pressure difference between the
atmospheric pressure and that at any part of an installation through
which the gases flow. Since a pressure difference implies a head, draft
is a static force. While no element of motion is inferred, yet motion
in the form of circulation of gases throughout an entire boiler plant
installation is the direct result of draft. This motion is due to the pressure
difference, or unbalanced pressure, which compels the gases to flow. Draft
is often classified into two kinds according to whether it is created
thermally or artificially, viz, (1) natural or thermal draft, and (2) arti-
ficial or mechanical draft.
Natural Draft
Natural draft is the difference in pressure produced by the difference in
weight between the relatively hot gases inside a natural draft chimney and
an equivalent column of the cooler outside air, or atmosphere. Natural
draft, in other words, is an unbalanced pressure produced thermally by a
natural draft chimney as the pressure transformer and a temperature
difference. The intensity of natural draft depends, for the most part,
upon the height of the chimney above the grate bar level and also the
temperature difference between the chimney gases and the atmosphere.
A typical natural draft system consists essentially of a relatively tall
chimney built of steel, brick, or reinforced concrete, operating with the
relatively hot gases which have passed through the boilers and accessories
and from which all the heat has not been extracted. Hot gases are an
essential element in the operation of a natural draft system, although
inherently a heat balance loss.
A natural draft chimney performs the two-fold service of assisting in
the creation of draft by aspiration and also of discharging the gases at an
elevation sufficient to prevent them from becoming a nuisance.
Natural draft is quite advantageous in installations where the total loss
of draft due to resistances is relatively low and also in plants which have
practically a constant load and whose boilers are seldom operated above
179
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
their normal rating. Natural draft systems have been, and are still being,
employed in the operation of large plants during the periods when the
boilers are operated only up to their normal rating. When the rate of
operation is increased above the normal rating, some form of mechanical
draft is employed as an auxiliary to overcome the increased resistances or
draft losses. Natural draft systems are used almost exclusively in the
smaller size plants where the amount of gases generated is relatively small
and it would be expensive to install and operate a mechanical draft
system.
The principal advantages of natural draft systems may be summarized
as follows: (1) simplicity, (2) reliability, (3) freedom from mechanical
FIG. 1. GENERAL OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL INDUCED DRAFT FAN
parts, (4) low cost of maintenance, (5) relatively long life, (6) relatively
low depreciation, and (7) no power required to operate. The principal
disadvantages are: (1) lack of flexibility, (2) irregularity, (3) affected
by surroundings, and (4) affected by temperature changes.
Mechanical Draft
^Artificial draft, or mechanical draft, as it is more commonly called, is a
difference in pressure produced either directly or indirectly by a forced
draft fan, an induced draft fan, or a Venturi chimney as the pressure
transformer. The intensity of mechanical draft is dependent for the most
part upon the size of the fan and the speed at which it is operated. The
element of temperature does not enter into the creation of mechanical
draft and therefore its intensity, unlike natural draft, is independent of the
temperature of the gases and the atmosphere. Mechanical draft includes
the induced and Venturi types of draft systems in which the pressure
difference is the result of a suction, and also the forced draft system in
which the pressure difference is the result of a blowing. Mechanical draft
systems^tend to produce a vacuum or a plenum, as the system used in its
production creates a pressure difference below, or above, atmospheric
1RO
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
1
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FIG. 2. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
pressure, respectively. A mechanical draft system may be used either in
conjunction with, or as an adjunct to, a natural draft system.
Draft Control
To obtain the maximum efficiency of combustion, a definite minimum
supply of air to the combustion chamber must be maintained. To pro-
vide this condition, it is necessary to have some mechanical means of
draft control or adjustment, because of variable wind velocities, fluctua-
tions in atmospheric temperatures and barometric pressures, and their
effect upon draft.
For this purpose there are various mechanical devices which auto-
matically control the volume of air admitted to the combustion chamber.
Mechanical draft regulators designed to control or adjust draft, should
1.4
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Amount of Gases Flowing and Discharged, H>. per sea, W
FIG. 3. TYPICAL SET OF OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A NATURAL DRAFT CHIMNEY
181
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
not be confused with mechanical draft systems that create draft mechani-
cally, but which must also be automatically controlled.
The use of such a device to provide a more uniform and dependable
control of draft than could be maintained by manually operated dampers,
will produce better combustion of fuel. This higher efficiency of combus-
tion together with the reduced heat losses up the chimney by reason of
decreased gas velocity, results in fuel economy, with consequent lower
costs of plant operation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHIMNEYS
In order to analyze the performance of a natural draft chimney, it may
be advantageous to compare its general operating characteristics with
those of a centrifugal pump and also of a centrifugally-induced draft fan,
there being a similarity among the three. Figs. 1, 2 and 3 show the
general operating characteristics of a typical centrifugally-induced draft
fan, a typical centrifugal pump, and a typical natural draft chimney,
respectively. The draft-capacity curve of the chimney corresponds to
the head-capacity curve of the pump and also to the dynamic-head
capacity curve of the fan.
When the gases in the chimney are stationary, the draft created is
termed the theoretical draft. When the gases are flowing, the theoretical
intensity is diminished by the draft loss due to friction, the difference
between the two being termed the total available draft. The general
equation for this net total available draft intensity of a natural draft
chimney with a circular section is as follows:
D -2Qfim? (W* W*\ 0-00126 W»7V/£ m
Pa - 2.9ftOT0 (jr-jr) ^^ (D
where
D& = available draft, inches of water.
H — height of chimney above grate bars, feet.
BQ ~ barometric pressure corresponding to altitude, inches of mercury.
W0 = unit weight of a cubic foot of air at 0 F and sea level atmospheric pressure,
pounds per cubic foot.
Wc — unit weight of a cubic foot of chimney gases at 0 F and sea level atmospheric
pressure, pounds per cubic foot.
To « absolute temperature of atmosphere, degrees Fahrenheit.
TC =» absolute temperature of chimney gases, degrees Fahrenheit.
W — amount of gases generated in the combustion chamber of the boiler and passing
through the chimney, pounds per second.
/ ~ coefficient of friction.
L = length of friction duct of the chimney, feet.
D = minimum diameter of chimney, feet.
The first term of the right hand expression of Equation 1 represents
the theoretical draft intensity, and the second term, the loss due to friction.
Example 1. _ Determine the available draft of a natural draft chimney 200 ft in height
and 10 ft in diameter operating under the following conditions: atmospheric tempera-
ture, 62 F; chimney gas temperature, 500 F; sea level "atmospheric pressure, B0 = 29.92
in. of mercury; atmospheric and chimney gas density, 0.0863 and 0.09, respectively;
coefficient of friction, 0.016; length of friction duct, 200 ft. The chimney discharges
100 Ib of gases per second.
182
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCUUITIONS
Substituting these values in Equation 1 and reducing:
2.96 X 200 X 29.92 X
0863 Q.09\ 0.00126 X 100* X 960 X 0.016 X 200
/0.086S
\ 522
960 /
10* X 29.92 X 0.09
1.27 - 0.14 ~ 1.13 in.
Fig. 3 shows the variation in the available draft of a typical 200 ft by
10 ft chimney operating under the general conditions noted in Example 1.
When the chimney is under static conditions and no gases are flowing, the
available draft is equal to 1.27 in. of water, the theoretical intensity. As
the amount of gases flowing increases, the available intensity decreases
until it becomes zero at a gas flow of 297 Ib per second, at which point the
draft loss due to friction is equal to the theoretical intensity. The draft-
capacity curve corresponds to the head-capacity curve of centrifugal
ou
29
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£ 25
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) 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 70C
Corresponding Altitude above Sea Level, ft
FIG. 4. RELATION BETWEEN BAROMETRIC PRESSURE AND ALTITUDE
pump characteristics and the dynamic-head-capacity curve of a fan. The
point of maximum draft and zero capacity is called shut-off draft, or point
of impending delivery, and corresponds to the point of shut-off head of a
centrifugal pump. The point of zero draft and maximum capacity is
called the wide open point and corresponds to the wide open point of a
centrifugal pump. A set of operating characteristics may be developed
for any size chimney operating under any set of conditions by substituting
the proper values in Equation 1 and then plotting the results in the
manner shown in Fig. 3.
In substituting the values for the various factors in Equation 1, care
should be exercised that the selections be as near the actual conditions as
is practically possible. The following notes will serve as a guide for these
selections:
1. The barometric pressure varies inversely as the altitude of the plant above sea level
Fig. 4 gives the barometric pressure corresponding to various elevations as computec
from the equation :
where
En - 62,737 logi
= altitude of plant above sea level, feet.
183
(2
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In general, the barometric pressure decreases approximately 0.1 in. of mercury per 100
ft increase in elevation.
2. The unit weight of a cubic foot of chimney gases at 0 F and sea level barometric
pressure is given by the equation:
Wc « 0.131 CO, -f 0.095 02 -f 0.083 Nt (3)
In this equation CO^ O* and Nt represent the percentages of the parts by volume of the
carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen content, respectively, of the gas analysis. For
ordinary operating conditions, the value of Wc may be assumed at 0.09.
The density effect on the chimney gases due to superheated water vapor resulting
from moisture and hydrogen in the fuel, or due to any air infiltrations in the chimney
proper are here disregarded. Though water vapor content is not disclosed by Orsat
analysis, its presence tends to reduce the actual weight per cubic foot of chimney gases.
3. The atmospheric temperature is the actual observed temperature of the outside air
at the time the analysis of the operating chimney is made. The mean atmospheric
temperature in the temperate zone is approximately 62 F.
4. The chimney gas^ temperature does not vary appreciably from the gas temperature
as it leaves the breeching and enters the chimney. For average operating conditions, the
chimney gas temperature will vary between 500 F and 650 F except in the case when
economizers and recuperators are used, when the temperature will vary between 300 F
and 450 F. If a chimney has been properly constructed, properly lined and has no air
infiltration due to open joints, the temperature of the gases throughout the chimney will
not differ appreciably from the foregoing figures. In most up-to-date heating plants, the
temperature may be read from instruments or ascertained from a pyrometer. The
analysis of this section is predicated on the assumption of constant gas temperature and
no air infiltration throughout the height of the chimney.
5. The coefficient of friction between the chimney gases and a sooted surface has been
taken by many workers in this field as a constant value of 0.016 for the conditions in-
volved. This value, of course, would be less for a new unlined steel stack than for a
brick or brick-lined chimney, but in time the inside surface of all chimneys regardless of
the materials of construction becomes covered with a layer of soot, and thus the coef-
ficient of friction has been taken the same for all types of chimneys and in general
constant for all conditions of operation. For reasons of simplicity and convenience to
the^reader, this constant value of 0.016 has been employed in the development of the
various special equations and charts shown in this chapter.
However, much to be recommended as an alternate method is the practise of separ-
ately determining duct friction factors as a function of the flow conditions, specifically
as a function of the Reynolds number and the relative duct roughness. The Reynolds
criterion is based on the physical properties of the gas, the duct dimensions, and the gas
velocity. The gas velocity for a chimney is usually well above the critical velocity.
It is likely that this procedure of using a separately determined variable friction factor
for chimney flow will give results that are to be preferred over those based on a set
constant.
The Reynolds number, a dimensionless ratio, may be stated as follows:
. Cr=^ (4)
where
D = chimney diameter, feet.
V - velocity of hot gas, feet per second,
p = mass density of the chimney gas per cubic foot.
(i = viscosity of the gas in pounds-second per square foot taken at the gas tem-
perature.
In another form:
1.27 W 0.039617
184
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCUIATIONS
where
weight of gas passed per second.
acceleration of gravity.
The value of jj, for chimney gases is usually taken as that of air or nitrogen, and for the
variation of p, with temperature, the Sutherland equation may be employed as follows,
giving n in pounds-second per square foot:
f273 + C\ f Tc
^ " ^ Lrc + cj L273
where
Tc — chimney gas temperature, degrees Centigrade.
pLo = gas viscosity at 0 C.
C — constant for specific gas.
Using International Critical Table values, for air
nitrogen IK> = 34.5 X 10-8; and C = 110.
35.6 X 10-8; C = 12-4; for
0.010
0.001
40 60 80 100 200
REYNOLDS NUMBER, IN THOUSANDS
FIG. 5. VARIATION OF FRICTION FACTOR / WITH REYNOLDS NUMBER
Values for the viscosity of air and of nitrogen (the principal component of chimney
gases) for the different temperatures follow, in which the values given in pounds-second
per square foot are to be multiplied by 10-8:
Temp. F
Air
Nitrogen
300
49.7
47.7
400
54.5
52.2
500
58.5
56.0
600
62.5
59.8
700
66.7
63.5
800
70.5
67.0
Example 2. To determine the Reynolds number Cr for a flow of 118 Ib gas per second
up a 12 ft diameter chimney at a temperature of 500 F. The gas may be assumed to
have the same viscosity as nitrogen at 500 F. Using Equation 5 :
n AO™
= 0.0396 =
°-0396 X 118
12
x
The variation of the friction factor/ with the Reynolds number is shown in Fig. 51.
Three curves are shown: A, B, and C, where the choice of the friction factor curve
depends on the relative surface roughness, and this for usual chimney construction may
iSee also Flow of Fluids in Closed Circuits, by R. J. S. Pigott (Mechanical Engineering, August, 1933).
185
HEATING VENTIIATINO AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
be selected by size since surface conditions in service are always undetermmant. For
sizes up to 3 ft in diameter, Curve C may be used; from 3 to 6 ft, Curve B ; and from 6 ft
upwards, Curve A. Thus for the previous example with CT = 698,000 and 12 ft diameter,
/ would be taken from Curve A as 0.0039.
6. The length of the friction duct is the vertical distance between the bottom of the
breeching opening and the top of the chimney. Ordinarily this distance is approximately
equal to the height of the chimney above the grate level.
.001 .002 .003 .004 .005 .006
Available Draft per Ft of Height, in. of Water
.007
FIG. 6. CHIMNEY PERFORMANCE CHART*
*ro scive a typical example: Proceed horizontally from a Weight Flow Rate point to intersection with
diameter line; from this intersection follow vertically to chimney height line; from this intersection follow
horizontally to the right to Available Draft scale. Starting from a point of Available Draft, take steps in
reverse order.
7. Assuming no air infiltration the amount of gases flowing and being discharged is,
of course, equal to the amount of gases generated in the combustion chamber of the
boiler. The total products of combustion in pounds per second for a grate-fired boiler
may be computed from the equation:
W -
where
3600
(6)
C& = pounds of fuel burned per square foot of grate surface per hour.
G ~ total grate surface of boilers, square feet.
Cg X G = total weight of fuel burned per hour.
Wtp = total weight of products of combustion per pound of fuel.
A similar computation may be made in the case of gas, oil, or stoker-fired fuel.
186
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCUI»ATIONS
Fig; 6 Is a typical chimney performance chart giving the available draft
intensities for various amounts of gases flowing and sizes of chimney.
This chart is based on an atmospheric temperature of 62 F, a chimney gas
temperature of 500 F, a unit chimney gas weight of 0.09 Ib per cubic foot,
sea level atmospheric pressure, a coefficient of friction of 0.016, and a
friction duct length equal to the height of the chimney above the grate
level. These curves may be used for general operating conditions. For
specific operating conditions, a new chart should be constructed from
Equation 1.
It has been the usual custom, and still is to a lamentably great extent,
to select the required size of a natural draft chimney from a table of
chimney sizes based only on boiler horsepowers. After the ultimate
horsepower of the projected plant had been determined, the chimney size
in the table corresponding to this figure was then selected as the proper
size required. Generally, no further attempt was made to determine if
the height thus selected was sufficient to help create the required draft
demanded by the entire installation, or the diameter sufficiently large to
enable the chimney quickly, efficiently, and economically to dispose of the
gases. Since the operating characteristics of a natural draft chimney are
similar in all respects to those of a centrifugal pump, or a centrifugal fan,
it is no more possible to select a proper size chimney from such a table,
even with correction factors appended, than it is to select the proper size
pump from tables based only on the amount of water to be delivered.
DETERMINING CHIMNEY SIZES
The required diameter and height of a natural draft chimney are given
by the following equations:
V* (7)
D - 0.288 J WTc (8)
* B0WCV
where
H = required height of chimney above grate bar level, feet.
D = required minimum diameter of chimney, feet (constant for entire height),
V = chimney gas velocity, feet per second.
pr = total required draft demanded by the entire installation outside of the chimney,
inches of water.
Equations 7 and 8 give the required size of a natural draft chimney with
all of the operating factors taken into consideration. Values for all of the
factors with the exception of the chimney gas velocity may be either
observed or computed. It is, of course, necessary to assume an arbitrary
value for the velocity in order to arrive at some definite size. For any one
set of operating conditions tjiere will be as many sizes of chimneys as there
are values of reasonable velocities to assume. Of the number of sizes
corresponding to the various assumed velocities, there is one size which
will be least expensive. Since the cost of a chimney structure, regardless
187
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
of the kind of material used in the construction, varies as the volume of
material in the structure, the cost criterion then may be represented by
the approximate equation :
Q = ttHD (9)
where
Q - volume of material, cubic feet.
t — average wall thickness, feet.
For all practical purposes, the value of xt may be taken as a constant
regardless of the size of the structure. Hence, in general, the volume, and
consequently the cost, of a chimney structure may be based on the factor
HD as a criterion. Therefore, the value of the chimney gas velocity which
will result in the least value of HD for any one set of operating con-
ditions will produce a structure which will be the most economical to use,
because its cost will be least.
The problem at hand is to deduce an equation for the chimney gas
velocity which will result in a combination of a height and a diameter
whose product HD will be least. The solution is obtained by equating the
product of Equations 7 and 8 to HD, differentiating this product with
respect to V and equating the resulting expression to zero. This pro-
cedure results in the following expression :
772r Q c 2/5
_TO"
" \
where Fc — economical chimney gas velocity, feet per second.
Equation 10 gives the economical velocity of the chimney gases for
any set of operating conditions, and represents the velocity which will
result in a chimney the size of which will cost less than that of any other
size as determined by any other velocity for the same operating con-
ditions. After the value of the economical velocity has been determined,
the corresponding height and diameter can then be determined from
Equations 7 and 8, respectively, and the economical size will then be
attained. Equations 7, 8 and 10 may be simplified considerably for
average operating conditions in an average size steam plant by assuming
typical conditions.
Average chimney gas temperature, 500 F ....... __________________ Tc = 960
Mean atmospheric temperature, 62 F _____ ......................... TQ = 522
Average coefficient of friction, 0.016 ____________________________________ ./ — 0.016
Average chimney gas density, 0.09. ________________________________ Wc = 0.09
Sea level elevation, with barometer of 29.92 _____ ............... B0 - 29.92
Substituting these values in Equations 10, 8 and 7, respectively, and
reducing, the results are substantially:
- (11)
D - 1.5T72/5 (12)
H = 1901>r (13)
188
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
Fig. 7 gives the economical chimney sizes for various amounts of gases
flowing and for required draft intensities as computed from Equations 11,
12 and 13. They are based on the operating factors used in reducing
Equations 7, 8 and 10 to their simpler form. The sizes shown by the
curves in the chart should be used for general operating conditions only,
or for installations where the required data necessary for an exact deter-
Height of Chimney, ft.
^0 25 50 75 100 125 150 1 75 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 371
01234
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Diameter of Chimney, ft
13 14 15°
FIG. 7. ECONOMICAL CHIMNEY SizEsa
aDiameter values also for gas temperatures of 400, 500 and 600 F
mination are difficult or impossible to secure. Whenever it is possible to
secure accurate data, or the anticipated operating conditions are fairly
well known, the required size should be determined from Equations 7,
8 and 10. The recommended minimum inside dimensions and heights of
chimneys for small and medium size installations are given in Table 1.
GENERAL EQUATION
The general draft equation for a steam producing plant may be stated
as follows:
0t - Af - *F + AB -h ted + feC + feBr + &V + ho + &B + &R (14)
189
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
where
Dt » theoretical draft intensity created by pressure transformer, inches of water.
/?f = draft loss due to friction in pressure transformer, inches of water.
feF = draft loss through the fuel bed, inches of water.
&B = draft loss through the boiler and setting, inches of water.
JiEr = draft loss through the breeching, inches of water.
kv — draft loss due to velocity, inches of water.
&Bd = draft loss due to bends, inches of water.
he = draft loss due to contraction of opening, inches of water.
ho = draft loss due to enlargement of opening, inches of water.
&E == draft loss through the economizer, inches of water.
&R = draft loss through recuperators, regenerators, or air heaters, inches of water.
The left hand member of Equation 14 represents the total amount of
available draft created by the pressure transformer, that is, the natural
draft chimney, Venturi chimney, or fan, and is equal to the theoretical
intensity less the internal losses incidental to operation. The right hand
member represents the sum of all of the various losses of draft throughout
the entire boiler plant installation outside of the pressure transformer
itself. The left hand member expresses the available intensity and is
analogous to the head developed by a centrifugal pump in a water works
system, while the right hand member expresses the required draft in-
tensity and is analogous to the total dynamic head in a water works
system. For a general circulation of gases
AL - Dr (15)
where
.Da — available draft intensity, inches of water.
Pr = required draft, inches of water.
The draft loss through the fuel bed (ftp), or the amount of draft required to
effect a given or required rate of combustion, varies between wide limits
and represents the greater portion of the required draft. In coal-fired
installations, the draft loss through the fuel bed is dependent upon the
following factors: (1) character and condition of the fuel, clean or dirty;
(2) percentage of ash in the fuel; (3) volume of interstices in the fuel bed,
coarseness of fuel; (4) thickness of the fuel bed, rate of combustion;
(5) type of grate or stoker used; (6) efficiency of combustion.
There is a certain intensity of draft with which the best results will be
obtained for every kind of coal and rate of combustion. Fig. 8 gives the
intensity of draft, or the vacuum in the combustion chamber required to
burn various kinds of coal at various rates of combustion. Expressed in
other words, these curves represent the amount of draft required to force
the necessary amount of air through the fuel bed in order to effect various
rates of combustion. It will be noted that the amount of draft increases
as the percentage of volatile matter diminishes, being comparatively low
for the lower grades of bituminous coals and highest for the high grades
and small sizes of anthracites. Also, when the interstices of the coal are
large and the particles are not well broken up, as with bituminous coals,
much less draft is required than when the particles are small and are well
190
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
broken up, as with bituminous slack and the small sizes of anthracites. In
general, the draft loss through the fuel bed increases as: (1) the per-
centage of volatile matter diminishes; (2) the percentage of fixed carbon
increases; (3) the thickness of the bed increases; (4) the percentage of ash
increases; (5) the volume of the interstices diminishes.
In making the preliminary assumptions for the draft loss through the
fuel bed, due allowances should be made for a possible future change in
the grade of fuel to be burned and also in the rate of combustion. A value
TABLE 1.
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM CHIMNEY SIZES FOR
HEATING BOILERS AND FURNACES*
RECTANGULAR FLUB
ROUND FLTIK
WARM Am
STEAM
TTT ^
NOMINAL
FtJRNACl
CAPACITY
or LEADER
PTPB
BOILER
CAPACITY
SQFr
OF RADI-
ATION
WATER
HEATER
CAPACITY
or RADI-
ATION
DIMEN-
SIONS or
FlRVCliAT
LINING
IN INCHES
Actual
Inside
of Fire Clay
Actual
Area
Sq In.
Inside
Diam-
eter of
Lining
in
Actual
Area
Sq In.
HEIGHT
IN FT
ABOTV
GRATJB
in Inches
Inches
790
590
973
8^x13
7 xllJi
81
35
1000
690
1,140
10
79
900
1,490
13x13
HJixllJi
127
900
1,490
8^x18
6?4 x 16j2
110
1,100
1,820
12
113
40
1,700
2,800
13x18
HJ^xl6J-i
183
1,940
3,200
15
177
2,130
3,520
18x18
15Jixl5Ji
248
2,480
4,090
20x20
17J^xl7}i
298
45
3,150
5,200
18
254
50
4,300
7,100
20
314
4,600
7,590
20x24
17x21
357
5,000
8,250
24x24
21x21
441
55
5,570
9,190
24x24°
576
60
5,580
9,200
22
380
6,980
11,500
24
452
65
7,270
12,000
24x28b
672
8,700
14,400
28x28b
784
9,380
15,500
27
573
10,150
16,750
30x30b
900
10,470
17,250
28x32b
896
aTbis table is taken from the A.S.H.V.E. Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating and Venti-
lation of Buildings (Edition of 1929).
bDimensions are for unlined rectangular flues,
should be selected for this loss which will represent not only the highest
rate of combustion which will be encountered, but also the grade of coal
which has the greatest resistance through the fuel bed and which may be
burned at a later date.
In powdered-fuel and oil-fired installations, there will be no draft loss
through the fuel bed since there is none and, consequently, this factor
becomes zero in the general draft equation. All other factors being
constant, the height of the chimney in installations of this character will
be less than the height in coal-fired installations, and in the case of me-
chanical draft installations the driving units need not be as large since the
head against which the fan is to operate is not as great in the former as
in the latter.
191
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The draft loss through the boiler and setting (As) also varies between wide
limits and, in general, depends upon the following factors:
1. Type of boiler. 5. Arrangement of baffles.
2. Size of boiler. 6. Type of grate.
3. Rate of operation. 7. Design of brickwork setting.
4. Arrangement of tubes. 8. Excess air admitted.
9. Location of entrance into breeching.
Curves showing the draft loss through the boiler are usually based on
the load or quantity of gases passing through the boiler, expressed in
terms of percentage of normal rate of operation. Owing to the great
variety of boilers of different designs and the various schemes of baffling,
it is impossible to group together a set of curves for the draft loss through
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
POUNDS OF COAL BURNED PER SQ FT OF GRATE SURFACE PER HOUR
FIG. 8. DRAFT REQUIRED AT DIFFERENT RATES OF COMBUSTION
FOR VARIOUS KINDS OF COAL
the boiler which may even be used generally. It is therefore necessary to
secure this information from the manufacturer of the particular type of
boiler and baffle arrangement under consideration.
When a boiler is installed and in operation, the draft loss depends upon
the amount of gases flowing through it. This, in turn, depends upon the
proportion of excess air admitted for combustion. Primarily, the amount
of excess air is measured by the COZ content; the less the amount of C02,
the greater the amount of excess air and hence the greater the draft loss.
The loss of draft through the boiler will vary directly as the size of the
boiler and the length of the gas passages within. The loss also varies as
the number of tubes high, but not in a direct ratio inasmuch as the loss
due to the reversal of flow at the ends of the baffles remains constant
regardless of the height of the boiler. The arrangement of the tubes,
whether the gases flow parallel to or at right angles to the tubes, has an
appreciable effect on the loss. The arrangement of the baffles influences
the draft loss greatly, the loss through a boiler with five passes being
192
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CAIICULATIONS
greater than the loss through one of three or four passes. A poor design
and a rough condition of the brickwork will increase the loss greatly,
whereas a proper design and a smooth condition will keep the loss at a
minimum. The loss through the boiler will be less when the breeching
entrance is located at or near the top of the boiler than when it is located
at or near the bottom since the gases have a shorter distance to travel
in the former instance.
The draft loss through the breeching (&Br) is given by the general
equation :
where
W = the amount of gases flowing, pounds per second.
Tc = absolute temperature of breeching gases, degrees Fahrenheit.
/ = coefficient of friction.
L — length of breeching, feet.
A = area of breeching, square feet.
BQ = atmospheric pressure corresponding to altitude, inches of mercury.
Wc = weight of a cubic foot of breeching gases at 0 F and sea level atmospheric
pressure; pounds per cubic foot.
Cbr = hydraulic radius of breeching section.
It has been the general custom to lump off the intensity of the breeching
loss at 0.10 in. of water per 100 ft of breeching length regardless of its size
or shape or the amount and temperature of the gases flowing through it.
This practice is hazardous and has no more foundation in fact than that of
determining the friction head in a water works system without taking
into consideration the size of the pipe or the amount of water flowing
through it. When the length of the breeching is relatively short, any
variation in any one of the factors in the equation will have no appreciable
effect on the draft loss. However, when the breeching is relatively long,
the draft loss is affected greatly by the various factors, particularly by the
size and shape as well as by the weight of gases flowing.
The draft loss due to velocity (hv) is given by the equation
0.000194W»rc
hv =
and represents the amount of draft required to accelerate the gases from
zero velocity to the velocity at which the gases are flowing, or in other
words, from a static gas condition of zero flow to the amount of gases
flowing throughout the installation. This loss corresponds to the velocity
head in water works systems.
The draft loss due to bends (&Bd) is equivalent to the loss due to the
velocity head for a 90-deg bend. In changing direction of flow, the gas
velocity decreases to zero with a loss of velocity head and then increases
to its proper value at the expense of a loss in pressure head, the net result
being a loss in pressure head equal to the velocity head at the bend.
This loss is given by the equation:
193
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The friction at a right-angle bend is sometimes expressed as the
equivalent of a straight length of flue of a certain length for a certain
diameter, similar to the procedure used in estimating the loss due to
bends in piping systems conducting water. Most flues, however, par-
ticularly breechings, are built square or rectangular in section and no
general equation based on the shape of the flue can be conveniently
expressed.
The draft loss due to sudden contraction of an area (he) is given by the
equation :
C= A*9B0WC
where
JTC — coefficient of sudden contraction based on —-, the ratio of the areas of the
smaller to the larger section = 0.5 { 1 — —r- j
As = area of the smaller section.
When the flue or passage through which the gases flow is suddenly
contracted, a considerable portion of the static head in the larger section
is converted into velocity head and a draft loss of some consequence, par-
ticularly in a short breeching, takes place. A sudden contraction should
always be avoided where possible. At times, however, due to obstruc-
tions or limited head-room, it is necessary to alter the size of the breeching,
but a sudden contraction may be avoided by gradually decreasing the
area over a length of several feet.
The draft loss due to a sudden enlargement of an area (ho) is given by the
equation :
where
K0 = coefficient of sudden enlargement based on -^, the ratio of the areas of the
small
ter to the larger section = f 1 - -p J
When the flue or passage through which the gases flow is suddenly
enlarged, a portion of the velocity head is converted into static head in the
larger section and, like the loss due to sudden contraction, a loss of some
consequence, particularly in short breechings, takes place. A sudden
enlargement in a breeching may be avoided by gradually increasing the
area over a length of several feet. In large masonry chimneys, the area of
the flue at the region of the breeching entrance is considerably larger
than the area of the breeching at the chimney, and a sudden enlargement
exists.
The draft loss through the economizer (&E) should be obtained from the
manufacturer but for general purposes it may be computed from the
following general equation :
ft. = 'c (31)
10*
194
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
where
Wn = pounds of gases flowing per hour per linear foot of pipe in each economizer
section.
N — number of economizer sections.
An economizer in a steam plant affects the draft in two ways, (1) it
offers a resistance to the flow of gases, and (2) it lowers the average
chimney gas temperature, thereby decreasing the available intensity. In
the case of a natural draft installation, both of these factors result in a
relative increase in the height of the chimney and, in the case of a large
plant, they may add as much as 20 or 30 ft to the height. The decrease
in the temperature of the gases after they have passed through the
economizer has an extremely important effect on the performance of a
natural draft chimney and also upon the performance of a fan.
CpNSTHUCTION DETAILS
For general data on the construction of chimneys reference should be
made to the Standard Ordinance for Chimney Construction of the
National Board of Fire Underwriters. Briefly summarized, these provisions
are as follows for heating boilers and furnaces:
The construction, location, height and area of the chimney to which a heating boiler
or warm-air furnace is connected affect the operation of the entire heating system. Most
residence chimneys are built of brick and may be either lined or unlined, but in either
case the walls must be air-tight and there should be only one smoke opening into the
chimney. Cleanout, if provided, must be absolutely air-tight when closed.
The walls of brick chimneys shall be not less than 3% in. thick (width of a standard
size brick) and shall be lined with fire-clay flue lining. Fire-clay flue linings shall be
manufactured from suitable refractory clay, either natural or compounded, and shall
be adapted to withstand high temperatures and the action of flue gases. They shall be
of standard commercial thickness, but not less than % in. All fire-clay flue linings shall
meet the standard specification of the Eastern Clay Products Association. The flue
sections shall be set in special mortar, and shall have the joints struck smooth on the
inside. The masonry shall be built around each section of lining as it is placed, and all
spaces between masonry and linings shall be completely filled with mortar. No broken
flue lining shall be used. Flue lining shall start at least 4 in. below the bottom of smoke-
pipe intakes of flues, and shall be continued the entire heights of the^flues and project
at least 4 in. above the chimney top to allow for a 2 in. projection of lining. The wash or
splay shall be formed of a rich cement mortar. To improve the draft the wash surface
should be concave wherever practical.
Flue lining may be omitted in brick chimneys, provided the walls of the chimneys
are not less than 8 in. thick, and that the inner course shall be a refractory clay brick.
All brickwork shall be laid in spread mortar, with all joints push-filled. Exposed joints
both inside and outside shall be struck smooth. No plaster lining shall be permitted.
Chimneys shall extend at least 3 ft above flat roofs and 2 ft above the ridges of peak
roofs when such flat roofs or peaks are within 30 ft of the chimney. The chimney
shall be high enough so that the wind from any direction shall not stnke the top of the
chimney from an angle above the horizontal. The chimney shall be properly capped with
stone, terra cotta, concrete, cast-iron, or other approved material; but no such cap
or coping shall decrease the flue area.
There shall be but one connection to the flue to which the boiler or furnace smoke-
pipe is attached. The boiler or furnace smoke-pipe shall be thoroughly grouted into the
chimney and shall not project beyond the inner surface of the flue lining.
The size or area of flue lining or of brick flue for warm-air furnaces depends on height
of chimney and capacity of heating system. For chimneys not less than 35 ft in height
above grate line, the net internal dimensions of lining should be at least 7 x 11 H in.
195
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
for a total leader pipe area up to 790 sq in. Above 790 and up to 1,000 sq in. of leader
pipe area the lining should be at least 11^ x 11 % in. inside. In case of brick flues not
less than 35 ft in height with no linings, the internal dimensions should be at least
8 x 12 in. up to 790 sq in. of leader area, and at least 12 x 12 in. for leader capacities up to
1,000 sq in. Chimneys under 35 ft in height are unsatisfactory in operation and hence
should be avoided.
CHIMNEYS FOR GAS HEATING
The burning of gas differs from the burning of coal in that the force
which supplies the air for combustion of the gas comes largely from the
pressure of the gas in the supply pipe, whereas air is supplied to a bed of
burning coal by the force of the chimney draft. If, with a coal-burning
boiler, the draft is poor, or if the chimney is stopped, the fire is smothered
and the combustion rate reduced. In a gas boiler or furnace such a
condition would interfere with the combustion of the gas, but the gas
would continue to pass to the burners and the resulting incomplete com-
bustion would produce a dangerous condition. In order to prevent incom-
plete combustion from insufficient draft, all gas-fired boilers and furnaces
should have a back-draft diverter in the flue connection to the chimney.
TABLE 2. SUGGESTED GENERAL DIMENSIONS FOR VERTICAL BACK-DRAFT DIVERTER
Table of Dimensions (In.)
PIPE
SIZE
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
3
3
3
5.5
7.0
3.8
0.7
4.4
3.0
1.5
2.5
0.7
1.5
2.3
4
4
4
7.2
9.5
5.0
1.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
3.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
5
5
5
9.4
10.8
5.3
1.5
8.0
5.0
2.3
4.0
0.9
2.4
3.5
6
6
6
11.5
12.0
5.6
1.9
9.8
6.0
2.5
4.5
0.8
2.7
4.0
7
7
7
13.5
13.9
6.4
2.3
11.6
7.0
2.9
5.3
0.9
3.1
4.6
8
8
8
15.5
15.8
7.1
2.7
13.4
8.0
3.2
6.0
1.0
3.5
5.3
9
9
9
17.5
17.5
7.7
3.1
15.2
9.0
3.5
6.7
1.0
4.0
5.8
10
10
10
19.7
18.8
7.9
3.6
17.2
10.0
3.8
7.3
1.0
4.3
6.2
11
11
11
22.2
20.7
8.4
4.3
19.6
11.0
4.1
8.0
1.5
4.6
6.6
12
12
12
24.7
22.2
8.7
5.0
22.0
12.0
4.4
8.5
1.7
5.0
7,0
196
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCUIATIONS
A study of a typical back-draft diverter shows that partial or complete
chimney stoppage^will merely cause some of the products of combustion
to be vented out into the boiler room, but will not interfere with com-
bustion^ In fact, gas-designed appliances must perform safely under such
a condition to be approved by the American Gas Association Laboratory.
Other functions of the back-draft diverter are to protect the burner and
pilot from the effects of down-drafts, and to neutralize the effects of
variable chimney drafts, thus maintaining the appliance efficiency at a
substantially constant value. Converted boilers or furnaces, as well as
gas-designed appliances, should be provided with back-draft diverters.
Since back-draft diverters have a special function to perform in pro-
tecting gas burning appliances, it is necessary that they should be built
to the proper size as shown in Table 2 for a vertical type and in Table 3
for a horizontal arrangement. Equipment of this kind listed by the
American Gas Association Testing Laboratory must bear the listing
symbol A.G.A.
. SUG
GESTED GENERAL DIMENSIONS FOR HORIZONTAL BACK-DRAFT DIVERTER
t
, r ,._ tei n
1
[
i
)
r"
~i
^ /-Baffle
1 / /
r
^
E
E
3
(
• — 1-\- — 1
L
Baffle
^ \
Baffle
strap
nlet
-Relief opening *^
Table of Dimensions (In.)
PIPE
SIZE
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
E
L
M
3
3
3
6
1.5
4.8
3.8
1.4
2.5
2,5
2.5
2.1
0 6
1.8
4
4
4
8
2.0
4.8
5.0
1.9
3.4
3.4
3.4
2.9
0.8
2.3
5
5
5
10
2.5
4.8
6.3
2.4
4.2
4.2
4.2
3.5
0.9
2.9
6
6
6
12
3.0
4.8
7.5
2.9
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.3
1.1
3.5
7
7
7
14
3.5
4.8
8.8
3.4
5.9
5.9
5.9
5.0
1.3
4.1
8
8
8
16
4.0
4.8
10.0
3.9
6.7
6.7
6.7
5.6
1.5
4.7
9
9
9
18
4.5
4.8
11.3
4.4
7.5
7.5
7.5
6.4
1.7
5.3
10
10
10
20
5.0
4.8
12.5
4.9
8.4
8.4
8.4
7.0
1.9
5.8
11
11
11
22
5.5
4.8
13.8
5.4
9.2
9.2
9.2
7.8
2.1
6.4
12
12
12
24
6.0
4.8
15.0
5.9
10.0
10.0
10.0
8.5
2.3
7.0
197
HEATING VENTIUITING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
As is the case with the complete combustion of almost all fuels, the
products of combustion for gas are carbon dioxide (C09) and water vapor
with just a trace of sulphur tripxide (503). Sulphur usually burns to the
trioxide in the presence of an iron oxide catalyst. The volume of water
vapor in the flue products is about twice the volume of the carbon dioxide
when coke oven or natural gas is burned. Because of the large quantity
of water vapor which is formed by the burning of gas, it is quite important
that all gas-fired central heating plants be connected to a chimney having
a good draf t.^ Lack of chimney draft causes stagnation of the products of
combustion in the chimney and results in the condensation of a large
amount of the water vapor. A good chimney draft draws air into the
chimney through the openings in the back-draft diverter, lowers the dew
point of the mixture, and reduces the tendency of the water vapor to
condense.
The flue connections from a gas-fired boiler or furnace to the chimney
should be of a non-corrosive material. In localities where the price of
TABLE 4. MINIMUM ROUND CHIMNEY DIAMETERS FOR GAS APPLIANCES (INCHES)
HJCIOHT or
GAS CONSUMPTION m THOUSANDS OF Bin PER HOTJB
FZZT
100
200
300
400
500
750
1000
1500
2000
20
4.50
5.70
6.60
7.30
8.00
9.40
10.50
12.35
13.85
40
4.25
5.50
6.40
7.10
7.80
9.15
10.25
12.10
13.55
60
4.10
5.35
6.20
6.90
7.60
8.90
10.00
11.85
13.25
80
4.00
5.20
6.00
6.70
7.35
8.65
9.75
11.50
12.85
100
3.90
5.00
5.90
6.50
7.20
8.40
9.40
11.00
12.40
gas requires the use of highly efficient appliances, the material used for
the flue connection not only should be resistant to the corrosion of water,
but should resist the corrosion of dilute solutions of sulphur trioxide in
water. Local practice should be followed in the selection of the most
appropriate flue materials.
When condensation in a chimney proves troublesome, it may be
necessary to provide a drain to a dry well or sewer. The cause of the
excessive condensation should be investigated and remedied if possible.
This may be done by raising the flue temperature slightly or increasing
the size of the back-draft diverten The protection of unlined chimneys
has been investigated and the results indicate that after the loose material
has been removed, the spraying with a water emulsion of asphalt-
chromate provides an excellent protection,
A chimney for a gas-fired boiler or furnace should be constructed in
accordance with the principles applicable to other boilers. Where the
wall forming a smoke flue is made up of less than an 8-in. thickness of
brick, concrete, or stone, a burnt fire-day flue tile lining should be used.
Care^ should be used that the lengths of flue tile meet properly with no
openings at the joints. Cement mortar should be used for the entire
chimney.
Table 4 gives the minimum cross-sectional diameters of round chim-
198
CHAPTER 10. CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT CALCULATIONS
neys (in inches) for various^ amounts of heat supplied to the appliance,
and for various chimney heights. This is in accordance with American
Gas Association recommendations.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What are the principle factors influencing the intensity of natural draft?
The intensity of natural draft depends largely upon the height of chimney above the
grate bar level and the temperature difference between the chimney gases and the
atmosphere.
2 • What two kinds of draft need he considered?
Natural draft caused by temperature differences, and artificial draft caused by me-
chanical forcing.
3 • What is the effective height of a chimney?
The height from the grate level to the top of the chimney is the effective height in pro-
ducing natural draft.
4 • What dual purpose does a tall chimney fulfill?
A tall chimney primarily creates the necessary draft to move the air required for the
combustion process and to move the products of combustion, and secondarily it dis-
charges the gases at a high elevation to prevent them from becoming a nuisance.
5 • What is the direct influence of the height on the design of a chimney?
The immediate purpose of height is to provide that draft intensity under the conditions
of chimney gas temperature such that it will be adequate to overcome all the frictional
resistances of the installation, as well as to provide for the actual gas movement.
6 • Of what importance is chimney cross-sectional area in stack design?
The area should be as large as is economically feasible in order that the frictional loss
for the chimney he
in overcoming the i
for the chimney height should not destroy the effectiveness of the height-created draft
he necessary frictional resistances of the boiler and its flue connections.
7 • Of what importance is the Reynolds number in chimney design?
It permits the selection of a more specific value of the chimney friction factor, rather
than a general one, to correspond with conditions of size, nature of the gas, rate of gas
flow, and condition of the surface.
8 • a. Name the principle advantages of natural draft.
b. Name the principle disadvantages of natural draft.
a. Simplicity, reliability, freedom from mechanical parts, low cost of maintenance,
relatively long life, relatively low depreciation, operation with no power requirement.
b. Lack of flexibility, irregularity, dependence on surroundings, susceptibility to tem-
perature changes.
9 • How is mechanical draft created?
By forced draft, by induced-draft fans, or by a Venturi chimney.
10 • Distinguish between theoretical and available draft.
Theoretical draft is the difference in pressure inside and outside the base of a chimney
when it is under operating temperatures but when there are no gases flowing. Available
draft is less than theoretical draft by the friction loss due to the flow of gases through
the chimney.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
11 • Explain the term efficiency of a natural draft chimney.
The efficiency of a chimney is the ratio of the work it does in moving gases to the theo-
retical amount of power it generates.
12 • How is the available draft used in a heating plant?
The available draft at the base of the chimney is used to overcome the loss in pressure
through the grate, the fuel bed, the boiler passes, the breeching.
13 • What are some of the factors that influence the draft loss through the fuel
bed?
Uniformity and size of coal, the amount of ash mixed with the fuel on the grate, thickness
of fuel bed, rate of combustion, amount of air supply as related to the coal burning rate.
14 • How does the volatile matter content affect the draft loss through the fuel
bed?
The higher the volatile content and the lower the fixed carbon content, the lower the
draft loss.
15 • In what cases will there he no fuel bed draft loss?
In oil, gas, and powdered fuel firing the fuel is mixed and burned in suspension; con-
sequently, no measurable resistance is encountered in the combustion zone.
16 • Is it possible to state an average value for the draft loss through a boiler
and its setting?
No. The draft loss varies widely and depends on many factors such as the size and type
of gas passageways. The manufacturer is usually able to supply such information.
17 • Of what significance is the CDs content of stack gases in establishing
draft loss?
The COz content of the exit gases is a measure of the completeness of the combustion and
the amount of excess air supplied. Low COj indicates a high excess of air and hence
a high draft loss.
18 • What two effects does an economizer have on the draft loss?
An economizer offers resistance to the flow of gases over the added surfaces; it lowers the
temperature of the gases going to the chimney and therefore decreases the available
draft. This decrease often necessitates the addition of forced draft.
19 • What main provisions should be considered in good chimney construction?
Chimneys should be air-tight and connected to only one smoke opening. The chimney
top should be high enough above surroundings so the wind will not strike it at any angle
above the horizontal. ^ Chimney walls should be not less than one brick in width, and
they should be lined with fire-clay tile of the size required for the attached heating unit.
Tile lining sizes are stated as outside dimensions; therefore, their effective dimensions
are less by the thickness of the wall.
20 • What is the purpose of a back draft diverter as used on gas burning units?
Since the fuel is supplied under pressure independent of draft it is necessary to free the
unit from the variable chimney draft and to supply air for combustion in direct propor-
tion to the supply of fuel gas. The back draft diverter protects the pilot and burners
from down drafts.
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Chapter 11
AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
Classification of Stokers, Combustion Process and Adjustments,
Furnace Design, Classification of Oil Burners, Combustion
Chamber Design, Classification of Gas-Fired Appliances
A UTOMATIC mechanical equipment for the combustion of solid,
f\ liquid and gaseous fuels is considered in this chapter.
MECHANICAL STOKERS
A mechanical stoker is a device that feeds a solid fuel into a combustion
chamber, provides a supply of air for burning the fuel under automatic
control and, in some cases, incorporates a means of removing the ash and
refuse of combustion automatically. Coal can be burned more efficiently
by a mechanical stoker than by hand firing because the stoker provides a
uniform rate of fuel feed, better distribution in the fuel bed and positive
control of the air supplied for combustion.
Stokers may be divided into four types according to their construction,
namely, (1) overfeed flat grate, (2) overfeed inclined grate, (3) underfeed
side cleaning type, and (4) underfeed rear cleaning type.
Overfeed Flat Grate Stokers
This type is represented by the various chain- or traveling-grate stokers.
These stokers receive fuel at the front of the grate in a layer of uniform
thickness and move it back horizontally to the rear of the furnace. Air is
supplied under the moving grate to carry on combustion at a sufficient
•rate to complete the burning of the coal near the rear of the furnace.
The ash is carried over the back end of the stoker into an ashpit beneath.
This type of stoker is suitable for small sizes of anthracite or coke breeze
and also for bituminous coals, the characteristics of which make it
desirable to bum the fuel without disturbing it. This type of stoker
requires an arch, over the front of the stoker to maintain ignition of the
incoming fuel. Frequently, a rear combustion arch is required to main-
tain ignition until the fuel is fully consumed. A typical traveling-grate
stoker is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Another and distinct type of overfeed flat-grate stoker is the
spreader (Fig., 2) or sprinkler type in which coal is distributed either
mechanically or by air over the entire grate surface. This type of stoker
has a wide application on small sized fuels and on certain special fuels
such as lignites, high-ash coals, and coke breeze.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Overfeed Inclined Grate Stokers
In general the combustion principle is similar to the flat grate stoker,
but this stoker (Fig. 3) is provided with rocking grates set on an incline to
advance the fuel during combustion. Also this type is provided with an
ash plate where ash is accumulated and from which it is dumped periodi-
cally. This type of stoker is suitable for all types of coking fuels but
preferably for those of low volatile content. Its grate action has the
tendency to keep the fuel bed well broken up thereby allowing for free
I I I T T
FIG. 1. OVERFEED TRAVELING-GRATE STOKER
Coal conveying pipe
^—
Burner nozzle
FIG. 2. SPREADER STOKER-PNEUMATIC TYPE
passage of air. Because of its agitating effect on the fuel it is not so
desirable for badly clinkering coals. Furthermore, it should usually be
provided with a front arch to care for the volatile gases.
Underfeed Side Cleaning Stokers
In this type (Fig. 4), the fuel is introduced at the front of the furnace to
one or more retorts, is advanced away from the retort as combustion
progresses, while finally the ash is disposed of at the sides. This type of
stoker is suitable for all coking coals while in the smaller sizes it is suitable
for small sizes of anthracites. In this type of stoker the fuel is delivered
to a retort beneath the fire and is raised into the fire. During this process
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
the volatile gases are released, are mixed with air, and pass through the
fire where they are burned. The ash may be continuously discharged as
in the small stoker or may be accumulated on a dump plate and periodi-
cally discharged. This stoker requires no arch as it automatically pro-
vides for the combustion of the volatile gases.
Secondary-
I fof — Ignited and partuHy coked fuel
FIG. 3. OVERFEED INCLINED GRATE STOKER
FIG. 4. UNDERFEED PLUNGER TYPE STOKER
Underfeed Rear Cleaning Stokers
This type of stoker accomplishes combustion in much the same manner
as the side cleaning type, but consists of several retorts placed side by side
and filling up the furnace width, while the ash disposal is at the rear. In
principle, its operation is the same as the side cleaning underfeed.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Stokers also may be classified according to their size based upon coal
feed rates. The following classification has been made by the United
States Department of Commerce in cooperation with the Stoker Manu-
facturers' Association'.
Class 1. Up to and including 60 Ib of coal per hour.
Class 2. 60 to 100 Ib of coal per hour.
Class 3. 100 to 300 Ib of coal per hour.
Class 4. 300 to 1200 Ib of coal per hour.
(A fifth class is included covering stokers having a feeding capacity above 1200 Ib
of coal per hour).
Class 1 and Class 2 Stokers, Household
Since these stokers are used primarily for home heating, it is desirable
that their design be simple and attractive in appearance, and that they be
quiet and automatic in .operation.
A common type of stoker in this class consists, essentially of a coal
reservoir or hopper, a screw for conveying the fuel from the hopper to the
burner head or retort; a fan which supplies the air for combustion, a
FIG. 5. UNDERFEED SCREW STOKER, HOPPER TYPE
transmission for driving the coal feed worm, and an electric motor or
motors for supplying the motive power for both coal feed and air supply
as indicated in Fig. 5. The shape of the retort in this class of stokers is
usually round although rectangular retorts are favored by some manu-
facturers. In all cases, however, the retort incorporates tuyeres through
which the air for combustion is admitted.
Some household stokers are provided with an automatic grate-shaking
mechanism together with screw conveyors for removing the ash from the
ashpit (Fig. 6) and depositing it in an ash receptacle outside the boiler.
Certain types can also be provided with a coal conveyor which takes
coal from the storage bin and maintains a full hopper at the stoker. In
some cases the coal bin functions as the stoker hopper as shown in Fig. 7,
and an extended worm is used to convey the fuel to the combustion furnace.
. Domestic stokers may feed coal to the furnace either intermittently or
with a continuous flow regulated automatically to suit conditions.
Household stokers are made for ail classes of fuel ^anthracite, bitu-
minous and semi-bituminous coals, and coke. The United States Depart-
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
went of Commerce has issued commercial standards for household anthra-
cite burners, which may be obtained by application. Standards of
performance for bituminous coal stokers are also being developed by
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. The standards for anthracite stokers are
described in the next paragraphs.
Operating Requirements for Anthracite Stokers
Efficiency. The over-all efficiency of the unit at all points above 50 per cent of maxi-
mum coal feed shall be above 50 per cent when installed in a round sectional cast-iron
boiler having three intermediate sections and 1H in. of asbestos insulation or its equiva-
FIG. 6. UNDERFEED SCREW STOKER WITH AUTOMATIC ASH REMOVAL
0 tf
FIG. 7. UNDERFEED SCREW STOKER, BIN FEED TYPE
lent in good condition of repair, operating at 50 per cent or more of the boiler capacity.
The efficiency shall be maintained for any continuous period of 4 hours during any test
or observation run.
Ash Loss. Combustible in ash shall not exceed 7.5 per cent of the Btu content of the
coal as fired at any rate of coal feed above 50 per cent of maximum. Methods of test
according to Code No. 3 of the A.S.H.V.E.1 are to be followed in all details applicable
to stoker testing.
Clinker. Ash removing systems should at all times be capable of disposing of any
clinker which may be formed under any conditions of operation with the coals prescribed.
*A..S.H.V.E. Performance Test Code for Steam Heating Solid Fuel Boilers (Code 3), (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 332).
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Combustion Rate. A combustion rate of at least 13 Ib per square foot of horizontal
projected area of ash ring per hour must be continuously maintained for at least 9 hours
with the above conditions of efficiency, ash and clinker.
Flue Gas. Flue gas shall be not below 6 per cent in carbon dioxide with a reasonably
tight boiler at any rate of operation above 50 per cent of maximum coal feed.
Maximum Rating^ The maximum rating, in terms of gross square feet of water or
steam radiation which the burner will supply, when intended for installation in the
average existing cast-iron boiler, shall be 90 per cent of the maximum steam produced in
a round cast-iron boiler in good repair having three intermediate sections and the
equivalent of 1J£ in. of asbestos insulation. However, in no case shall the maximum
rating be greater than 29 sq ft of direct steam radiation for each pound of coal fired per
hour, and in no case shall ratings be based upon efficiency figures below 50 per cent.
The maximum rating as defined in the preceding paragraph shall be based upon com-
bustion of Pennsylvania anthracite having the following approximate analysis:
Volatile matter 3.5 to 9 per cent ; ash content not to exceed 15 per cent ; sulphur content
under 1.5 per cent; ash fusing temperature 2750 F, or above (volatile, ash and sulphur
content on dry basis in accordance with A.S.T.M. method D271-33) ; Btu content 12,000
or above; properly sized as follows: A No. 1 buckwheat should pass through a round
mesh screen having %6 in- holes and over a similar screen having 5ie m- holes. The
undersizing should not exceed 15 per cent and the oversizing should not exceed 10 per
cent. A No. 2 buckwheat (rice) should pass through a round mesh screen having holes
5ie in. in diameter and over a like screen having holes of %e in. in diameter. The under-
sizing should not exceed 15 per cent and the oversizing should not exceed 10 per cent.
Coal Storage. It is recommended that the coal bin or closet be constructed so as to
be dustproof.
Electrical Consumption. The electrical consumption shall not exceed 18 kwh per
2000 Ib of coal burned at any rate of coal feed above 50 per cent of the maximum.
Operation Upon Other Sizes of Coal. The foregoing specifications have been drafted
for operating with the Nos. 1 and 2 buckwheat sizes of anthracite. In the event that
other sizes are recommended, ratings shall be based upon the same efficiency and ash
loss requirements.
Banking. The burner shall be so constructed or controlled as to maintain a fire
during an indefinite banking period.
Acceleration. When the burner resumes operation after a 12 hour banking period, the
time required for the stack temperature to reach a normal maximum shall not exceed
60 min.
Stoker-Fired Units
Boilers and air conditioners especially designed for stokers are now
becoming available. Present designs feature better coordination between
the heat absorber and the stoker. Increased setting height and furnace
volume and more heating surface than in conversion installations are
usually to be found in these stoker units.
Class 3 Stokers, Apartment House, Small Commercial
This class is used extensively for heating plants in apartments and
hotels, and also for small industrial plants such as laundries, bakeries, and
creameries. The majority of stokers used in this field are of the underfeed
type. The principal exception is an overfeed type having step action
grates in a horizontal plane and so arranged that they are alternately
moving and stationary, and are designed to advance the fuel during com-
bustion to an ash plate at the rear.
All of the stokers are provided with a coal hopper outside of the boiler.
In the underfeed types, the coal feed from this hopper to the furnace may
be accomplished by a continuously revolving screw or by an intermittent
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
plunger. The drive for the coal feed may be an electric motor, or a steam
or hydraulic cylinder. With an electric motor, the connection between
the driver and the coal feed may be through a variable speed gear train
which provides two or more speeds for the coal feed; or it may be through
a simple gear train and a variable speed driver for the change in speed of
the coal feed; or a simple gear train with a coal feed having an adjustment
for varying the travel of the feeding device. With a steam or hydraulic
cylinder, the power piston is connected directly to the coal feeding
plunger.
The stokers in this class vary also in their retort design according to the
fuels and load conditions. The retort is placed approximately in the
middle of the furnace and is provided with tuyere openings at the top on
all sides. In the plunger-feed type the retort extends from the inside of
the front wall entirely to the rear wall or to within a short distance of the
rear wall. This type of retort has tuyeres on the sides and at the rear.
These stokers also differ in the grate surface surrounding the retort.
In many of the worm-feed stokers this grate is entirely a dead plate on
which the fuel rests while combustion is completed. In the dead-plate
type, all of the air for combustion is furnished by the tuyeres at the retort.
Because of this, combustion is well advanced over the retort so that it
may easily be completed by the air which percolates through the fuel bed.
With the dead-plate type of grate the ash is removed through the fire
doors and it is therefore desirable that the fuel used shall be one in which
the ash is readily reduced to a clinker at the furnace temperature, in
order that it may be removed with the least disturbance of the fuel bed.
In other stokers in this class, the grates outside of the retort are air-
admitting and some stokers have shaking grates. These grates permit a
large part of the ash to be shaken into the ashpit beneath, while the
clinkers are removed through the fire doors. With this type of grate, the
main air chamber extends only under the retort while the side grates
receive air by natural draft from the ashpit.
In still other stokers of this class, the main air chamber extends beyond
the retort and is covered with fuel-bearing, air-supplying grates. With
this type of grate, the fuel is supplied with air from the main air chamber
throughout combustion. Also with this type of grate, dump plates are
provided beyond the grates where the ash accumulates and from which it
can be dropped periodically into the ashpit beneath.
Stokers in this class are compactly built in order that they may fit into
standard heating boilers and still leave room for sufficient combustion
space above the grates. The height of the grate is approximately the same
as that of the ordinary grates of boilers, so that it is usually possible to
install such stokers with but minor changes in the existing equipment.
In some districts, there are statutory regulations governing such settings.
These stokers vary in furnace dimensions from 30 in. square to approxi-
mately 66 in. square. The capacity of the stokers is measured by the
amount of coal that can be burned per hour. In general, manufacturers
recommend that, for continuous operation, the coal burning rate shall not
exceed 25 Ib of coal per square foot of grate per hour, while for short
peaks this rate may be increased to 30 Ib per hour. Although these
stokers were designed to burn bituminous coal, types are available for
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the semi-bituminous coals such as Pocahontas and New River. They can
also be used to burn the small sizes of anthracite but at a somewhat
lower rate.
Class 4 Stokers, Medium Commerial
These stokers are usually of the screw feed type without auxiliary
plungers or other means of distributing the coal. Rectangular retorts
with sectional tuyeres and dead plates without air ports are employed.
The unit type of construction is almost universally used, the unit incor-
porating the hopper, the transmission for driving the feed screw, and the
fan for supplying air for combustion.
Class 4 Stokers, Large Commercial, Small High Pressure Plants
Stokers in this group vary widely in details of mechanical design and
the several methods of feeding coal previously described may be employed
Such methods of applying power to the fuel conveying mechanism as,
continuous gear train transmission, ratchet type speed reducer, hydraulic
cylinder and steam cylinder are used. Varying methods of ash disposal
are found in this class.
Large Stokers
This class includes stokers with hourly burning rates of over 1200 Ib
of coal per hour. The prevalent stokers in this field are :
a. Overfeed flat grate stokers.
b. Overfeed inclined grate stokers.
c. Underfeed side cleaning stokers.
d. Underfeed rear cleaning stokers.
Overfeed inclined grate stokers are seldom built in sizes of over 500 hp
and are not as extensively used as other types of stokers.
Underfeed side cleaning stokers are made in sizes up to approximately
500 hp and in this field are extensively used. These stokers are not so
varied in design as those in the smaller classes although the principle is
much the same. Practically all of them are of the front coal feed type,
either power driven or steam driven. Dump plates at the side are
manually operated. These stokers are heavily built and designed to
operate continuously at high boiler ratings with a minimum amount of
attention. Because of the fact that all volatile gases must pass through the
fire before reaching the combustion chamber, these stokers will operate
smokelessly under ordinary conditions. Also because of the fact that
these stokers are always provided with forced draft, they are the most
desirable type for fluctuating loads or high boiler ratings.
' In the design of the grates for supporting the fuel between the retort
and the ash plates, the stokers differ in providing for movement of the
fuel during combustion. Some stokers are designed with fixed grates of
sufficient angle to provide for this movement as the bed is agitated by the
incoming fuel, while others have alternate moving and stationary bars in
this area and provide for this movement mechanically. In either type,
with 'proper operation, all refuse will be deposited at the dump plate.
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
Recent developments in this type of stoker provide for sliding distributor
blocks along the bottom of the retorts which give flexibility in providing
proper distribution of fuel over the grate area and assist in preventing
coke masses when strong coking coals are used. Another difference in
these stokers is that some use a single air chamber under the whole grate
area thus having the same air pressure under the ignition area as under
the rest of the grate, while others have a divided air chamber using the
full air pressure under the ignition area and a reduced air pressure under
the remainder of the grate. These stokers vary in size from approxi-
mately 5 sq ft to a maximum of 8% sq ft.
The most prevalent type of rear cleaning underfeed stoker is the
multiple retort design. Occasionally double or triple retort side cleaning
underfeeds are made. The multiple retort underfeed stoker is made for
the largest sizes of boilers for large industrial plants and central stations.
This stoker has reached a very fine stage of development mechanically
and in the matter of air supply and control. In some instances zoned air
control has been applied both longitudinally and transversely to the grate
surface. Ash dumps on smaller sizes are sometimes manually operated.
The Combustion Process
Due to the marked differences in design and operating characteristics
of stokers and the widely differing characteristics of stoker fuels, it is
difficult to generalize on the subject of combustion in automatic stokers.
In anthracite stokers, which are almost exclusively of the small (Class 1)
underfeed type, burning takes place within the stoker retort. The ash
and refuse of combustion spills over the edge of the retort into an ashpit
or receptacle from which it may be removed either manually or auto-
matically. Anthracite is usually supplied for stoker firing in No. 1
buckwheat or No. 2 buckwheat size. Those stokers burning coke operate
in a similar manner to anthracite stokers.
Since the majority of bituminous coal stokers used in heating plants
operate on the underfeed principle some general observations of their
operation are given.
When the coal is fed from the hopper or bin into the retort it is generally
degraded to some extent and some segregation of sizes occurs. Because
of these factors there may be some difference in the actions occurring in the
various portions of the retort.
The coal moving upward in the retort toward the zone of combustion
established by previous kindling of the fire is heated by conduction and
radiation from the zone of combustion. As the temperature of the coal
rises it first gives off moisture and occluded gases, which are largely
non-combustible. When the temperature increases to around 700 or
800 F, the coal particles become plastic, the degree of plasticity varying
with the type of coal.
A rapid evolution of combustible volatile matter occurs during and
directly after the plastic stage of the coal. The distillation of volatile
matter continues above the plastic zone and the coal is coked. The
strength and porosity of the coke formed will vary according to the size
and characteristics of the coal used.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
As more coal is fed from below the mass of coke continues to grow
forming a coke tree, plug or spar as it is variously designated. After a
period of time, dependent upon the strength of the coke formed, pieces of
the coke tree break off and fall upon the hearth surrounding the retort
or within the retort itself where they are burned.
While part of the ash fuses into particles at the surface of the coke as it
is released, most of it is freed in unfused flakes or grains. The greater
part of this unfused ash remains on the hearth or dead plates although a
part may be expelled from the furnace with the gases.
The ash layer becomes thicker with time and that near the retort, being
exposed to temperatures which are high enough at times, fuses into a
clinker. The temperature attained in the fuel bed, the chemical compo-
sition and homogeneity of the ash, and the time of heating are factors
which govern the degree of fusion.
FIG. 8. CROSS-SECTION OF FUEL BED
WITH WEAKLY COKING COAL
FIG. 9. CROSS-SECTION OF FUEL BED
WITH STRONGLY COKING COAL
Bituminous coal stokers of the Class 1 type operate on the principle
of the removal of ash as clinker and clinker tongs are provided to facilitate
this purpose. Typical representations of underfeed bituminous stoker
fuel beds are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
The appearance of such fuel beds is very ragged at times, and large
masses of coke build up, surrounded by blowholes with intense white
flame indicating the presence of excess air. There is a natural tendency
for users to disturb the fuel bed and make it conform to the conventional
representation or ideal fuel bed. Such attention should not be required,
as usually the fuel bed tends to correct its own faults as the cycles of
plasticity, coke tree formation and ash fusion recur.
There are a number of factors which materially affect the rate and type
of ^ combustion obtained in stoker usage, the most important of these
being: the type and design of stoker, the type and characteristics of the
fuel, the method of stoker installation and the method of stoker operation.
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
Furnace Design
The burning of the fuel on the grate or in the retort will be influenced
directly by the stoker design. The burning of the volatile gases above the
fuel bed is a matter of furnace design. Proper care should be taken to
provide furnaces sufficiently liberal in volume and with the grates or
retorts at a sufficient distance from the heating surface to permit proper
combustion of the gases. Smoke and low efficiency will result if the
furnace is too small to permit proper mixing of the gases and completion
of combustion.
TABLE 1. RECOMMENDED SETTING HEIGHTS FOR HEATING BOILERS
EQUIPPED WITH MECHANICAL STOKERS'*
FIREBOX BOIUCBS
Actual Loadb
2500
5000
7500
10000
12500
15000
20000 |
25000
30000
A 18"
18'
20"
20"
22"
22"
24" !
24"
24"
B
42"
48"
54"
60"
66"
72"
78" ;
84"
84"
A — Distance from bottom of Water Leg to floor. B m Distance from Crown Sheet to bottom of Water Leg.
COMPACT WELDED BOILERS
Actual Loadb
2500 j 5000 i
7500
| 10000 '
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
A
18"
18"
20"
i 20"
22"
22"
24" ' 24"
24"
B
30"
33" 1
!
36"
: 42" j
45"
48" 54"
60"
60"
A = Distance from bottom of Water Leg to floor. B = Distance from Crown Sheet to bottom of Water Leg.
H. R. T. BOILEBS
HP
50
75 | 100
125
150
i
175 i 200 i 225
250
1
275 300
A
5'-0"
5'-6" ! 6'-0"
6'-6"
7'-0"
7'-0" ; 7'-6" 8'-0"
8'-6"
9'-0" 9'-0"
A = Distance from bottom of shell to floor.
Hp - Installed horsepower.
In the case of the Firebox or Compact Welded type boilers the desired setting height can be obtained by
combining A and B dimensions. The load ratings shown for this class of boilers are actual developed loads
in square feet of equivalent cast-iron steam radiation and are not manufacturers' ratings.
The setting heights given for H. R. T. boilers may be used for developed loads up to 50 per cent above
normal rating.
•From Data prepared by the Midwest Stoker Association.
bExpressed as steam radiation, 1 sq ft = 240 Btu.
The standards that have been most universally adopted for the propor-
tioning of furnaces for bituminous coal stokers are those of the Midwest
Stoker Association and the Steel Heating Boiler Instittite. See Chapter 13.
Table 1 gives recommended setting heights for heating boilers equipped
with mechanical stokers using bituminous coal.
Furnace volume is not an important item in anthracite stoker instal-
lations. Due care should be exercised for both anthracite and bituminous
stokers to prevent intense heat application on the metal surfaces of the
combustion chamber. The installation of a baffle or adjustment in setting
height of the stoker may be desirable in some cases.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The prime essentials of good furnace design are: correct proportions,
moderate combustion rate, adequate furnace volume and sufficient flame
clearance. If these factors are properly compensated for and provision is
made for the proper mixing of the gases bituminous coal stokers will
operate smokelessly. In those stokers which are operated intermittently,
however, some smoke may be produced during the off periods.
Combustion Adjustments
Satisfactory stoker performance may be secured by regulating the coal
feed and the air supply so as to maintain, as nearly as possible, an ideal
balance between the load demand and the heat liberated by the fuel.
When the coal is consumed at about the same rate as that which it is fed
this balance exists and uniform fuel bed conditions will be found. Under
such conditions no manual attention to the fuel bed should be required
other than the removal of clinker in those stokers which operate on this
principle of ash removal.
Since complete combustion is not obtained in stoker furnaces receiving
only the air theoretically required, it is necessary, even under the best
of conditions, to supply from 30 to 50 per cent excess air to obtain desired
combustion results. Due to the variable characteristics of solid fuels in
burning, consideration must be given to a number of factors which affect
the maintenance of the combustion conditions wanted.
The specified rate of coal feed of a stoker may vary due to changes in
the bulk density of the coal dependent upon : (a) the size of coal, (6) dis-
tribution of size in the coal, (c) segregation of coal in the stoker hopper,
and (d) friability of the coal.
The following factors may affect the rate of air supply: (a) changes in
fuel bed conditions and resistance, (&) changes in furnace draft due to a
variety of causes, i.e., changes in chimney draft because of weather
changes, seasonal changes, back drafts, failure or inadequacy of auto-
matic draft regulator, use of chimney for other purposes, possible stoppage
of the chimney and changes in draft resistance of boiler due to partial
stoppage of the flues, and (c) changes in air inlet adjustments to the fan.
Many domestic bituminous stokers now incorporate some method of
automatic control which compensates for changes in fuel bed resistance.
Since a secondary source of air due to leakage is present in most installa-
tions, the use of an automatic draft regulator to maintain the furnace
draft at about 0.05 in. of water is desirable. This is quite important with
intermittently operated stokers. Some fuel is burned by natural draft in
the off periods, when fuel is not being fed, and it is essential that the
burning in these periods be controlled. With excessive draft, due either
to fan pressure or chimney pull, an increase in the discharge of soot and
fly ash from the combustion chamber will result.
Measurement of the Efficiency of Combustion
As efficient combustion is based upon a certain percentage of excess air,
it is possible to determine the results by analysis of the gases formed by
the combustion process. An Orsat apparatus can be used to determine the
percentage (by volume) of the carbon dioxide (C02), oxygen (02) and
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gases. Due to variations in the fuel bed
and rate of burning of stoker-fired .solid fuels it is not sufficient to analyze
a grab sample. A continuous gas sample drawn at a constant rate through-
out an operating period of reasonably long duration should be used.
A COz reading of 12.5 to 14 per cent indicates that the excess air
supplied is in the range of 30 to 50 per cent. The presence of CO indicates
a loss due to improper mixing of the air and the gases of combustion;
As an increase in excess air maintained during on periods will decrease the
tendency toward smoke in the off periods of intermittently operated
bituminous coal stokers, care should be taken that the delivery of air by
the fan is great enough to avoid smoke.
Controls
The industry developed by stokers in Classes 1, 2, 3 and 4 has been due
as much to the application of proper controls as to the stoker itself. This
is especially true of Class 1 stokers because of their application to resi-
dential heating, a field wherein the majority of owners and users are not
familiar with control problems or stoker operation.
The usual controls applied are as follows:
a. Thermostats (plain and clock).
b. Limit Controls (steam, vapor, vacuum, hot water, or air).
c. Stack Temperature or Time Controls (for actuating fires periodically).
d. Relay (for low voltage controls).
e. Safety or Overload Cutout (for protection against overload).
/. Low Water Cutout (steam, vapor and vacuum).
DOMESTIC OIL BURNERS
An oil burner is a mechanical device for producing heat automatically
and safely from liquid fuels. This heat is produced in the furnace or fire-
pot of hot water or steam boilers or warm air furnaces and is absorbed by
the boiler, and thus made available for distribution to the house through
the heating system.
With oil, as with any kind of fuel, efficient heat production requires that
all combustible matter in the fuel shall be completely consumed and that
it shall be done with a minimum of excess air. The combustion of oil is a
rather rapid chemical reaction. Excess air provides an over supply of
oxygen so that all of the oil, composed of carbon and hydrogen, will be
completely oxidized and thus produce all the heat possible. The use of
unreasonable quantities of air in excess of theoretical combustion require-
ments results in lowered efficiencies due to increased stack losses. Such
losses, if not accompanied by unburned products of combustion (saturated
and unsaturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen, etc.), may be offset somewhat
by increasing the secondary heating surfaces of the heat absorbing
medium, boiler or furnace.
Oil is a highly concentrated fuel composed mainly of hydrogen and
carbon. In its liquid form oil cannot burn. It must be converted into a
gas or vapor by some means. If the excess air ^is to be kept within
efficient limits it means that air must be supplied in carefully regulated
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
quantities. The air and oil vapor must be vigorously mixed to get a
rapid and complete chemical reaction. The better the mixing, the less
excess air that will be needed. The combustion must take place in a
space that maintains the temperatures high so the reaction will not be
stopped before completion. When equipped with a means of igniting the
oil and safety devices to guard against mishaps, the oil burner possesses
all of the elements to be efficient and automatic.
The number of combinations of the characteristic elements of domestic
oil burners is rather large and accounts for the variety of burners found in
actual practice. Domestic oil burners may be classified as follows:
1. AIR SUPPLY FOR COMBUSTION
a. Atmospheric — by natural chimney draft.
b. Mechanical — electric-motor-driven fan or blower.
c. Combination of (a) and (b) — primary air supply by fan or blower and secondary
air supply by natural chimney draft.
2. METHOD OF OIL PREPARATION
a. Vaporizing — oil distills on hot surface or in hot cracking chamber.
b. Atomizing — oil broken up into minute globules.
(1) Centrifugal — by means of rotating cup or disc.
(2) Pressure — by means of forcing oil under pressure through a small
nozzle or orifice.
(3) Air or steam — by high velocity air or steam jet in a special type of
nozzle.
(4) Combination air and pressure — by air entrained with oil under pressure
and forced through a nozzle.
c. Combination of (a) and (b).
3. TYPE OF FLAME
a. Luminous — a relatively bright flame. An orange-colored flame is usually best
if no smoke is present.
6. Non-luminous — Bunsen-type flame (i.e., blue flame).
4. METHODS OF IGNITION
a. Electric.
(1) Spark — by transformer producing high-voltage sparks. Usually
shielded to avoid radio interference. May take place continuously
while the burner is operating or just at the beginning of operation.
(2) Resistance — by means of hot wires or plates.
b. Gas.
(1) Continuous — pilot light of constant size.
(2) Expanding — size of pilot light expanded temporarily at the beginning
of burner operation.
c. Combination — electric sparks light the gas and the gas flame ignites the oil.
d. Manual — by manually-operated gas torch for continuously operating burners.
5. MANNER OF OPERATION
a. On and off— burner operates only a portion of the time (intermittent).
b. High and low — burner operates continuously but varies from a high to a low
flame.
c* Graduated — busner operates continuously but flame is graduated according to
needs by regulating both air and oil supply.
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
A trade classification of oil burners consists of the following general
types : (a) gun or pressure atomizing, (&) rotary and (c) pot or vaporizing.
The gun type, illustrated in Fig. 10 is characterized by an air tube,
usually horizontal, with oil supply pipe centrally located in the tube and
arranged so that a spray of atomized oil is introduced and mixed in the
combustion chamber with the air stream emerging from the air tube. A
variety of patented shapes are employed at the end of the air tube to
influence the direction and speed of the air and thus the effectiveness of
the mixing process.
-fU*£ BOX WIL
FIG. 10. GUN TYPE PRESSURE ATOMIZING OIL BURNER
FIG. 11. CENTER FLAME VERTICAL
ROTARY BURNER
FIG. 12. WALL FLAME VERTICAL
ROTARY BURNER
The most distinguishing feature of vertical rotary burners is the
principle of flame application. These burners are of two general types;
the center flame and wall flame. In the former type, (Fig. 11) the oil is
atomized by being thrown from the rim of a revolving disc or cup and the
flame burns in suspension with a characteristic yellow color. Combustion
is supported by means of a bowl-shaped chamber or hearth. The wall
flame burner (Fig. 12) differs in that combustion takes place in a ring of
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
refractory material, which is placed around the hearth. These types of
burners are further characterized by their installation within the ashpit of
the boiler or furnace:
The pot type burner (Fig. 13) can be identified by the presence of a
metal structure, called a pot or retort, in which combustion takes place.
When gun type (pressure atomizing) or horizontal rotary burners are
used the combustion chamber is usually constructed of firebrick or other
suitable refractory material, and is part of the installation procedure.
The oil burners are operated by a small electric motor which pumps the
oil and some or all of the air required. The smallest sizes can generally
burn not much less than 1 gal of oil per hour. The grade of oil burned
ranges from No. 1 to No. 4. No. 4 oil is the heaviest and most viscous of
the various grades mentioned. An oil burner satisfactory for No. 4 oil
can burn any of the lighter grades easily but an oil burner recommended
for No.. 2 oil should never be supplied with the heavier grades. It has been
found that while the heavier grades of oil have a smaller heat value per
FIG. 13. POT TYPE VAPORIZING BURNER
pound, they have, due to greater density, a larger heat value per gallon.
The relative economy of the various grades must be based upon price and
the amount of excess air required for clean and efficient combustion.
Boiler-Burner Units
Boilers and air conditioners especially designed for oil burners are
available to the purchaser of this type of equipment. They are used for
replacements as well as for new installations. This type of equipment
usually has more heating surface than the older coal-burning designs.
Flue proportions and gas travel have been changed with beneficial results.
All problems of combustion chamber design, capacities, efficiencies, etc.,
have been solved. The selection of the proper size of unit should be a
simple process.
COMMERCIAL OIL BURNERS
Liquid fuels are used for heating apartment buildings, hotels, public
and office buildings, schools, churches, hospitals, department stores, as
well as industrial plants of all kinds. Contrary to domestic heating, con-
venience seldom is a dominating factor, the actual net cost of heat pro-
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
duction usually controlling the selection of fuel. Some of the largest officfc
buildings have been using oil for many years. Many department stores
have found that floor space in basements and sub-basements can be used
to better advantage for merchandising wares, and credit the heat pro-
ducing department with this saving.
Wherever possible, the boiler plant should be so arranged that either
oil or solid fuel can be used at will, permitting the management to take
advantage of changes in fuel costs if any occur. Each case should be
considered solely in the light of local conditions and prices.
Burners for commercial heating may be either large models of types
used in domestic heating, or special types developed to meet the condi-
tions imposed by the boilers involved. Generally speaking, such burners
are of the mechanical or pressure atomizing types, the former using
rotating cups producing a horizontal torch-like flame. (Fig. 14). As much
FIG. 14. HORIZONTAL ROTATING-CUP OIL BURNER
as 350 gal of oil per hour can be burned in these units, and frequently they
are arranged in multiple on the boiler face, from two to five burners to
each boiler.
The larger installations are nearly always started with a^hand torch,
and are manually controlled, but the useof automatic control is increasing,
and completely automatic burners are now available to burn the twc
heaviest grades of oil. Nearly all of the smaller installations, in schools,
churches, apartment houses and the like, are fully automatic.
Because of the viscosity of the heavier oils, it is customary to heat them
before transferring by truck tank, It also has been common practice to
preheat the oil between the storage tank and the burner, as an aid to
movement of the oil as well as to atomization. This heating is accomplished
by heat-transfer coils, using water or steam from the heating boiler, and
heating the oil to within 30 deg of its flash point.
Unlike the domestic burner, units for large commercial applications
frequently consist of atomizing nozzles or cups mounted on the boiler
front with the necessary air regulators, the pumps for handling the oil
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HEATING VENTUJWING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and the blowers for air supply being mounted in sets adjacent to the
boilers. In such cases, one pump set can serve several burner units, and
common prudence dictates the installation of spare or reserve pump sets.
Pre-heaters and other essential auxiliary equipment also should be in-
stalled in duplicate.
Boiler Settings
As the volume of space available for combustion is the determining
factor in oil consumption, it is general practice to remove grates and
extend the combustion chamber downward to include or even exceed the
ashpit volume; in new installations the boiler should be raised to make
added volume available. Approximately 1 cu ft of combustion volume
should be provided for every developed boiler horsepower, and in this
volume from 1.5 to 2 Ib of oil can properly be burned. This cor-
responds to a maximum liberation of about 38,000 Btu per cubic foot per
hour. There are indications that at times much higher fuel rates may be
satisfactory. This in turn suggests that the value of 38,000 Btu per cubic
foot per hour might be adjusted according to good engineering judgment.
For best results, care should be taken to keep the gas velocity below 40 ft
per second. Where checkerwork of brick is used to provide secondary air,
food practice calls for about 1 sq in. of opening for each pound of oil
red per hour. Such checkerwork is best adapted to flat flames, or to
conical flames that can be spread over the floor of the combustion chamber.
The proper bricking of a large or even medium sized boiler for oil firing is
important and frequently it is advisable to consult an authority on this
subject. The essential in combustion chamber design is to provide
against flame impingement upon either metallic or fire brick surfaces.
Manufacturers of oil burners usually have available detailed plans for
adapting their burners to various types of boilers, and such information
should be utilized.
The Combustion Process
Efficient combustion, as previously indicated, must produce a clean
flame and must use relatively small excess of air, i.e., between 25 and 50
per cent. This can be done only by vaporizing the oil quickly, completely,
and mixing it vigorously with air in a combustion chamber hot enough
to support the combustion. A vaporizing burner prepares the oil, for
combustion, by transforming the liquid fuel to the gaseous state through
the application of heat. This is accomplished before the oil vapor mixes
with air to any extent and if the air and oil vapor temperatures are high
and the fire pot hot, a clear blue flame is produced. There may be a
deficiency of air as shown by the presence of carbon monoxide (CO) or
an excessive supply of air, depending upon burner adjustment, without
altering the clean, blue appearance of the flame.
An atomizing burner i.e., gun and rotary types is so named because the
oil is mechanically separated into very fine particles so that the surface
exposure of the liquid to the radiant heat of the combustion chamber is
vastly increased and vaporization proceeds quickly. The result of such
practice is the ability to burn more and heavier oil within a given com-
bustion space or furnace volume. Since the air enters the fire pot with the
liquid fuel particles, it follows that mixing, vaporization and burning are
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
all occurring at once in the same space. This produces a luminous
instead of a blue or non-luminous flame. In this case a deficient amount
of air is indicated by a dull red or dark orange flame with smoky flame tips.
An excessive supply of air may produce a brilliant white flame in some
cases or, in others, a short ragged flame with incandescent sparks flashing
through the combustion space. While extreme cases may be easily
detected, it is generally not possible to distinguish, by the eye alone, the
finer adjustment which competent installation requires.
Certain tests indicate that there is no difference in economy between a
blue flame and a luminous flame if the position, shape and the per cent of
excess air of both flames are about the same.
Furnace or Combustion Chamber Design
The furnace or combustion chamber may be defined as that part of a
boiler or conditioner in which combustion is established. With burners
requiring a refractory combustion chamber the size and shape should be in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. It is important that
the chamber shall be as nearly air tight as is possible, except when the
particular burner requires a secondary supply of air for combustion.
It is evident that the atomizing burner is dependent upon the surround-
ing heated refractory or fire brick surfaces to vaporize the oil and support
combustion. While the importance of the combustion chamber is obvious,
its design has been troublesome. Unsatisfactory combustion may be due
to inadequate atomization and mixing. A combustion chamber can only
compensate for these things to a limited extent. If liquid fuel continually
reaches some part of the fire brick surface, a carbon deposit will result.
Fundamentally, the combustion chamber should enclose a space having a
shape similar to the flame but large enough to avoid flame contact.
The nearest approach in practice is to have the bottom of the combustion
chamber flat but far enough below the nozzle to avoid flame contact,
the sides tapering from the air tube at the same angle as the nozzle spray
and the back wall rounded. A plan view of the combustion chamber thus
resembles in shape the outline of the flame. In this way as much fire brick
as possible is close to the flame so it may be kept quite hot. This insures
quick vaporization, rapid combustion and better mixing by eliminating
dead or inactive spaces in the combustion chamber. An overhanging
arch at the back of the fire pot is sometimes used to increase the flame
travel and give more time for mixing and burning and sometimes to pre-
vent the gases from going too directly into the boiler flues. When good
atomization and vigorous mixing are achieved by the burner, combustion
chamber design becomes a less critical matter. Where secondary air is
used, combustion chamber design is quite important. With some of the
vertical rotary burners considerable care must be exercised in definitely
following the manufacturers instructions when installing the hearth as
in this class successful performance depends upon this factor.
Combustion Adjustments
Where adjustments of oil and air have been made which give efficient
combustion, the problem of maintaining the adjustments constant be-
comes an important one. Particularly is this true when the change
causes" the per cent of excess air to decrease below allowable limits of the
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
burner. A decrease in air supply while the oil delivery remains constant
or an increase in oil delivery while the air supply remains constant will
make the mixture of oil and air too rich for clean combustion. The more
efficient the adjustment (i.e., 25 per cent excess air) the more critical it
will be of variations. The oil and air supply rates must remain constant.
The following factors may influence the oil delivery rate: (a) changes
in oil viscosity due to temperature change or variations in grade of oil
delivered, (6) erosion of atomizing nozzle, (c) fluctuations in by-pass relief
pressures and (d) possible variations in methods 2b (3) and 2b (4) listed in
the previous classification table. Note that any change due to partial
stoppage of oil delivery will increase the proportion of excess air. This
will result in less heat, reduced economy and possibly a complete inter-
ruption of service but usually no soot will form.
The following factors may influence the air supply: (a) changes in
combustion draft due to a variety of causes (i.e., changes in chimney
draft because of weather changes, seasonal changes, back drafts, failure
or inadequacy of automatic draft regulator, use of chimney for other
purposes, possible stoppage of the chimney and changes in draft resis-
tance of boiler due to partial stoppage of the flues), and (6) changes in air
inlet adjustments to the fan.
It is recognized that a secondary source of air due to leakage in the
boiler setting is present in many installations and it is highly desirable that
this leakage be reduced to a minimum. Obviously the amount of air
leakage will be determined by the draft in the combustion chamber.
It is important that this draft should be reduced as low as is consistent
with the proper disposal of the gases of combustion. When using mechani-
cal draft burners with average conditions, the combustion chamber draft
should not be allowed to exceed 0.02-0.05 in. water. An automatic draft
regulator is very helpful in maintaining such values,
Measurement of the Efficiency of Combustion.
Efficient combustion being based upon a clean flame and certain
proportions of oil and air employed, it is possible to determine the results
by analyzing the gases formed by the combustion process. An Orsat
apparatus is a device which measures the volume of carbon dioxide
(C02), oxygen (0%) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gases. Except
in the case of a non-luminous flame it is usually sufficient to analyze only
for carbon dioxide (CO*). A showing of 10 to 12 per cent indicates the
best adjustment if the flame is clean. Most of the good installations at
the present time show from 8 to 10 per cent COg. Taking into account
the potential hazard of oil or air fluctuations with low excess air (high
CO*) a setting to give 10 per cent COz constitutes a reasonable standard
for most oil burners. This is particularly true of non-luminous flame
burners which will not function properly with less than 10 per cent COa.
Controls
Oil burner controls may be divided into two parts: (a) devices to
regulate burner operation so the desired house heating result may be
obtained and (&) devices for the safety and protection of the boiler and
burner. For control devices generally consult Chapter 37. The room
thermostat has recently been improved to provide more frequent burner
220
CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
operation and greater uniformity' of room temperature. Class (b) controls
comprises a device to shut off the burner if the oil fails to ignite or if the
flame should cease due to lack of oil; a device actuated by steam boiler
pressure to shut off the burner when the pressure reaches some pre-
determined value; a device on the boiler to shut off the burner if the water
level acts too low for safety or one which automatically feeds additional
water to the boiler; a device on warm air furnaces to shut off the burner if
the air temperature gets too high; a valve in the oil supply line which
automatically closes in the event of fire in or near the cellar; and a device
to keep the temperature of the boiler water within certain limits when it is
being used to heat domestic hot water. These devices are all tested and
approved by the Underwriters' Laboratory of Chicago, 111., before they
are offered to the purchaser. The selection of class (&) devices is made by
the oil burner manufacturer.
Fuel Oil Gages
To insure a constant supply of fuel oil and to check deliveries and
consumption it is essential to have accurate means of readily determining
the quantity of oil in the storage tank. For this purpose various types of
indicating or recording gages are used, the simplest forms being the glass
level gage, and a float-and-dial arrangement having a graduated dial face
indicating the proportion of the tank containing liquid. Other more
accurate and dependable devices are designed to operate by hydraulic
action or by hydrostatic impulse. These instruments may be attached to
the tank, giving a direct reading of the liquid contents; or the instrument
itself may be located at a convenient point remote from the tank and
connected with the tank by pipe or tubing. The quantity readings may
be in gallons of liquid, height of liquid level in feet and inches, or in other
desired units of measurement.
GAS-FIRED APPLIANCES
The increased use of gas for house heating purposes has resulted in the
production of such a large number of different types of gas heating
systems and appliances that today there is probably a greater variety of
them than there is for any other kind of fuel.
Gas-fired heating systems may be classified as follows :
I. Gas-Designed Heating Systems.
A. Central Heating Plants.
1. Steam, hot water, and vapor boilers.
2. Warm air furnaces.
B. Unit Heating Systems.
1. Warm air floor furnaces.
2. Industrial unit heaters.
3. Space heaters.
4. Garage heaters.
II. Conversion Heating Systems.
A, Central Heating Plants.
1. Steam, hot water and vapor boilers.
2. Warm air basement furnaces.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
These systems are supplied with either automatic or manual control.
Central heating plants, for example, whether gas designed or conversion
systems, may be equipped with room temperature control, push-button
control, or manual control.
Gas-Fired Boilers
Information on gas-fired boilers will be found in Chapter 13. Either
snap action or throttling control is available for gas boiler operation.
This is especially advantageous in straight steam systems because steam
pressures can be maintained at desired points, while at the same time
complete cut-off of gas is possible when the thermostat calls for it.
Gas-Fired Warm Air Furnaces
Warm air furnaces are variously constructed of cast iron, sheet metal
and combinations of the two materials. If sheet metal is used, it must
be of such a character that it will have the maximum resistance to the
corrosive effect of the products of combustion. With some varieties of
manufactured gases, this effect is quite pronounced. Warm air furnaces
are obtainable in sizes from those sufficient to heat the largest residence
down to sizes applicable to a single room. The practice of installing a
number of separate furnaces to heat individual rooms is peculiar to mild
climates. Small furnaces, frequently controlled by electrical valves
actuated by push-buttons in the room above, are often installed to heat
rooms where heat may be desired for an hour or so each day. These
furnaces are used also for heating groups of rooms in larger residences.
In a system of this type each furnace should supply a group of rooms in
which the heating requirements for each room in the group are similar as
far as the period of heating and temperature to be maintained are con-
cerned.
The same fundamental principle of design that is followed in the con-
struction of boilers, that is, breaking the hot £as into fine streams so that
all particles are brought as close as possible to the heating surface, is
equally applicable to the design of warm air furnaces.
Codes for proportioning warm air heating plants, such as that formu-
lated by the National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association
are equally applicable to gas furnaces and coal furnaces. Recirculation
should always be practiced with gas-fired warm air furnaces. It not only
aids in heating, but is essential to economy. Where fans are used in con-
nection with warm air furnaces for residence heating, it is well to have the
control of the fan and of the gas so coordinated that there will be sufficient
delay between the turning on of the gas and the starting of the fan to
prevent blasts of cold air being blown into the heated rooms. An additional
thermostat in the air duct easily may be arranged to accomplish this.
Floor Furnaces
Warm air floor furnaces are well adapted for heating first floors, or
where heat is required in only one or two rooms. A number may be used
to provide heat for the entire building where all rooms are on the ground
floor, thus giving the heating system flexibility as any number of rooms
may be heated without heating the others. With the usual type the
register is installed in the floor, the heating element and gas piping being
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CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
suspended below. Air is taken downward between the two sheets of the
double casing and discharged upward over the heating surfaces and into
the room. The appliance is controlled from the room to be heated by
means of a control lever located near the edge of the register. The handle
of the control is removable as a precaution against accidental turning
on or off of the gas to the furnace.
Space Heaters
Space heaters are generally used for auxiliary heating, but may be, and
are in many cases, installed for furnishing heat to entire buildings. With
the exception of wall heaters, they are portable, and can be easily removed
and stored during the summer season. Although they should be connected
with solid piping it is sometimes desirable to connect them with flexible
gas tubing in which case a gas shut-off on the heater is not permitted, and
only A.G.A. approved tubing should be used.
Parlor furnaces or circulators are usually constructed to resemble a
cabinet radio. They heat the room entirely by convection, i.e., the cold
air of the room is drawn in near the base and passes up inside the jacket
around a drum or heating section, and out of the heater at or near the top.
These heaters cause a continuous circulation of the air in the room during
the time they are in operation. The burner or burners are located in the
base at the bottom of an enclosed combustion chamber. The products of
combustion pass up around baffles within the heating element or drum,
and out the flue at the back near the top. They are well adapted not only
for residence room heating but also for stores and offices.
Radiant heaters^ make admirable auxiliary heating appliances to be used
during the occasional cool days at the beginning and end of the heating
season when heat is desired in some particular room for an hour or two.
The radiant heater gives off a considerable portion of its heat in the form
of radiant energy emitted by an incandescent refractory that is heated by
a Bunsen flame. They are made in numerous shapes and designs and in
sizes ranging from two to fourteen or more radiants. Some have sheet-
iron bodies finished in enamel or brass while others have cast-iron or brass
frames with heavy fire-clay bodies. An atmospheric burner is supported
near the center of the base, usually by set screws at each end. Others
have a group of small atmospheric burners supported on a manifold
attached to the base. Most radiant heaters are supported on legs and are
portable; however, there are also types which are encased in a jacket
which fits into the wall with a grilled front, similar to the ordinary wall
register. Others are encased in frames which fit into fireplaces.
Gas-fired steam and hot water radiators are popular types of room heating
appliances. They provide a form of heating apparatus for intermittently
heated spaces such as stores, small churches and some types of offices and
apartments. They are made in a large variety of shapes and sizes and are
similar in appearance to the ordinary steam or hot water radiator con-
nected to a basement boiler. A separate combustion chamber is provided
in the base of each radiator and is usually fitted with a one-piece burner.
They may be secured in either the vented or unvented types, and with
steam pressure, thermostatic or room temperature controls.
Warm air radiators are similar in appearance to the steam or hot water
radiators. They are usually constructed of pressed steel or sheet metal
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
hollow sections. The hot products of combustion circulate through the
sections and are discharged out a flue or into the room, depending upon
whether the radiator is of the vented or unvented type.
Garage heaters are usually similar in construction to the cabinet
circulator space heaters, except that safety screens are provided over all
openings into the combustion chamber to prevent any possibility of
explosion from gasoline fumes or other gases which might be ignited by
an open flame. They are usually provided with automatic room tem-
perature controls and are well suited for heating either residence or
commercial garages,
Conversion Burners
Residence heating with gas through the use of conversion burners in-
stalled in coal-designed boilers and furnaces represents a common type
of gas-fired house heating system. In many conversion burners radiants
or refractories are employed to convert some of the energy in the gas to
radiant heat. Others are of the blast type, operating without refractories.
Many conversion units are equipped with sheet metal secondary air
ducts which are inserted through the ashpit door. The duct is equipped
with automatic air controls which open when the burners are operating
and close when the gas supply is turned off. This prevents a large part
of the circulation of cold air through the combustion space of the ap-
pliance when not in operation. By means of this duct the air necessary
for proper combustion is supplied directly to the burner, thereby making
it possible to reduce the amount of excess air passing through the com-
bustion chamber.
Conversion units are made in many sizes both round and rectangular
to fit different types and makes of boilers and furnaces. They may be
secured with manual, push-button, or room temperature control.
The Combustion Process
* Because of the varying composition of gases used for domestic heating
it is difficult to generalize on the subject of gas burner combustion.
Refer to the section on Gas Classification, in Chapter 9.
Combustion Adjustments
Little difficulty should be experienced in maintaining efficient com-
bustion conditions when burning gas. The fuel supply is normally held
to close limits of variation in pressure and calorific value and, therefore,
the rate of heat supply is nominally constant. Since the force necessary to
introduce the fuel into the combustion chamber is an inherent factor of
the fuel, no draft by the chimney is required for this purpose. The use of a
draft diverter insures the maintenance of constant low draft condition in
the combustion chamber with a resultant stability of air supply. A draft
diverter is also helpful in controlling the amount of excess air and pre-
venting back drafts which might extinguish the flame.
Measurement of the Efficiency of Combustion
It is possible to determine the results of combustion by analyzing the
gases of combustion with an Orsat apparatus. It is desirable to determine
224
CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
the percentage of carbon dioxide (C02), oxygen (02) and carbon monoxide
(CO) in the flue gases. While ultimate COz values of 10 to 12 per cent may
be obtained from the combustion of gases commonly used for domestic
heating, a combustion adjustment which will show from 8 to 10 per cent
C0a represents a practical value. Under normal conditions no CO will be
produced by a gas-fired boiler or furnace. Limitations as to output rating
by the A.G.A. are based upon operation with not more than 0.04 per cent
CO in the products of combustion. This is too small an amount to be
determined by the ordinary flue gas. analyzer.
Controls
Gas burner controls may be divided into two parts: (a) devices to
regulate burner operation so that the desired house heating results may be
obtained and (b) devices for the safety of the boiler and burner. Control
devices are treated in detail in Chapter 37. A room thermostat may be
used as a control of house heating effect. These may be obtained in a
number of types. Some central heating plants are equipped with push-
button or manual control. Class (&) controls include a device to shut off
the burner if the gas fails to ignite, a device actuated by boiler pressure,
water temperature, or furnace bonnet temperature to shut off the burner
when the pressure or temperature becomes excessive, a device on the
boiler to shut off the burner if the water level falls below safe limits or one
which automatically feeds additional water to the boiler, and a device for
controlling the gas pressure within desired limits. The main gas valve
may be either of the snap action or throttling type.
Sizing Gas-Fired Heating Plants
While gas-burning equipment can be and usually is so installed as to be
completely automatic, maintaining the temperature of rooms at a pre-
determined and set figure, there are in use installations which are manually
controlled. Experience has shown that, in order to effectively overcome
the starting load and losses in piping, a manually-controlled gas boiler
should have an output as much as 100 per cent greater than the equiva-
lent standard cast-iron column radiation which it is expected to serve.
Boilers under thermostatic control, however, are not subject to suclr
severe pick-up or starting loads. Consequently, it is possible to use $
much lower selection, or safety factor. A gas-fired boiler under thermo
static control is sensitive to variations in room temperatures so that ii
most cases a factor of 20 per cent is sufficient for pick-up load.
The factor to be allowed for loss of heat from piping, however, mus
vary somewhat, the proportionate amount of piping installed being con
siderably greater for small installations than for large ones. Consequent!
a selection factor for thermostatically controlled boilers must be variable
Liberal selection factors to be added to the installed steam radiatio
under thermostatic control are given in Fig. 3 of Chapter 13.
Appliances used for heating with gas should bear the approval seal <
the American Gas Association Testing Laboratory. Installations shoul
be made in accordance with the recommendations shown in the publ
cations of that association.
225
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Ratings for Gas Appliances
Since a gas appliance has a heat-generating capacity that can be pre-
dicted accurately to within 1 or 2 per cent, and since this capacity is not
affected by such things as condition of fuel bed and soot accumulation,
makers of these appliances have an opportunity to rate their product in
exact terms. Consequently all makers give their product an hourly Btu
output rating. This is the amount of heat that is available at the outlet of
a boiler in the form of steam or hot water, or at the bonnet of the furnace
in the form of warm air. The output rating is in turn based upon the
Btu input rating which has been approved by the American Gas Asso-
ciation Testing Laboratory and upon an average efficiency which has
been assigned by that association.
In the case of boilers, the rating can be put in terms of square feet of
equivalent direct radiation by dividing it by 240 foi steam, and 150 for
water. This gives what is called the A merican Gas Association rating, and
is the manner in which all appliances approved by the American Gas
Association Laboratory are rated. To use these ratings it is only necessary
to increase the calculated heat loss or the equivalent direct radiation load
by an appropriate amount for starting and piping, and to select the boiler
or furnace with the proper rating.
The rating given by the American Gas Association Laboratory is not
only a conservative rating when considered from the standpoint of
capacity and efficiency, but is also a safe rating when considered from the
standpoint of physical safety to the owner or caretaker. The rating that
is placed upon an appliance is limited by the amount of gas that can be
burned without the production of harmful amounts of carbon monoxide.
This same limitation applies to all classes of gas-consuming heating
appliances that are tested and approved by the Laboratory. Gas boilers
are available with ratings up to 14,000 sq ft of steam, while furnaces with
ratings up to about 500,000 Btu per hour are available. (See Chapter 20.)
REFERENCES
Stoker Information, Bulletin No. 5, Committee of Ten, 307 N. Michigan Ave.,
Chicago, III.
Domestic Burners for Pennsylvania Anthracite, Commercial Standard CS48-34
U. S. Department of Commerce.
Performance Expectancy of Domestic Underfeed Stokers for Anthracite, by Allen J.
Johnson (Transactions, A.I.M.E., Coal Division, Vol. 119, 1936).
The Relation of the Size of Bituminous Coals to Their Performance on Small Under-
feed Stokers — The Relation of the Size in the Hopper to That Burned in the Retort,
by R. A. Sherman and E. R. Kaiser, Technical Report No. 1, Bituminous Coal Research,
Inc., (December, 1935) Pt. I.
The Relation of the Size of Bituminous Coals to Their Performance on Small Under-
feed Stokers — Burning Tests on Four Typical Coals, by R. A. Sherman, E. R. Kaiser and
H. R. Limbacher, Technical Report No. 1, Bituminous Coal Research, Inc. (July, 1937)
Pt. II.
Stoker Coals, Anonymous, Bulletin of Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Co., 1935.
Study of Performance Characteristics of Oil Burners and Low Pressure Heating
Boilers, by L. E. Seeley and E. J. Tavanlar (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931,
p. 517).
A Study of Intermittent Operation of Oil Burners, by L. E. Seeley and J. H. Powers
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 317).
226
CHAPTER 11. AUTOMATIC FUEL BURNING EQUIPMENT
Air Supply and Its Effect on Performance of Oil Burners and Heating Boilers, by
L. E. Seeley," J. H. Powers and E. J. Tavanlar (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933,
p. 7,5).
Study of Fuel Burning Rates and Power Requirements of Oil Burners in Relation to
Excess Air, by L. E. Seeley and E. J. Tavanlar (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40,
1934, p. 319).
Oil Burning in Residences, by D. W. Nelson (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41,
1935, p. 355).
Domestic Oil Burners, by A. H. Senner (Mechanical Engineering, November, 1936).
A Study of Oil-Fired Heating Boilers, by R. C. Cross and \V. R. Lyman (Heating and
Ventilating, October, 1931).
Value of Oil Burner Installation Surveys, by R. C. Cross and W. R. Lyman (Heating
and Ventilating, January, 1931).
House Heating, Industrial Gas Series, American Gas Association.
Approval Requirements of Central House Heating Gas Appliances, American Gas
Association.
A Method for Determining Fuel Burning Rates in Heating Boilers Fired by Auto-
matic Devices, by R. C. Cross (Heating and Ventilating, January, 1932).
Heat Losses and Efficiencies of Fuels in Residential Heating, by R. A. Sherman and
R. C. Cross (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning,
January, 1937, p. 53).
Efficiencies and Costs of Various Fuels in Domestic Heating, by R. A. Sherman and
R. C. Cross, Technical Report No. 3, Bituminous Coal Research, Inc., (December, 1936).
Automatic Heating Equipment, American Architect Reference Data, No. 7, September,
1933.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • List some factors which might account for higher efficiencies with stoker
firing than with hand firing.
a. The uniform rate of coal feed, b. Better distribution in the fuel bed, and c. Positive
control of the air supplied for combustion.
2 • Classify stokers as to construction and operation.
a. Overfeed flat grate, b. Overfeed inclined grate, c. Underfeed side cleaning type, and
d. Underfeed rear cleaning type.
3 • What classification may he made of stokers as to their use?
Class 1. For residences (Capacity up to 60 Ib of coal per hour).
Class 2. For apartment houses and small commercial heating plants (Capacity 60 to IOC
Ib of coal per hour).
Class 3. For medium sized commercial heating plants (Capacity 100 to 300 Ib of coa
per hour).
Class 4. For large commercial plants and small high pressure steam plants (Capacity
300 to 1200 Ib of coal per hour).
4 • What main parts are found in an underfeed residential stoker?
A hopper is supplied to hold coal which is fed by a screw or plunger into a retort provide
with air openings called tuyeres. A blower supplies air under pressure for combustion, an
a gear case provides for changes in coal feeding rates.
5 • What is a dead-plate?
A dead-plate is a flat surface without air supply openings upon which the fuel rests whi
combustion of the fixed carbon is completed. Generally the ash is removed from tl
dead-plate.
227
HEATING VENTUJLTING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
6 • What features of furnace design are essential for the proper burning of
the volatile coal gases above the fuel bed?
Adequate provisions should be made so that the furnace volume is sufficiently liberal
and that the grates are a sufficient distance from the heating surfaces to permit the
proper combustion of gases-
7 • What methods of oil atomization are used?
a. Throwing the oil from a rotating cup or disc, b. Forcing the oil under high pressure
through a nozzle, c. Propelling the oil with a high velocity jet of air or steam, and d.
Forcing an oil and air mixture through a nozzle.
8 • What is the purpose of atomization?
Atomization is used to increase the surface area of the oil in order to facilitate putting it
into a vaporous state so it may burn.
9 • Is the furnace of much importance in oil burning?
In most cases it is very important. It is the function of the oil burner to supply the air
and fuel in correct proportions; the furnace must provide heated space for proper mixing
and combustion.
10 • Which flame is considered better, the luminous or the non-luminous?
Laboratory tests show that they are equally efficient in the usual installation.
11 • How should oil burner adjustments be made?
Adjustments should be made by an experienced man who uses a gas analysis apparatus
to determine the COz content.
12 • What CO2 content should be attained in oil burning?
Ten per cent COt is considered good practice, for it indicates the supplying of 50 per cent
excess air.
13 • What maximum heat release is considered good practice in oil burning?
A heat release of 38,000 Btu per cubic foot per hour is considered to be the maximum for
average large installations. This figure has been greatly exceeded in some cases. _The
design of the combustion chamber, as to impingement of flame and as to proper mixing
at high temperatures, has much to do with the attainable heat release.
14 • Name five types of gas-fired space heaters.
a. Parlor furnaces or circulators.
b. Radiant heaters.
c. Gas-fired steam or hot water radiators.
d. Warm air radiators.
«. Garage heaters.
15 • How are gas heating units rated?
Gas-fired units are rated on the basis of output in Btu per hour.
16 • What safety consideration is noted in establishing the ratings of gas-fired
units?
The rating is limited by the amount of gas that can be burned without the liberation of
harmful amounts of carbon monoxide.
228
Chapter 12
HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
Total Heat Loss Requirements, Utilization Factors, Degree-
Day Methods, Base Temperature Determinations, Steam
Consumption of Buildings, Fuel Consumption, Maximum
Demands, Load Factors
/HTVHE hourly heat loss (If) is equal to the sum of the transmission
1 losses (fit) and the infiltration losses (Hi) of the rooms or spaces to
be heated. The total equivalent heating surface required is equal to
In estimating the fuel consumption of a building of more than one
room divided by walls or partitions, it is not correct to use the calculated
heat loss of the building without making the proper allowances for the
fact that the heating load at any time does not involve the sum of the
infiltration losses of all the heated spaces of the building but only part of
the infiltration losses. This is explained in Chapter 6.
It is sufficiently accurate in most cases to consider only half of the total
infiltration losses of a building having interior walls and partitions. The
value of H in Equation 1 would, under these conditions, be equal to
Hi + -~. In some cases, where the building has no interior walls or
2>
partitions, the infiltration losses are calculated by using only half of the
total crack. In this case the entire infiltration loss should be considered.
The heat required to warm the cold building and contents is a factor to
be considered. Under certain conditions the cooling of the structure and
contents will, to some extent, compensate for the heat required to rewarm
the building. For example, if the building is under thermostatic control
and the day and night temperatures are, 70 F and 50 F respectively, there
will be a period during which no heat will be added while the building is
cooling to 50 F, and the saving resulting therefrom will correspond to the
additional heat required to bring the building and contents back to the
daytime temperature.
ESTIMATING FUEL CONSUMPTION
There are two methods in use for estimating heat or fuel consumption.
One method is theoretical, based on a calculated heat loss and assuming
absolute constant temperatures for very definite hours each day through-
out the entire heating season. It does not take into account factors which
are difficult to evaluate such as opening of windows, abnormal heating of
the building, sun effect, poor heating systems, etc.
229
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The second method is based on steam consumption data which have
been taken from a group of buildings in operation, and the results com-
puted on a degree-day basis. While this method may not be as theo-
retically correct as the first mentioned method, it is of more value for
practical use. Calculations of heat consumption made by the second
method will invariably be higher than calculations made by the first
method.
Theoretical Estimation Method
To predict the amount of fuel likely to be consumed in heating a
building during a normal heating season, it is necessary to know the total
heat requirements of the building and the utilization factor of the fuel.
The accuracy of the estimate will depend on the ability to select these
values and on the care taken in making allowances for other variable
factors.
Heat requirements are given by the following general formula:
Steam requirements are determined by dividing the above by 1000,
thus:
fa - to) 1000
Fuel requirements may be determined by the following formula:
(2)
where
t =s inside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
id = inside design temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
/a = average outside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit (Table 2, Chapter 7).
2o — outside design temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
H = calculated heat loss of building based on outside temperature (/o), Btu per hour.
N = number of heating hours per season; 5088 from October 1 to May I1.
M = heat loss, Btu per season.
5 = steam required to supply M Btu of heat loss.
F = quantity of fuel required per heating season.
C — calorific value of one unit of fuel, the unit being the same as that on which
F is based.
E = efficiency of utilization of the fuel, per cent.
Example 1. A small factory building located in Philadelphia is to be heated to 60 F
between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M., and to 50 F during the remaining hours. The
calculated hourly heat loss based on a design temperature of — 6 F is 500,000 Btu. If
coal having a calorific value of 12,500 Btu is fired and the overall heating efficiency is
assumed to be 60 per_cent, how many pounds of steam would be required for a normal
heating season?
lThis is the period for which t* (Table 2, Chapter 7) is calculated. If the heating season is different
than this period, the corrected values may be substituted for N and t*.
230
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
Solution. Since there are no partitions in the building, the entire heat loss is con-
sidered. From Table 2, Chapter 7, the average outside temperature ('fe) during the
heating season is 42.7 F; N for the period for which fe. is taken (October 1 to May 1) is
5088; H = 500,000; to « -6 F; * = 50 F and 60 F; fo = 60 F; E = 00 per cent
average for heating season; C - 12,500.
The average daily temperature for the 24 hours is:
50 X 12 + 60 _X 12 ^ 55
Substituting in Equation 1:
M = 500,000 X (55 - 42.7) X 5088
60 -(-6)
S = 474,100 Ib of steam.
nor,
.x- * 63,200 Ib of coal = 31.5 tons.
Practical or Degree-Day Method
The amount of heat required by a building depends upon the outdoor
temperature, if other variables are eliminated. Theoretically it is pro-
portional to the difference between the outdoor and indoor temperatures.
Some^years ago the American Gas Association* determined from experi-
ment in the heating of residences that the gas consumption varied directly
as the difference between 65 F and the outside temperature. In other
words, on a day when the temperature was 20 deg below 65 F, twice as
much gas was consumed as on a day when the temperature was 10 deg
below 65 F. The degree day is defined in Chapter 45. Degree-days for
various cities in the United States and Canada are given in Table 1.
Establishing the Base Inside Temperature. Recently the National
District Heating Association has studied the metered steam consumption
of 163 buildings3 in 22 different cities and has published data substanti-
ating the fact that the 65 F base originally chosen by the gas industry is
approximately correct.
The steam consumption of each building by months was divided by the
number of days in each month, thus giving the average daily steam con-
sumption by months. The average steam consumption was then plotted
against the average monthly temperature, as shown in Fig, 1, and the
temperature at which a line drawn through the points crossed the base
line indicated the temperature corresponding to zero steam consumption,
or the base temperature. The composite results from 163 buildings
calculated in this manner are shown in Table 2.
The resultant average of 66.0 F is close to the A.G.A. figure of 65 F.
It will be noted that the base temperature calculated for hotels, apart-
ments and residences is consistently higher than those for such buildings
as garages, auto sales buildings, and manufacturing buildings. This, of
course, would be expected in view of the higher inside temperatures
carried in the former group; in fact, an even greater difference would be
3See Industrial Gas Series, House Heating (third edition) published by the American. Gas Association.
'These buildings are all served with steam from a district heating company.
231
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. DEGREE-DAYS FOR CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA*
STATE , Cnr
JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
SEPT
OCT.
Nov
DEC
TOTAL
Ala
Ariz
Ark
Calif
Col..
Birmingham
Mobile
. 589
. 428
.1153
459
577
311
969
325
260
152
i 896
257
69
318
186
840
252
595
394
1128
465
"651
301
428
1067
1017
1017
2408
1471
7145
1845
2665
2811
1504
3264
6553
5873
5895
4626
890
2891
1490
4558
4924
6315
5370
4164
5297
6373
7023
5034
5301
4616
4180
1023
8531
7012
4533
6045
6464
6494
8692
9480
7851
1822
5202
4585
7115
8699
6231
6128
5891
6852
5175
4934
6063
6889
6821
5348
6785
3234
2302
8498
"577
Flagstaff
Tucson
Hot Springs
654
87
636b
292d
Little Rock
719
i 326
! 465
1085
1079
1110
582
266
356
993
918
1011
353
239
354
884
799
899
78
159
294
612
534
543
"96"
458b
459b
267
223
502c
162
72
39
47
"146
502
428
360
381
123
261
789
759
693
"™7S
396
201
738
Los Angeles._
San Francisco
Colorado Springs..
Denver.-
Conn....
D. C
New Haven™
Washington
Fla.
Ga.
Jacksonville
Atlanta „ .
285
682
409
1098
207
558
316
848
56
388
167
651
"m
235"
108""
""96
*434
267
639
397
1011
Idaho
Savannah.
Boise
435
III
Lewiston
Chicago
1262
1180
949
1128
1392
1434
1116
1221
974
939
332
1380
1321
955
1150
1095
1008
854
969
1173
1386
890
980
867
801
230
232
168
843
042
909
760
640
756
890
967
688
741
648
589
58
1110
1017
700
908
549
365
276
384
429
489
342
339
342
264
"786
642
348
570
248
56
"58"
118
164
46
30
"33"
353
282
155
298
357
415
276
270
245
186
756
681
528
687
798
870
672
699
612
552
102
843
780
567
693
"777
960
062
963
252
605
597
909
041
1113
1038
862
1017
1216
1265
1004
1051
903
849
301
1228
1153
875
1026
lTl3
1301
1491
1405
471
1038
936
192
383
"174
974
234
893
930
073
147
104
955
140
694
527
Ind
Iowa
Kans —
Ky
La
Springfield.-
Evansville
Indianapolis
Des Moines._
Sioux City._
Dodge City
Topeka
Lexington
Louisville.-
New Orleans
25
Me._
Md
Mass..
Eastport
Portland
Baltimore.
Boston
843b
368
22
245
226"
682b
22b
35
566^
120
543
443
223
363
"5)0
567
620
481
"285
205
524
620
328
452
484
254
242
459
446
418
276
426
130
19
48
~42~
268<i
298d
93
Mich
Minn —
Springfield
Detroit.
Marquette.
Duluth
1253
1501
1727
1609
520
?01
134
360
473
400
384
987
854
120
450
125
823
240
903
942
902
142
156
960
181
630
468
976
249
277
095
195
750
657
955
168
868
753
Oil
806
735
775
980
032
837
991
446
322
573
804
810
570
Miss
Mo
Minneapolis
Vicksburg
Kansas City
St. Louis
Billings
Havre.
Lincoln
Omaha
Reno
321
276
534
630
414
534
669
519
402
543
549
675
486
587
183
108
15
76b
13
84*"
56b
Sib
20
81
Olb
93
47
55
44
Mont
Nebr
Nev.
1060
1316
1624
1355
1041
1349
992
014
110
286
240
061
242
722
555
89
70
S"
68
20"
72
75
87"
780
714
846
588
588
780
774
774
618
787
429
303
N. H
Concord
N. J _
Atlantic City
N. M „
N. Y
N. C
NT. Dak
Trenton
Santa Fe
Albany.
Buffalo
New York
Utica
Raleigh
Wilmington
Bismarck.
•Heating and Ventilating Degree-Day Handbook.
o Including June.
clncluding July and August,
d Including August.
232
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
TABLE 1. DEGREE-DAYS FOR CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA* (Continued)
STATE
Crrr
JAN.
FEB.
MAE.
APR.
MAT
SlPT.
OCT.
Nov.
DEC.
TOTAL
Ohio
Okla
Oree.
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Columbus
Oklahoma City.
Portland
1076
1180
1113
865
806
910
1075
980
742
644
747
950
703
465
558
378
564
420
162
402
73
220
87
335~b
Tf
165"
290
366
313
105
332
675
732
690
459
558
980
1060
1017
815
728
5129
6154
5323
3613
4468
4629
4855
5235
6014
1769
3257
7683
2950
3578
1578
2455
1157
1202
6735
5553
7620
4243
3349
3725
4968
6353
5016
4884
7612
7823
7290
7372
7462
v &
Pa
R. I
g^ £
S. Dak
Tenn
Texas
Utah
Vt...
Va
Wash
W. Va
Wis
Wyo
Salem.
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh.
Providence.
Charleston.
Spartanburg
Sioux Falls
Memphis
Nashville _
Austin
1001
1054
1116
487
725
"744
812
895
944
1069
372
688
"599
747
756
787
890
242
431
"384
476
402
423
558
36
147
""96
180
68
78
251
"63"
242
313
«54o
"iTl"
_
136
588
669
693
207
429
"402
483
903
967
1026
425
716
"663
744
"335
347
1218
1020
1286
878
685
765
716
1057
977
1328
1322
1280
1222
1143
Dallas
Houston—
San Antonio
Logan ...
Salt Lake City....!!
Burlington
Fredericksburg
Norfolk
Io6
381
1260
1110
1535
887
738
825
775
1171
1026
1507
1538
1535
1383
1215
"277
274
1072
885
1294
820
650
702
653
952
944
1321
1358
1265
1328
1075
"~65
74
893
722
1089
583
520
552
623
778
713
1046
1125
1032
1023
995
376"
234
276b
"468
388
481
223
99
158
403
514
294
"493
505
462
449
605
Tl4
126
819
723
861
549
411
483
570
819
648
"921
921
909
846
900
~iiT
18
144
525
453
654
303
246
240
465
504
414
"603
600
528
648
720
Richmond
Seattle
Spokane.
Morgantown
Parkersburg
Fond du Lac.
Green Bay.
LaCrosse
487b
366
276"
322
183
389*>
569
276=
192
117"
132
96
84
240
Milwaukee.
Cheyenne.
PROVINCE
Cm
JAN.
FEB.
MAE.
APR.
MAT
SEPT.
OCT.
Nov.
Die.
TOTAL
B. C.
Victoria
5777
Alb
Vancouver.
Kamloops
Medicine Hat._
5976
6724
8152
Sask
Man
Qu'Appelle.
Winnipeg-
11,261
11,166
Ont
Port Arthur.
Toronto -... .
10,803
7732
Que
N. B
N. S
P. E. I.....
Montreal
Quebec
Fredericton
Yarmouth
Charlottetown
1615
1409
1219
720
309
190
372
961
1422
8417
8628
9099
7694
8485
aHeating and Ventilating Degree-Day Handbook.
^Including June,
elududing July and August.
233
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. BASE TEMPERATURE FOR THE DEGREE-DAY**
TTPI or BUILDING
No. OF BUILDINGS
ANALYZED
TEMPERATURE F COR-
RESPONDS TO ZERO
STEAM CONSUMPTION
Office
60
4
3
2
6
11
12
7
14
S
4
5
3
2
2
4
3
3
2
8
66.2
65.8
66.2
65.5
67.4
64.0
64.3
66.5
68.8
66.9
65.5
64.9
67.6
65.8
64.8
61.2
67.7
67.7
65.2
65.4
Office and Bank.
Bank
Office and Telephone Exchange
Office and Stores
Stores. ._ .
Department Stores
Hotels........ .„ „..._. „
Apartments. _
Residences.
Clubs
Lodges _
Theatres...
Churches.
Garage.
Auto Sales and Service.
Newspaper and Printing
Warehouse and Loft
Office and Loft.
Manufacturing
Average for 163 Buildings
66. OF
•Report of Commercial Relations Committee, 19S£ Proceedings, National District Heating Association.
TABLE 3. STEAM CONSUMPTION FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF BuiLDiNGsa
(Heating Season Only)
BUILDING CLASSIFICATION
No. OF
BUILDINGS
STEAM CONSUMPTION
POUNDS PER DEGREE-DAT— 65 F BASIS*
Per M Cu Ft
of Heated
Space
Per M Sq Ft
of Radiatorc
Surface
PerMBto
perHrof
HeatLossb
Apartments
16
10
12
7
10
18
6
16
7
8
6
14
6
35
35
1.78
1.46
1.32
1.25
0.96
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.83
0.58
0.57
0.42
1.09
0.975
97.5
80.6
64.2
105.5
77.0
80.6
75.0
72.3
45.2
62.2
49.4
60.7
72.3
70.0
65.4
0.359
0.371
Hotels
Residences
Printing
Clubs and Lodges.
Retail Stores
Theatres. ..
0.268
0.498
0.283
Loft and Mfg _
Banks
Auto Sales and Service
Churches
67238
Department Stores.
Garages (Storage)6. _
Offices (Total) „.
0.283
0.256
Offices (Heating only)
•Includes steam for heating domestic water for heating season only.
BHeat loss calculated for maximum design condition (in most cases 70 F inside, zero outside).
cEquivalent steam radiator surface.
dThe figures are a numerical— not a -weighted — average for the several buildings in each class.
"Based on zero consumption at 55 F.
234
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
expected. For an average figure, the A .G.A . base of 65 F may therefore be
safely used, and if greater refinement is desired, the figure for the type of
building under consideration can be taken from Table 2.
Table 34 gives the steam consumption per degree-day, expressed in
three different ways, for 196 buildings in 14 different classifications.
These buildings are divided among 21 different cities in the United States.
The steam used for heating the domestic water is included in these
figures, but in the case of office buildings, the steam for heating only is
also shown. The data are placed on a comparable basis by expressing
the steam consumption in terms of pounds per degree-day per thousand
square feet of equivalent installed radiator surface, per thousand cubic
feet of heated space, and per thousand Btu of calculated heat loss.
3 PER DAY
<?
V
\
3 —
X
^
^
\
STEAM CONSl
\
\
\
AVERAGE !
\
^
\
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE FOR MONTH DEG F
FIG. 1. METHOD OF DETERMINING BASE TEMPERATURE FOR
DEGREE-DAY CALCULATIONS6
The choice of these units of comparison require some explanation.
The use of heated space in preference to the gross cubage used by architects
is obviously more accurate for this purpose. The architect's cubage
includes the outer walls and certain percentages of attic and basement
space which are usually unheated. The net heated space is usually about
80 per cent of the gross cubage and can be calculated from the latter if it
cannot be measured. The cubical content is somewhat inaccurate as a
basis of comparison due to differences in types of construction, exposure,
and ratio of exposed area to cubical contents.
The use of radiator surface as the basis of comparison has two ob-
jections. One is that the amount of radiator surface in a building is often
either excessive or deficient, and figures for steam consumption based on
it are therefore likely to be in error. Another reason is that it is difficult
to convert fan coil surface into equivalent direct radiator surface with
accuracy. On the whole, the use of radiator surface as the basis of com-
parison is the least satisfactory of the three methods.
*The Heat Requirements of Buildings, by J. H. Walker and G. H. Tuttle (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 41, 1935, p. 171).
•Report of Commercial Relations Committee, 198& Proceedings, National District Seating Association.
235
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
It should be noted that the figures in Table 3 are for the heating season
only and include steam for heating domestic water.
Example 1 solved by the degree-day method and using values taken
from Table 3 would show a higher steam consumption.
Example 8. Factor for steam consumption for a manufacturing building per M Btu
per hour heat loss per degree-day - 0.283; total number of degree-days per year (Table 1)
- 4855; heat loss = 500,000 Btu per hour.
Solution. 0.283 X 4855 X 500 - 686,982 Ib of steam per year. This calculation
results in an estimate 45 per cent higher than the previous calculation and one which
would be more nearly correct for actual practice.
TOO
600
500
J400
5300
200
100
120
100
80
O
20
I 234567B9
STEAM CONSUMPTION - MILLION LB
FIG. 2. CURVE FOR ESTIMATING FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR VARIOUS
KNOWN STEAM CONSUMPTION*
•This curve is based on heating efficiencies of 60 to 70 per cent for coal and oil, respectively, a calorific
value of coal of 13,000 Btu per pound, a calorific value of oil of 140,000 Btu per gallon.
In case the heat loss figure is not known this method of estimating heat
or steam consumption can also be applied if the net heated space figure
is available.
CALCULATION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION
After the heat and steam consumption of the building have been calcu-
lated, ^ the corresponding fuel requirements may also be estimated by
assuming the correct boiler and furnace efficiencies. If the building is to
be supplied with steam from a district heating company, the steam con-
sumptions as calculated by the two Methods are generally assumed to be
correct. However, if the steam is to be supplied from an individual boiler
236
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
unit, the consumption should be assumed as from 10 to 20 per cent greater.
One reason for this difference in steam consumption is that district steam
is a metered^ service, and building managers are therefore more conscious
of their heating costs, which generally results in better maintained heating
systems. Also, the district steam service is usually installed with ther-
mostatic control which reduces overheating to a minimum.
Fig. 2 shows the amount of coal or oil that may be estimated when the
steam consumption is known. Assuming the steam consumption that
1.4
\
1.2
1-Cu ft of gas per sq ft installed
hot water radiation
2-Cu ft of gas per sq ft installed
steam radiation
3- Cu ft of gas per 100 cu ft bldg
contents hot air system
4- Cu ft of gas per 1,000 Btu hourly
loss from bldg. hot air system
200
500 600 700
Btu VALUE OF GAS
800
900 1,000 1,100
FIG. 3. CHART GIVING GAS REQUIREMENTS PER DEGREE-DAY FOR VARIOUS CALORIFIC
VALUES OF GAS AND FOR DIFFERENT HEATING SYSTEMS*
aTbis chart is based on an inside temperature of 70 F and an outside temperature of zero. If the radia-
tion is installed on the basis of any other temperature difference, multiply the result obtained from this
chart by 70, and divide by the actual temperature difference. From Industrial Gas Series House Heating,
(third edition) published by the A merican Gas Association.
was calculated in Example 2, 686,982 Ib, the corresponding coal con-
sumption, from the curve, is 44 tons and the oil consumption 6000 gal.
Fig. 3 indicates the average gas consumption per degree-day for
various heat contents. While the fuel consumption in individual cases
may vary somewhat from the curve values, these average values are
sufficiently accurate for estimating purposes and give satisfactory results.
The value generally used in the manufactured gas industry for resi-
dences is 0.21 cu ft per degree-day per square foot of equivalent steam
radiation (240 Btu) based on the theoretical requirements. A correction
for warmer climates is necessary and it is customary to gradually increase
the relative fuel consumption below 3000 degree-days to about 20 per cent
more at 1000 degree-days.
237
§g
*l
- Si
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
§ CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL
J BTU PERLS -AS FIRED
,0-1 K>-
I I
100 ' 20O 300
GROSS OUTPUT -THOUSAND BT.U PER HOUR
46 8 10 12 14
GROSS OUTPUT- HUNDRED FEET STEAM RADIATION
5 10 15 20 25
GROSS OUTPUT - HUNDRED FEET WATER RADIATION
FIG. 4. COAL FUEL BURNING RATE CHART.
I2
SB*
H*
*!'
100 200 300
GROSS OUTPUT-THOUSAND BTU PER HOUR
400
500
—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 6 8 10 12 14
GROSS OUTPUT- HUNDRED FEET STEA'M RADIATION
i i i 1 —
18 20
0 5 10 15 -20 25 30
GROSS OUTPUT- HUNDRED FEET WATER RADIATION
FIG. 5. OIL FUEL BURNING RATE CHARTS
nil !lbj?o2art S-kf8^ upon No: 3 9a Caving a heat content of 143,400 Btu per gallon. If other grades of
2l^2n^iI?S?9l|fe oe ^fe ?%fined from this chart by the following factors: No. 1 oil (139,000 ^Btu
SdfffiSawSi » 4£i?D^n? 25 S ffi^WJSSi 5?,; lilflttKPnSS11 per »**> a"2» No-
238
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
For hot water or warm air heat the fuel consumption is about 0.19 cu ft
per degree-day per square foot of equivalent steam radiation, that is, per
240 Btu per hour. The actual requirements likewise relatively increase
with hot water or warm air systems as the number of degree-days decreases
below 3000. For larger installations, that is 1000 sq ft of theoretical
radiation and above, there is an increase in efficiency, and a consequent
decrease in the fuel consumption per degree-day per square foot of
heating surface.
The approximate quantities of steam required in New York City per
square foot of heating surface for various classes of buildings are given in
Chapter 42.
The preceding discussion on fuel consumption has dealt with the
heating requirements of the building irrespective of any air that may be
GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE
O O BT.U PER CUBIC FOOT
CO O
800- 500-
300-
200-
200-
100-
300
100
. L
100 200 300
GROSS OUTPUT -THOUSAND &T.UL PER HOUR
500
4 6 8 10 12 14
GROSS OUTPUT- HUNDRED FEET STEAM RADIATION
05 IO 15 20 25 30
GROSS OUTPUT - HUNDRED FEET WATER RADIATION
FIG. 6. GAS FUEL BURNING RATE CHART.
introduced for ventilation purposes other than the normal infiltration of
outside air. The heat required for warming air brought into the building
for ventilation may be estimated from data given in Chapters 3 and 21.
Rate of Fuel Burning
If the estimated maximum load or gross output is determined as out-
lined in Chapter 13, the fuel burning rates for coal, oil, or gas may be
determined from the charts illustrated in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. For a given
efficiency, the rate of fuel burning is directly proportional to the gross
output, and therefore, these charts can be extended by moving the
decimal point the same number of digits in both vertical and horizontal
scale. All charts are based upon values of one square foot steam radiation
equivalent to 240 Btu per hour and one square foot hot water radiation
equivalent to 150 Btu per hour. In using these charts, consideration
239
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
must be given to the overall efficiency of the boiler or firing device. This
factor is largely dependent upon good judgment and is a measure of the
degree of efficiency to be expected from a particular installation.
The correct fuel burning rate can be determined directly from the
several charts for oil or gas burning installations, as these customarily
operate on a strictly intermittent basis. These fuel burning devices
usually introduce the fuel at a single fixed rate during the on periods and
this rate should be sufficient to carry the gross or maximum design load.
In the case of coal stokers, which are usually capable of variable rates of
firing, it is desirable to operate at as low a rate as weather conditions will
permit, but the maximum firing rate of the stoker should be sufficient
to carry the gross load. This rate may be determined by the same method
as used for oil or gas.
In the case of warm air heating installations the heat loss of the building
expressed in Btu per hour can be determined by use of the Standard
Codes6 of the National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Asso-
ciation. If the design heat loss of the building is divided by the proper
factor, the required gross output may be obtained from the proper charts
shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6.
Example 8.^ The estimated net load (including domestic hot water supply) as calcu-
lated for a residence is 1500 sq ft of hot water radiation. Determine the firing rates for
various fuels assuming an overall efficiency of 70 per cent ; using coal with a calorific value
of 12,500 Btu per pound; No. 3 fuel oil and natural gas having a gross heating value of
1000 Btu per cubic foot.
Solution. Referring to Fig. 3, Chapter 13, a piping and pick-up factor for a net load of
1500 sq ft is found to be 43 per cent or the gross output is equivalent to 1500 X 1.43 =
2145 sq ft hot water radiation.
Using the chart in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 project vertically from the gross output value on
the proper horizontal scale to the intersection of the 70 per cent efficiency line. From the
intersection of this line proceed horizontally to the proper vertical scale where a direct
value of the required fuel burning rate is given. These values are rates of burning while
firing device is in operation and are not indicative of hourly fuel consumption.
By use of the respective charts the firing rates for the various fuels will be found to be:
coal 36.8 Ib per hour, oil 3.2 gal per hour, and gas 460 cu ft per hour.
TABLE 4. BUILDING LOAD FACTORS AND DEMANDS OF SOME DETROIT BUILDINGS'*
BUILDING CLASSIFICATION
LOAD FACTOR
LB or DEMAND PER HR
PER SQ FT OF EQUIVALENT
INSTALLED RADIATOR SURFACE
Clubs and Lodges
0 318
0 184
Hotels
0 316
0 907
Printing
0 287
0 217
Offices
0 263
0 209
Apartments
0 255
0 2^5
Retail Stores
0 238
0 182
Auto Sales and Service.—
0.223
0 248
Banks
0 203
0 158
Churches.
0 158
0 152
Department Stores
0.138
0 145
Theatres
0 126
0151
>Loc. Cit. Note 5.
8 P% Installation of Gravity Warm Air Heating Systems in Residences
edition) and the. Technical Code for the Design and Installation of Mechanical Warm Air Heating
systems, may be obtained from the National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association, 50 W.
Broad St., Columbus, Ohio.
240
CHAPTER 12. HEAT AND FUEL UTILIZATION
MAXIMUM DEMANDS AND LOAD FACTORS
In one form of district heating rates, a portion of the charge is based
upon the maximum demand of the building. The maximum demand may
be measured in several different ways. It may be taken as the instan-
taneous peak or as the rate of use during any specified interval. One
method is to take the average of the three highest hours during the
winter. These figures are available for a number of buildings in Detroit,
as shown in Table 4.
These maximum demands were measured by an attachment on the
condensation meter and therefore represent the amounts of condensation
passed through the meter in the highest hours, rather than the true rate
at which steam is supplied. There might be slight differences in these
two quantities due to time lag and to storage of condensate in the system,
but wherever this has been investigated it has been found to be negligible.
The load factor of a building is the ratio of the average load to the
maximum load and is an index of the utilization habits. Thus, in Table 4,
the theatres, operating for short hours, have a load factor of 0.126 as
compared with the figure of 0.318 for clubs and lodges.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What will be the cost per year of heating a building with gas, assuming that
the calculated hourly heat loss is 92,000 Btu based on 0 F, which includes
26,000 Btu for infiltration? The design temperatures are 0 F and 72 F. The
normal heating season is 210 days, and the average outside temperature during
the heating season is 36.4 F. The heating efficiency will be 75 per cent. The
heating plant will be thermostatically controlled, and a temperature of 55 F
will be maintained from 11 p.m. to 7 a.m. Assume that the price of gas is
7 cents per 100,000 Btu of fuel consumption, and disregard the loss of heat
through open windows and doors.
The average hourly temperature is
fc , (72 X 16) + (55 X 8) _ ^ p
The maximum hourly heat loss will be
H - 92,000 -
79,000 (66.3 - 36.4) X 24 X 210 00. . ,,,,,,,. , Dj.
= 22046 hundred thousand Btu'
100.000 X 0.75 X (72-0)
2204.6 X 0.07 = $154.34 = cost per year of heating the building.
2 • What factors should be taken into consideration when determining the
efficiency at which a fuel will be burned?
Manufacturers' catalogs usually give equipment efficiencies obtained under test con-
ditions. These values do not allow for poor attendance, defects in installation, or poor
draft. Such efficiencies do not consider heat radiated from the outside of the equipment,
but in many cases this heat is utilized.
241
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3 • If 20 tons of coal having a calorific value of 13,000 Btu per pound are burned
in a warm air furnace and produce 236,000,000 Btu at the bonnet, what is the
efficiency of the furnace?
_ Number of Btu at bonnet _ _ ffi .
Number of tons X calorific value X number of pounds in one ton ~~ e Clency-
286,000,000 X 100 _ „
20 X 13,000 X 2000 " 65 per cent-
4 • Make a rough approximation of the gas required to heat a building located
in Chicago, 111., assuming that the calculated heating surface requirements
are 1000 sq ft of hot water radiation based on design temperatures of 0 F and
70 F. Chicago has 800-Btu mixed gas, and 6315 degree-days.
Using Fig. 3, the fuel consumption for a design temperature of 0 F with 800-Btu gas is
found to be 0.08 cu ft of gas per degree-day per square foot of hot water radiation.
0.08 X 6315 X 1000 = 505,200 cu ft.
5 • A certain building has a maximum heat loss of 250,000 Btu per hour in — 15 F
weather. How many tons of fuel will be required to maintain a temperature of
70 F during a 260-day heating season in which the average temperature is 39 F?
The heating value of the fuel is 13,200 Btu per pound and the efficiency of com-
bustion is 60 per cent.
250,000 (70 - 39) 260 X 24
(70 + 15) 13,200 X 0.60 X 2000
tons'
6 • Which item may be determined more closely, the heating value of a fuel or
the efficiency of its combustion?
The^ heating values of oil, gas, and solid fuels are closely determinable, whereas the
efficiency of burning depends on the particular equipment chosen and the skill used in
handling it.
7 • In an office building, the thermostats are set to maintain 70 F from 7 a.m.
to 5 p.m. and 50 F during the rest of the time. When the outside temperature
is 30 F, how much saving might be expected because the temperatures are
lowered? Under the above conditions the building becomes 50 F by 11 p.m. and
warms up to 70 F by 8 a.m.
A temperature of 70 F is maintained during 9 hours, and one of 50 F during 8 hours; the
temperature would average about 60 F during the 7 hours required for cooling down and
warming up. The average is 60.4 for the 24 hours. (The average temperature calcu-
lated would have been 58.3 F, had the warming and cooling periods been neglected.)
The saving is 1 X 100 = x 100 - 24 per cent.
8 • How does the heat capacity of a structure influence the saving made by
carrying lower temperatures during the night?
The heat storage capacity of the walls prevents rapid dropingof temperatures at night-
time and delays the warming up process in the morning. In an extreme case, the building
would not reach the lowered temperature by the time the higher temperature is called
for in the morning. But under any conditions, the saving made by lowering the tem-
perature can be correctly estimated by using the average temperature observed over the
24-hour period as a factor, as in Question 7.
9 • What are some of the miscellaneous factors that may cause actual fuel
consumption to vary from the theoretical fuel requirements as calculated by
the use of heat losses, temperature difference, and fuel burning efficiency?
The opening of windows; abnormally high or low inside temperatures; other sources of
heat, such as machinery or lights; sun effect; high occupancy; and unusual winds.
242
Chapter 13
HEATING BOILERS
Cast-iron Boilers, Steel Boilers, Special Heating Boilers,
Gas-Fired Boilers, Hot Water Supply Boilers, Furnace Design,
Heating Surface, Testing and Rating Codes, Output Effic-
iency, Selection of Boilers, Connections and Fittings, Erection,
Operation and Maintenance, Boiler Insulation
STEAM and hot water boilers for low pressure heating work are built in
a wide variety of types, many of which are illustrated in the Catalog
Data Section, and are classified as (1) cast-iron sectional, (2) steel fire
tube, (3) steel water tube, and (4) special.
CAST-IRON BOILERS
Cast-iron boilers may be of round pattern with circular grate and hori-
zontal pancake sections joined by push nipples and tie rods, or of rec-
tangular pattern with vertical sections. The latter type may be either of
outside header construction where each section is independent of the other
and the water and steam connections are made externally through these
headers, or assembled with push nipples and tie rods, in which case the
water and steam connections are internal.
Cast-iron boilers usually are shipped knocked down to facilitate hand-
ling at the place of installation where assembly is made. One of the chief
advantages of cast-iron boilers is that the separate sections can be taken
into or out of basements and other places more or less inaccessible after
the building is constructed. This feature is of importance in making
repairs to or replacing a damaged or worn-out boiler and should be given
consideration in the original selection. Sufficient space should be pro-
vided in the boiler room for assembling the boiler and for disassembling it
conveniently if repairs are needed. With the outside header type of boiler
a damaged section in the middle of the boiler can be removed without
disturbing the other sections so side clearance should be provided.
Capacities of cast-iron boilers range from that required for small
residences up to about 18,000 sq ft of steam radiation. For larger loads,
cast-iron boilers must be installed in multiple, or a steel boiler must be
used. In most cases cast-iron boilers are limited to working pressures of
15 Ib for steam and 30 Ib for water. Special types are built for hot water
supply which will withstand higher local water pressures.
STEEL BOILERS
Two general classifications may be applied to steel boilers: first, with
regard to the relative position of water and hot gases, distinguished as fire
tube or water tube; second, with regard to arrangement of furnace and
243
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
flues, as (1) horizontal return tubular (HRT) boilers, (2) portable (self-
contained) firebox boilers with either water or fire tubes, and (3) water
tube boilers of the power type.
Fire tube boilers are constructed so that the water available to produce
steam is contained in comparatively large bodies distributed outside of the
boiler tubes, the hot gases passing within the tubes. In water tube boilers,
the water is circulated within the boiler tubes, heat being applied ex-
ternally to them.
The HRT boiler is the oldest type and consists of a horizontal cylin-
drical shell with fire tubes, enclosed in brickwork to form the furnace and
TABLE 1. PRACTICAL COMBUSTION RATES FOR SMALL COAL-FIRED HEATING BOILERS
OPERATING ON NATURAL DRAFT OF FROM y% IN. TO y% IN. WATER*
KIND OP COAL
SQ FT GRATE
LB or COAL PER SQ FT
GRATE PER HOUR
No. 1 Buckwheat Anthracite
Up to 4
5 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
20 to 25
3
3H
4
&A
5
Anthracite Pea
Up to 9
10 to 19
20 to 25
5
5Ji
6
Anthracite Nut and Larger
Up to 4
5 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
20 to 25
8
9
10
11
13
Bituminous
Up to 4
5 to 14
15 and above
9.5
12
15.5
aSteel boilers usually have higher combustion rates for grate areas exceeding 15 sq ft than those indicated
in this table.
combustion chamber. All heating surfaces and the interior of the boiler
are accessible for both cleaning and inspection. Horizontal return tubular
boilers, especially the larger sizes, should be suspended from structural
columns and beams independent of the brick setting. Small HRT boilers
sometimes are supported by brackets resting on the brick setting.
Portable firebox boilers are the more generally used type of steel heating
boilers, their outstanding characteristic being the water- jacketed firebox
which eliminates virtually all brickwork. They are shipped in one piece
from the factory and come to the job ready for immediate hook-up to
piping. They may be of welded or riveted construction and have either
water or fire tubes. Manufacturers' catalogs usually list heating surface
as well as grate area. The elimination of brickwork also makes this type
the most compact of steel boilers as well as the lowest in first cost.
Water tube boilers. For large heating loads water tube boilers are quite
frequently used. They usually require more head room than other types
of boilers but require considerably less floor space and make possible a
244
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
much higher rate of evaporation per square foot of heating surface, with
proper setting, baffling and draft. Water tube boilers used for heating
purposes are either completely supported, insulated and encased in steel,
or else brick set, supported on structural steel columns and have the brick
setting encased in an insulated steel housing to prevent air infiltration and
to minimize heat losses. For large heating loads at a high rate of evapora-
tion, such boilers should be operated at pressures above 15 Ib per square
inch with a pressure-reducing valve on the connection to the heating main.
SPECIAL HEATING BOILERS
A special type of boiler, known as the magazine feed boiler, has been
developed for the burning of small sizes of anthracite and coke. These
are built of both cast-iron and steel, and have a large fuel carrying
capacity which results in longer firing periods than would be the case with
the standard types using buckwheat sizes of coal. Special attention must be
given to insure adequate draft and proper chimney sizes and connections.
Oil-burner boiler units, in which a special boiler has been designed with
a furnace shaped to meet the general requirements of oil burners or are
specially adapted to one particular burner have been developed by a
number of manufacturers. These usually are compact units with the
burner and all controls enclosed within an insulated steel jacket. Ample
furnace volume is provided for efficient combustion, and the heating
surfaces are proportioned for effective heat transfer. Consequently,
higher efficiencies are obtainable than with the ordinary coal fired boiler
converted to oil firing.
GAS-FIRED BOILERS
Gas boilers have assumed a well-defined individuality. The usual boiler
is sectional in construction with a number of independent burners placed
beneath the sections. In most boilers each section has its own burner. In
all cases the sections are placed quite closely together, much closer than
would be possible when burning a soot-forming fuel. The effort of the
designer is always to break the hot gas up into thin streams, so that all
particles of the heat-carrying gases can come as close as possible to the
heat-absorbing surfaces. Because there is no fuel bed resistance and because
the gas company supplies the motive power to draw in the air necessary
for combustion (in the form of the initial gas pressure) , draft losses through
gas boilers are low. See Chapter 11.
HOT WATER SUPPLY BOILERS
Boilers for hot water supply are classified as direct, if the water heated
passes through the boiler, and as indirect, if the water heated does not
come in contact with the water or steam in the boiler.
Direct heaters are built to operate at the pressures found in city supply
mains and are tested at pressures from 200 to 300 Ib per square inch.
The life of direct heaters depends almost entirely on the scale-making
properties of the water supplied. If water temperatures are maintained
below 140 F the life of the heater will be much longer than if higher
temperatures are used, owing to decreased scale formation and minimized
corrosion below 140 F. Direct water heaters in some cases are designed
to burn refuse and garbage.
245
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Indirect heaters generally consist of steam boilers in connection with
heat exchangers of the coil or tube types which transmit the heat from the
steam to the water. This type of installation has the following advantages :
1. The boiler operates at low pressure.
2. The boiler is protected from scale and corrosion.
3. The scale is formed in the heat exchanger in which the parts to which the scale
is attached can be cleaned or replaced. The accumulation of scale does not affect
efficiency although it will affect the capacity of the heat exchanger.
4. Discoloration of water may be prevented if the water supply comes in contact
with only non-ferrous metal.
Where a steam heating system is installed, the domestic hot water
usually is obtained from an indirect heater placed below the water line of
the boiler.
FURNACE DESIGN
Good efficiency and proper boiler performance are dependent on cor-
rect furnace design embodying sufficient volume for burning the par-
ticular fuel at hand, which requires thorough mixing of air and gases at
a high temperature with a velocity low enough to permit complete com-
bustion of all the volatiles. On account of the small ampunt of volatiles
contained in coke, anthracite, and semi-bituminous coal, these fuels can
be burned efficiently with less furnace volume than is required for bi-
tuminous coal, the combustion space being proportioned according to the
amount of volatiles present.
Combustion should take place before the gases are cooled by the boiler
heating surface, and the volume of the furnace must be sufficient for this
purpose. The furnace temperature must be maintained sufficiently high
to produce complete combustion, thus resulting in a higher CO* content
and the absence of CO. Hydrocarbon gases ignite at temperatures
varying from 1000 to 1500 F.
The question of furnace proportions, particularly in regard to mechani-
cal stoker installations, has been given some consideration by various
manufacturers' associations. 'Arbitrary values have been recommended
for minimum dimensions. A customary rule-of -thumb method of figuring
furnace volumes is to allow 1 cu ft of space for a maximum heat release
of 50,000 Btu per hour. This value is equivalent to allowing approxi-
mately 1 cu ft for each developed horsepower, and it is approved by
most smoke prevention organizations.
The setting height will vary with the type of stoker. In an overfeed
stoker, for instance, all the volatiles must be burned in the combustion
chamber and, therefore, a greater distance should be allowed than for an
underfeed stoker where a considerable portion of the gas is burned while
passing through the incandescent fuel bed. The design of the boiler also
may affect the setting height, since in certain types the gas enters the
tubes immediately after leaving the combustion chamber, while in others
it passes ^over a bridge wall and toward the rear, thus giving a better
opportunity for combustion by obtaining a longer travel before entering
the tubes.
_ To secure ^suitable furnace volume, especially for mechanical stokers or
oil burners, it often is necessary either to pit the stoker or oil burner, or
246
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
where water line conditions and headroom permit, to raise the boiler on a
brick foundation setting.
Smokeless combustion of the more volatile bituminous coals is furthered
by the use of mechanical stokers. (See Chapter 11.) Smokeless com-
bustion in hand-fired boilers burning high volatile solid fuel is aided (1)
by the use of double grates with down-draft through the upper grate, (2)
by the use of a curtain section through which preheated auxiliary air is
introduced over the fire toward the rear of the boiler, and (3) by the intro-
duction of preheated air through passages at the front of the boiler. All
three methods depend largely on mixing secondary air with the partially
burned volatiles and causing this mixture to pass over an incandescent
fuel bed, thus tending to secure more complete combustion than is pos-
sible in boilers without such provision.
HEATING SURFACE
Boiler heating surface is that portion of the surface of the heat transfer
apparatus in contact with the fluid being heated on one side and the gas or
refractory being cooled on the other side. Heating surface on which the
fire shines is known as direct or radiant surface and that in contact with
hot gases only, as indirect or convection surface. The amount of heating
surface, its distribution and the temperatures on either side thereof
influence the capacity of any boiler.
Direct heating surface is more valuable than indirect per square foot
because it is subjected to a higher temperature and also, in the case of
solid fuel, because it is in position to receive the full radiant energy of the
fuel bed. The heat transfer capacity of a radiant heating surface may be
as high as 6 to 8 times that of an indirect surface. This is one of the
reasons why the water legs of some boilers have been extended, especially
in the case of stoker firing where the extra amount of combustion chamber
secured by an extension of the water legs is important. For the same
reason, care should be exercised in building a refractory combustion
chamber in an oil-burning boiler so as not to screen any more of this
valuable surface with refractories than is necessary for good combustion.
The effectiveness of the heating surface depends on its cleanliness, its
location in the boiler, and the shape of the gas passages. Investigations1
by the U. S. Bureau of Mines show that:
1. A boiler in which the heating surface is arranged to give long gas passages of small
cross-section will be more efficient than a boiler in which the gas passages are short and of
larger cross-section.
2. The efficiency of a water tube boiler increases as the free area between individual
tubes decreases and as the length of the gas pass increases.
3. By inserting baffles so that the heating surface is arranged in series with respect to
the gas flow, the boiler efficiency will be increased.
The area of the gas passages must not be so small as to cause excessive
resistance to the flow of gases where natural draft is employed.
Heat Transfer Rates
Practical rates of heat transfer in heating boilers will average about
3300 Btu per sq ft per hour for hand-fired boilers and 4000 Btu per sq ft
"See U. 5. Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 18, The Transmission of Heat into Steam Boilers.
247
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
per hour for mechanically fired boilers when operating at design load.
When operating at maximum load2 these values will run between 5000 and
6000 Btu per sq ft per hour. Boilers operating under favorable conditions
at the above heat transfer rates will give exit gas temperatures that are
considered consistent with good practice.
TESTING AND RATING CODES
The Society has adopted three solid fuel testing codes, a solid fuel
rating code and an oil fuel testing code. A.S.H.V.E. Standard and Short
Form Heat Balance Codes for Testing Low-Pressure Steam Heating
Solid Fuel Boilers — Codes 1 and 2 — (Revision of June 1929)8, are intended
to provide a method for conducting and reporting tests to determine heat
efficiency and performance characteristics. A.S.H.V.E. Performance
Test Code for Steam Heating Solid Fuel Boilers— Code No. 3 — (Edition of
1929)8 is intended for use with A.S.H.V.E. Code for Rating Steam Heating
Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers4. The object of this test code is to specify
the tests to be conducted and to provide a method for conducting and
reporting tests to determine the efficiencies and performance of the boiler.
The A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing Steam Heating Boilers
Burning Oil Fuel5 is intended to provide a standard method for con-
ducting and reporting tests to determine the heating efficiency and per-
formance characteristics when oil fuel is used with steam heating boilers.
Steel Heating Boilers Ratings
The Steel Heating Boiler Institute has adopted a method for the rating of
low pressure boilers based on their physical characteristics and expressed
in square feet of steam or water radiation or in Btu per hour as given in
Table 2. The following requirements are included in this Code:
1. One square foot of steam radiation is to be considered equal to the emission of
240 Btu per hour and one square foot of water radiation is to be considered equal to
emission of 150 Btu per hour.
2. The rating of a boiler expressed in square feet of steam radiation in which solid fuel
hand fired is used is based on the amount equal to 14 times the heating surface of the
boiler in square feet.
3. The rating of a boiler expressed in square feet of steam radiation in which solid fuel
mechanically fired, or in which oil or gas is burned, is based on the amount equal to
17 times the heating surface of the boiler in square feet.
4. Heating surface is to be expressed in square feet and include those surfaces in the
boiler which are exposed to the products of combustion on one side and water on the
other. In measuring surfaces, the outer tube areas are to be considered. When a
boiler has the water leg height increased the heating surface noted in the published
ratings are not to be increased.
5. A grate area is to be considered as an area of the grate surface expressed in square
feet and measured in the plane of the top surface of the grate. For double grate boilers
the grate surface is to be considered as the area of the upper grate plus one-quarter of the
area of the lower grate.
6. The grate area of a boiler for rating as determined in No. 2 is to be not less than
that determined by the following formulae:
For boilers with ratings 1800 sq ft to 4000 sq ft of steam radiation:
Grate Area = ^/Catalogue Rating (in square feet steam radiation) — 200 Q\
^/
M
aFor definitions of design load and maximum load see pages 251 and 252.
'See A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 12. Also Chapter 45.
4See A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 35. Also Chapter 45.
*See A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 23* Also Chapter 45.
24S
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
TABLE 2. STANDARD STEEL HEATING BOILER RATINGS'*
HAND FIRED CAPACITY RATING
MECHANICALLY FIRED CAPACITY RATING
Steam
Radiation
SqFt
Water
Radiation
SqFt
Btu per Hr
Heating
Surface
SqFt
Grate
Area
SqFt
Steam
Radiation
SqFt
w . : Furnace Volume
Rg&j Btu^rHr *££-&*
^Ft : CuFt
1,800
2,880
432,000
129
7.9 ' 2,190 ! 3,500 , 525,600 , 15.7
2,200
3,520
528,000
158
8.9 2,680
4,280 j 643,200 19.2
2,600
4,160
624,000
186
9.7
3,160 5,050 ! 75S,400 , 22.6
3,000
4,800
720,000
215
10.5 3,650 5,840 876.000 26.1
3,500
5,600
840,000
250
11.4 , 4,250 6,800 1,020,000 30.4
4,000
6,400
960,000
286
12.2 j 4,860 7,770 ; 1,166,400 34.8
4,500
7,200
1,080,000
322
13.4
5,470 ! 8,750 1,312,800 39.1
5,000
8,000
1,200,000
358
14.5
6,080 : 9,720 i 1,459,200 43.5
6,000
9,600
1,440,000
429
16.4
7,290
11,660 1,749,600
52.1
7,000
11,200
1,680,000
500
18.1
8,500 13,600 i 2,040,000 60.8
8,500
13,600
2,OW,000
608
20.5
10,330
16,520 2,479,200
73.8
10,000
16,000
2,400,000
715
22.5
12,150 19,440
2,916.000
86.8
12,500
20,000
3,000,000
893
25.6
15,180 24,280
3,643,200
108.5
15,000
24,000
3,600,000
1,072
28.4
18,220
29,150 i 4,372,800
130.2
17,500
28,000
4,200,000
1,250
30.9
21,250
34,000
5T100,000
151.8
20,000
32,000
4,800,000
1,429
33.2
24,290
38,860
5,829,600
173.5
25,000
40,000
6,000,000
1,786
37.4
30,360
48,570
7,286,400
216.9
30,000
48,000
7,200,000
2,143
41.2
36,430
58,280
8,743,200
260.3
35,000
56,000
8,400,000
2,500
44.7
42,500
68,000
10,200,000
303.6
aAdopted by the Steel Heating Boiler Institute in cooperation with the Bureau of Standards, United States
Department of Commerce Simplified Practice Recommendation R 157-S5.
For boilers with ratings 4000 sq ft of steam radiation and larger:
Grate Area
V Catalogue Rating (in square feet steam radiation) — 1500
16.8
7. The volume for furnaces in which solid fuel is burned is to be considered as the
cubical content of the space between the bottom of the fuel bed and the first plane of
entry into or between the tubes. Volume of furnaces in which pulverized liquid fuel or
gaseous fuel is burned are to be considered as the cubical content of the space between
the hearth and the first plane of entry into or between the tubes. No minimum furnace
volume is to be specified for mechanical fired boilers burning anthracite.
8. The furnace volume for a boiler, with a rating as determined in No. 3 in^which oil,
gas or bituminous coal stoker fired is burned is not to be less than one cubic foot for
every 140 sq ft of steam rating.
9. The average height of furnace for the rating determined in No. 3 in which bitu-
minous coal, stoker fired is burned is not to be less than that determined graphically in
Fig. 1 or mathematically by the following formula:
(3)
where
H — average furnace height, inches as determined by the following formula;
12F 12F
H
WL
R = stoker fired boiler rating, square foot steam radiation.
A = plan area of firebox, square feet measured at the bottom of the fuel bed.
F = furnace volume, cubic feet.
249
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
W = average width of furnace, measured at the bottom of the fuel bed, feet.
L — length of furnace, feet. If the furnace is longer than the fuel bed or contains a
bridge wall, the total length of the furnace may be used except that this length
is not to exceed 2 J£ W.
BOILER OUTPUT
Boiler output as defined in A.S.H.V.E. Performance Test Code for
Steam Heating Solid Fuel Boilers (Code No. 3) is the quantity of heat
available at the boiler nozzle with the boiler normally insulated. It
should be based on actual tests conducted in accordance with this code.
This output is usually stated in Btu and in square feet of equivalent heat-
ing surface (radiation). According to the A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
PLAN AREA OF FURNACE, SQUARE FEET
FIG. 1. FURNACE HEIGHTS FOR STOKER FIRED BOILERS AND BITUMINOUS COAL
RATED IN SQUARE FEET STEAM RADIATION
Rating Steam Heating, Solid Fuel, Hand-Fired Boilers, the performance
data should be given in tabular or curve form on the following items for at
least five outputs ranging from maximum down to 35 per cent of maxi-
mum: (1) fuel available, (2) combustion rate, (3) efficiency, (4) draft
tension, (5) flue gas temperature. The only definite restriction placed on
setting the maximum output is that priming shall not exceed 2 per cent.
These curves provide complete data regarding the performance of the
boiler under test conditions. Certain other pertinent information, such as
grate area, heating surface and chimney dimensions is desirable also in
forming an opinion of how the boiler will perform in actual service.
The output of large heating boilers is frequently stated in terms of
boiler horsepower instead of in Btu per hour or square feet of equivalent
radiation.
250
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
Boiler Horsepower : The evaporation of 34.5 Ib of water per hour
from and at 212 F which is equivalent to a heat output of 970.2 X 34.5 =
33,471.9 Btu per hour.
Equivalent Evaporation : The amount of water a boiler would
evaporate, in pounds per hour, if it received feed water at 212 F and
vaporized it at this same temperature and at atmospheric pressure.
It is usually considered that 10 sq ft of boiler heating surface will pro-
duce a rated boiler horsepower. A rated boiler horsepower in turn
can carry a design load of from 100 to 140 sq ft of equivalent radiation.
It is apparent, therefore, that 1 sq ft of boiler heating surface can carry a
design load of from 10 to 14 sq ft of equivalent radiation, or somewhat
more if the boiler is forced above rating. The application of these values
is discussed under the heading Selection of Boilers.
BOILER EFFICIENCY
The term efficiency as used for guarantees of boiler performance is
usually construed as follows:
1. Solid Fuels. The efficiency of the boiler alone is the ratio of the heat absorbed by
the water and steam in the boiler per pound of combustible burned on the grate to the
calorific value of 1 Ib of combustible as fired. The combined, efficiency of boiler, furnace
and grate is the ratio of the heat absorbed by the water and steam in the boiler per pound
of fuel as fired to the calorific value of 1 Ib of fuel as fired.
2. Liquid Fuels. The combined efficiency of boiler, furnace and burner is the ratio of
the heat absorbed by the water and steam in the boiler per pound of fuel to the calorific
value of 1 Ib of fuel.
Solid fuel boilers usually show an efficiency of 50 to 75 per cent when
operated under favorable conditions at their rated capacities. Infor-
mation on the combined efficiencies of boiler, furnace and burner has
resulted from research conducted at Yale University in cooperation with
the A.S.H.V.E, Research Laboratory and the American Oil Burner
Association*.
SELECTION OF BOILERS
Estimated Design Load : The load, stated in Btu per hour or equiva-
lent direct radiation, as estimated by the purchaser for the conditions of
inside and outside temperature for which the amount of installed radiation
was determined is the sum of the heat emission of the radiation to be
actually installed plus the allowance for the heat loss of the connecting
piping plus the heat requirement for any apparatus requiring heat con-
nected with the system (A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Rating Steam
Heating Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers— Edition of April, 1932).
The estimated design load is the sum of the following three items7:
1. The estimated heat emission in Btu per hour of the connected radiation (direct,
indirect or central fan) to be installed.
2. The estimated maximum heat in Btu per hour required to supply water heaters
or other apparatus to be connected to the boiler.
6Study of the Characteristics of Oil Burners and Heating Boilers, by L. E. Seeley and E. J. Tavanlar
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 517), A Study of Intermittent Operation of Oil Burners, by L.
E. Seeley and J. H. Powers (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 317).
7A.S.H.V.E. Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating and Ventilation of Buildings (Edition
of 1929).
251
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3. The estimated heat emission in Btu per hour of the piping connecting the radiation
and other apparatus to the boiler.
Estimated Maximum Load : Construed to mean the load stated in
Btu per hour or the equivalent direct radiation that has been estimated by
the purchaser to be the greatest or maximum load that the boiler will be
called upon to carry. (A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Rating Steam
Heating Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers— Edition of April, 1932.)
The estimated maximum load is given by8:
4. The estimated increase in the normal load in Btu per hour due to starting up cold
radiation. This percentage of increase is to be based on the sum of Items 1, 2 and 3
and the heating-up factors given in Table 3.
TABLE 3. WARMING-UP ALLOWANCES FOR Low PRESSURE STEAM AND
HOT WATER HEATING BoiLERsai bi c
DESIGN LOAD (REPRESENTING STJMMA/TION OF ITEMS 1, 2, AND 3,d
PESCENTAOE CAPACITY TO ADD
FOR WABMINO UP
Btu per Hour
Equivalent Square Feet of Radiation*
Up to 100,000
100,000 to 200,000
200,000 to 600,000
600,000 to 1,200,000
1,200,000 to 1,800,000
Above 1,800,000
Up to 420
420 to 840
840 to 2500
2500 to 5000
5000 to 7500
Above 7500
65
60
55
50
45 .
40
aThis table is taken from the A.S.H.V.E. Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating and Venti-
lation of Buildings, except that the second column has been added for convenience in interpreting the design
load in terms of equivalent square feet of radiation.
bSee also Time Analysis in Starting Heating Apparatus, by Ralph C. Taggert (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSAC-
TIONS, Vol. 19, 1913, p. 292); Report of A.S.H.V.E. Continuing Committee on Codes for Testing and Rating
Steam Heating Solid Fuel Boilers (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 35) ; Selecting the Right
Size Heating Boiler, by Sabin Crocker (Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, March, 1932).
cThis table refers to hand-fired, solid fuel boilers. A factor of 20 per cent over design load is adequate
when automatically-fired fuels are used (see Fig. 3).
d240 Btu per square foot.
Other things to be considered are:
5. Efficiency with hard or soft coal, gas, or oil firing, as the case may be.
6. Grate area with hand-fired coal, or fuel burning rate with stokers, oil, or gas.
7. Combustion space in the furnace.
8. Type of heat liberation, whether continuous or intermittent, or a combination of
both.
9. Miscellaneous items consisting of draft available, character of attendance, pos-
sibility of future extension, possibility of breakdown and headroom in the boiler room.
Radiation Load
The connected radiation (Item 1) is determined by calculating the^heat
losses in accordance with data given in Chapters 5, 6 and 7, and dividing
by 240 to change to square feet of equivalent radiation as explained in
Chapter 14. For hot water, the emission commonly used is 150 Btu per
square foot, but the actual emission depends on the temperature of the
medium in the heating units and of the surrounding air. (See Chapter 14.)
Although it is customary to use the actual connected load in equivalent
square feet of radiation for selecting the size of boiler, this connected load
usually represents a reserve in heating capacity to provide for infiltration
in the various spaces of the building to be heated, which reserve, however,
8Loc. Cit. Note 7.
252
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
is not in use at all places at the same time, or in any one place at all times.
For a further discussion of this subject see Chapter 6.
Hot Water Supply Load
When the hot water supply (Item 2) is heated by the building heating
boiler, this load must be taken into consideration in sizing the boiler. The
0.6 60
^0.3 § 5 |5|4.5
OK < |j
So-2 ^40 * 105 a
LI i.it
1000
3OOO
OUTPUT. SQ. FT, EQUIVALENT STEAM RADIATION (240 BTU PER 3Q. FT.)
BOILER DATA- CRATE AREA.SQ.FT. 16-0 FUEL-BITUMINOUS 3/4- LUMP
HEATING SURFACE.SQ FT. 254 ANALYSIS- VOLATILE MATTER 34.687.
WEIGHT, LB. 0160 FIXED CARBON 35-44
FUEL CAPACITY. LB. 63. ASH 9.97
FUEL AVAIL ABLE, LB. 414. SULPHUR 2.«6
. io
FIG 2 TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR A 36-iN. CAST-IRON SECTIONAL STEAM
HEATING BOILER, BASED ON THE A.S.H.V.E. CODE FOR RATING STEAM
HEATING SOLID FUEL HAND-FIRED BOILERS
allowance to be made will depend on the amount of water heated and its
temperature rise. A good approximation is to add 4 sq ft of equivalent
radiation for each gallon of water heated per hour through a temperature
range of 100 F. For more specific information, see Chapter 43.
Piping Tax (Item 3)
It is common practice to add a flat percentage allowance to the
equivalent connected radiation to provide for the heat loss from bare and
covered pipe in the supply and return lines. The use of a flat allowance of
25 per cent for steam systems and 35 per cent for hot water systems is
preferable to ignoring entirely the load due to heat loss from the supply
253
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and return lines, but better practice, especially when there is much bare
pipe, is to compute the emission from both bare and covered pipe surface
in accordance with data in Chapter 39. A chart is shown in Fig. 3 indicat-
ing percentage allowances for piping and warming-up which are applic-
able to automatically-fired heating plants using steam radiation. With
direct radiation served by bare supply and return piping the percentages
may be higher than those stated, while in the case of unit heaters where
the output is concentrated in a few locations/ the piping tax may be
10 per cent or less.
10 12 14
NET LOAD, STEAM RADIATION, THOUSAND SQ FT
18
FIG. 3. PERCENTAGE ALLOWANCE FOR PIPING AND WARMING-UP
Warming-Up Allowance
The warming-up allowance represents the load due to heating the boiler
and contents to operating temperature and heating up cold radiation and
piping. (See Item 4.) The factors to be used for determining the
allowance to be made should be selected from Table 3 and should be
applied to the estimated design load as determined by Items 1, 2 and 3.
While in every case the estimated maximum load will exceed the design
load if adequate heating response is to be achieved, there is however, no
object in over-estimating the allowances, as the only effect would be to
reduce the time of warming-up by a few minutes. Otherwise, it might
result in firing the boiler unduly and increasing the cost of operation.
Performance Curves for Boiler Selection
In the selection of a boiler to meet the estimated load, the A.S.H.V.E.
Standard Code for Rating Steam Heating Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers
recommends the use of performance curves based on actual tests con-
ducted in accordance with the A.S.H.V.E. Performance Test Code for
Steam Heating Solid Fuel Boilers (Code No. 3), similar to the typical
curves shown in Fig. 2. It should be understood that performance data
apply to test conditions and that a reasonable allowance should be made
for decreased output resulting from soot deposit, poor fuel or inefficient
attention.
254
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
Selection Based on Heating Surface and Grate Area
Where performance curves are not available, a good general rule for
conventionally-designed boilers is to provide 1 sq ft of boiler heating
surface for each 14 sq ft of equivalent radiation (240 Btu per square foot)
represented by the design load consisting of connected radiation, piping
tax and domestic water heating load. As stated in the section on Boiler
Output, this is equivalent to allowing 10 sq ft of boiler heating surface per
boiler horsepower. In this case it is assumed that the maximum load
including the warming-up allowance will be provided for by operating the
boiler in excess of the design load, that is, in excess of the 100 per cent
rating on a boiler-horsepower basis.
Due to the wide variation encountered in manufacturers' ratings for
boilers of approximately the same capacity, it is advisable to check the
grate area required for heating boilers burning solid fuel by means of the
following formula:
TT
G = CXFXE (4)
where
G = grate area, square feet.
H = required total heat output of the boiler, Btu per hour (see Selection of Boilers,
p. 251).
C — combustion rate in pounds of dry coal per square foot of grate area per hour,
depending on the kind of fuel and size of boiler as given in Table 1.
F — calorific value of fuel, Btu per pound.
E =• efficiency of boiler, usually taken as 0.60.
Example 1. Determine the grate area for a required heat output of the boiler of
500,000 Btu per hour, a combustion rate of 6 Ib per hour, a calorific value of 13,000 Btu
per pound, and an efficiency of 60 per cent.
The boiler selected should have a grate area not less than that deter-
mined by Formula 4. With small boilers where it is desired to provide
sufficient coal capacity for approximately an eight-hour firing period plus
a 20 per cent reserve for igniting a new charge, more grate area may be
required depending upon the depth of the fuel pot.
Selection of Steel Heating Boilers
Boiler ratings previously described under the Steel Heating Boiler
Institute's Boiler Rating Code are intended to correspond with the esti-
mated design load based on the sum of items 1, 2 and 3 outlined on pages
252 and 253. Insulated residence type boilers for oil or gas may carry
a net load expressed in square feet of steam radiation of not more than
17 times the square feet of heating surface in the boiler, provided the
boiler manufacturer guarantees the boiler to be capable of operating at a
maximum output of not less than 150 per cent of net load rating with over-
all efficiency of not less than 75 per cent with at least two different makes
of each type of standard commercial burner recommended by the boiler
manufacturer. If the heat loss from the piping system exceeds 20 per cent
of the installed radiation, the excess is to be considered as a part of the net
load.
255
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
When the estimated heat emission of the piping (connecting radiation,
and other apparatus to the boiler) is not known the net load to be con-
sidered for the boiler may be determined from Table 4.
Selection of Gas-Fired Boilers
Gas-heating appliances should be selected in accordance with the
percentage allowances given in Fig. 3. These factors are for thermo-
statically-controlled systems; in case manual operation is desired, a
warming-up allowance of 100 per cent is recommended by the A.G.A.
A gas boiler selected by the use of the A.G.A. factors will be the minimum
TABLE 4. BOILER RATINGS BASED ON NET LoADa
HAJTD FIRED RATINGS
MECHANICALLY FIRED RATINGS
Steam Radiation Sq Ft
Net Loadb
Steam Radiation Sq Ft
Steam Radiation Sq Ft
Net Loadb
Steam Radiation Sq Ft
1,800
1,389
2,190
1,695
2,200
1,702
2,680
2,089
2,600
2,020
3,160
2,461
3,000
2,335
3,650
2,853
3,500
2,732
4,250
3,335
4,000
3,135
4,860
3,830
4,500
3,540'
5,470
4,330
5,000
3,945
6,080
4,834
6,000
4,770
7,290
5,850
7,000
5,608
8,500
6,885
8,500
6,885
10,330
8,490
10,000
8,197
12,150
10,125
12,500
10,417
15,180
12,650
15,000
12,500
18,220
15,183
17,500
14,584
21,250
17,708
20,000
16,667
24,290
20,242
25,000
20,834
30,360
25,300
30,000
25,000
36,430
30,359
35,000
29,167
42,500
35,417
aAdopted by the Steel Heating Boiler Institute in cooperation with the Bureau of Standards , United States
Department of Commerce Simplified Practice Recommendation R 157-35.
bThe net load is made up by the sum of the estimated design load, items 1 and 2 (pages 252 and 253). All
net loads are expressed in 70 F. For hand fired boiler ratings less than 1800 sq ft of steam or 2880 sq. ft of
water and mechanically fired boiler ratings of 2190 sq ft of steam or 3500 sq ft of water, apply the factor
1.3 to the net load to determine the boiler size. For water boilers use the equivalent net load for steam
boilers of similar physical size.
size boiler which can carry the load. From a fuel economy standpoint, it
may be advisable to select a somewhat larger boiler and then throttle the
gas and air adjustments as required. This will tend to give a low stack
temperature with high efficiency and at the same time provide reserve
capacity in case the load is under-estimated or more is added in the future.
Conversions
The conversion of a coal or oil boiler to gas burning is simpler than the
reverse since little furnace volume need be provided for the proper com-
bustion of gas. When a solid fuel boiler of 500 sq ft (or less) capacity is
converted to gas burning, the necessary gas heat units should be approxi-
mately double the connected load. The presumption for a conversion
job is that the boiler is installed and probably will not be made larger;
256
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
therefore, it is a matter of setting a gas-burning rate to obtain best results
with the available surface. Assuming a combustion efficiency of 75 per
cent for a conversion installation the boiler output would be 2 X 0.75
= 1.5 times the connected load, which allows 50 per cent for piping tax
and pickup. In converting large boilers, the determination of the re-
quired Btu input should not be done by an arbitrary figure or factor but
should be based on a detailed consideration of the requirements and
characteristics of the connected load.
An efficient conversion installation depends upon the proper size of
flue connection. Often the original smoke breeching between the boiler
and chimney is too large for gas firing, and in this case, flue orifices can be
used. They are discs provided with an opening of the size for the gas
input used in this boiler. The size should be based on 1 sq in. of flue area
for each 7500 hourly Btu input.
If dampers are found in the breeching they should be locked in position
so that they will not interfere with the normal operation of the gas burners
at maximum flow. In the case of large boiler conversions, automatic
damper regulators proportion the position of the flue dampers to the
amount of gas flowing and may be substituted for existing dampers.
Generally in residence conversions automatic dampers are not of the
proportioning type but close the flue during the off periods of the gas
burners. Automatic shutoff dampers should be located between the
backdraft diverter and the chimney flue. Automatic dampers are usually
designed to operate with electric contact mechanism, but frequently an
arrangement is utilized which functions with mechanical fluid or gas
pressure.
Physical Limitations
As it will usually be found that several boilers will meet the speci-
fications, the final selection of the boiler may be influenced by other con-
siderations, some of which are:
1. Dimensions of boiler.
2. Durability under service.
3. Convenience in firing and cleaning.
4. Adaptability to changes in fuel and kind of attention.
5. Height of water line.
In large installations, the use of several smaller boiler units instead of
one larger one will obtain greater flexibility and economy by permitting
the operation, at the best efficiency, of the required number of units
according to the heat requirements.
Space Limitations
Boiler rooms should, if possible, be situated at a central point with
respect to the building and should be designed for a maximum of natural
light. The space in front of the boilers should be sufficient for firing,
stoking, ash removal and cleaning or renewal of flues, and should be at
least 3 ft greater than the length of the boiler firebox.
A space of at least 3 ft should be allowed on at least one side of every
boiler for convenience of erection and for accessibility to the various
257
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
dampers, cleanouts and trimmings. The space at the rear of the boiler
should be ample for the chimney connection and for cleanouts. With
large boilers the rear clearance should be at least 3 ft in width.
The boiler room height should be sufficient for the location of boiler
accessories and for proper installation of piping. In general the ceiling
height for small steam boilers should be at least 3 ft above the normal
boiler water line. With vapor heating, especially, the height above the
boiler water line is of vital importance.
When steel boilers are used, space should be provided for the removal
and replacement of tubes.
CONNECTIONS AND FITTINGS
The velocity of flow through the outlets of low pressure steam heating
boilers should not exceed 15 to 25 fps if fluctuation of the water line and
undue entrainment of moisture are to be avoided. Steam or water outlet
connections preferably should be the full size of the manufacturers'
tapping and should extend vertically to the maximum height available
above the boiler. For gravity circulating steam heating systems, it is
recommended that a Hartford Loop, described in Chapter 16, be utilized
in making the return connection.
Particular attention should be given to fitting connections to secure con-
formity with the A.S.MJS. Boiler Construction Code for Low Pressure
Heating Boilers. Attention is called in particular to pressure gage piping,
water gage connections and safety valve capacity.
Steam gages should be fitted with a water seal and a shut-off consisting
of a cock with either a tee or lever handle which is parallel to the pipe
when the cock is open. Steam gage connections should be of copper or
brass when smaller than 1 in. I.P.S.9 if the gage is more than 5 ft from the
boiler connection, and also in any case where the connection is less than
M in. I.P.S.
Each steam or vapor boiler should have at least one water gage glass and
two or more gage cocks located within the range of the visible length of the
glass. The water gage fittings or gage cocks may be direct connected to
the boiler, if so located by the manufacturer, or may be mounted on a
separate water column. No connections, except. for combustion regu-
lators, drains or steam gages, should be placed on the pipes connecting
the water column and the boiler. If the water column or gage glass is con-
nected to the boiler by pipe and fittings, a cross, tee or equivalent, in which
a deanout plug or a drain valve and piping may be attached, should be
placed in the water connection at every right-angle turn to facilitate
cleaning. The water line in steam boilers should be carried at the level
specified by the boiler manufacturer.
Safety valves should be capable of discharging all the steam that can be
generated by the boiler without allowing the pressure to rise more than
5 Ib above the maximum allowable working pressure of the boiler. This
should be borne in mind particularly in the case of boilers equipped with
mechanical stokers or oil burners where the amount of grate area has
little significance as to the steam generating capacity of the boiler.
'A3.M.E. Code, Identification of Piping Systems.
258
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
Where a return header is used on a cast-iron sectional boiler to distribute
the returns to both rear tappings, it is advisable to provide full size
plugged tees instead of elbows where the branch connections enter the
return tappings. This facilitates cleaning sludge from the bottom of the
boiler sections through the large plugged openings. An equivalent clean-
out plug should be provided in the case of a single return connection.
Blow-off or drain connections should be made near the boiler and so
arranged that the entire system may be drained of water by opening the
drain cock. In the case of two or more boilers separate blow-off connec-
tions must be provided for each boiler on the boiler side of the stop valve
on the main return connection.
Water service connections must be provided for both steam and water
boilers, for refilling and for the addition of make-up water to boilers. This
connection is usually of galvanized steel pipe, and is made to the return
main near the boiler or boilers.
For further data on pipe connections for steam and hot water heating
systems, see Chapters 16 and 17 and thtA.S.M.E. Boiler Construction
Code for Low Pressure Heating Boilers.
Smoke Breeching and Chimney Connections. The breeching or smoke
pipe from the boiler outlet to the chimney should be air- tight and as short
and direct as possible, preference being given to long radius and 45-deg
instead of 90-deg bends. The breeching entering a brick chimney should
not project beyond the flue lining and where practicable it should be
grouted from the inside of the chimney. A thimble or sleeve grout
usually is provided where the breeching enters a brick chimney.
Where a battery of boilers is connected into a breeching each boiler
should be provided with a tight damper. The breeching for a battery
of boilers should not be reduced in size as it goes to the more remote
boilers. Good connections made to a good chimney will usually result in
a rapid response by the boilers to demands for heat.
ERECTION, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE
The directions of the boiler manufacturer always should be read before
the assembly or installation of any boiler is started, even though the
contractor may be familiar with the boiler. All joints requiring boiler
putty or cement which cannot be reached after assembly is complete
must be finished as the assembly progresses.
The following precautions should be taken in all installations to prevent
damage to the boiler:
1. There should be provided proper and convenient drainage connections for use if
the boiler is not in operation during freezing weather.
2. Strains on the boiler due to movement of piping during expansion should ^ be
prevented by suitable anchoring of piping and by proper provision for pipe expansion
and contraction.
3. Direct impingement of too intense local heat upon any part of the boiler surface,
as with oil burners, should be avoided by protecting the surface with firebrick or other
refractory material.
4. Condensation must flow back to the boiler as rapidly and uniformly as possible.
Return connections should prevent the water from backing out of the boiler.
5. Automatic boiler feeders and low water cut-off devices which shut off the source
259
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
of heat if the water in the boiler falls below a safe level are recommended for boilers
mechanically fired.
Boiler Troubles
A complaint regarding boiler operation generally will be found to be
due to one of the following:
1. The boiler fails to deliver enough heat. The cause of this condition may be: (a) poor
draft; (&) poor fuel; (c) inferior attention or firing; (d) boiler too small; (e) improper
piping; (f) improper arrangement of sections; (g) heating surfaces covered with soot;
and (h) insufficient radiation installed.
2. The water line is unsteady. The cause of this condition may be: (a) grease and dirt
in boiler; (b) water column connected to a very active section and, therefore, not
showing actual water level in boiler; and (d) boiler operating at excessive output.
3. Water disappears from gage glass. This may be caused by: (a) priming due to
grease and dirt in boiler; (b) too great pressure difference between supply and return
piping preventing return of condensation; (c) valve closed in return line; (d) connection
of bottom of water column into a very active section or thin waterway; and (e) improper
connections between boilers in battery permitting boiler with excess pressure to push
returning condensation into boiler with lower pressure.
4. Water is carried over into steam main. This may be caused by: (a) grease and dirt
in boiler; (b) insufficient steam dome or too small steam liberating area; (c) outlet con-
nections of too small area; (d) excessive rate of output; and (e) water level carried
higher than specified.
5. Boiler is slow in response to operation of dampers. This may be due to: (a) poor
draft resulting from air leaks into chimney or breeching; (b) inferior fuel; (c) inferior
attention; (d) accumulation of clinker on grate; and (e) boiler too small for the load.
6. Boiler requires^ too frequent cleaning of flues. This may be due to: (a) poor draft;
(6) smoky combustion; (c) too low a rate of combustion; and (d) too much excess air
in firebox causing chilling of gases.
7. Boiler smokes through fire door. This may be due to: (a) defective draft in chimney
or incorrect setting of dampers; (b) air leaks into boiler or breeching; (c) gas outlet from
firebox plugged with fuel; (d) dirty or clogged flues; and (e) improper reduction in
breeching size.
Cleaning Steam Boilers
All boilers are provided with flue clean-out openings through which the
heating surface^ can be reached by means of brushes or scrapers. Flues
of solid fuel boilers should be cleaned often to keep the surfaces free of
soot or ash. Gas boiler flues and burners should be cleaned at least once
a year. Oil burning boiler flues should be examined periodically to deter-
mine when cleaning is necessary.
The grease used to lubricate the cutting tools during erection of new
piping systems serves as a carrier for sand and dirt, with the result that
a scum of fine particles and grease accumulates on the surface of the
water in all new boilers, while heavier particles may settle to the bottom
of the boiler and form sludge. These impurities have a tendency to cause
foaming, preventing the generation of steam and causing an unsteady
water line.
This unavoidable accumulation of oil and grease should be removed
by blowing off the boiler as follows: If not already provided, install a
surface blow connection of at least 1% in. nominal pipe size with outlet
extended to within 18 in. of the floor or to sewer, inserting a valve in line
close to boiler. Bring the water line to center of outlet, raise steam pres-
sure and while fire is burning briskly open valve in blow-off line. When
260
CHAPTER 13. HEATING BOILERS
pressure recedes close valve and repeat process adding water at intervals
to maintain proper level. As a final operation bring the pressure in the
boiler to about 10 Ib, close blow-off, draw the fire or stop burner, and open
drain valve. After boiler has cooled partly, fill and flush out several times
before filling it to proper water level for normal service. The use of soda,
or any alkali, vinegar or any acid is not recommended for cleaning heating
boilers because of the difficulty of complete removal and the possibility
of subsequent injury, after the cleaning process has been completed.
Insoluble compounds have been developed which are effective, but
special instructions on the proper cleaning compound and directions for
its use in a boiler, as given by the boiler manufacturer, should be carefully
followed.
It is common practice when starting new installations to discharge
heating returns to the sewer during the first week of operation. This
prevents the passage of grease, dirt or other foreign matter into the boiler
and consequently may avoid the necessity of cleaning the boiler. During
the time the returns are being passed to the sewer, the feed valve should
be cracked sufficiently to maintain the proper water level in the boiler.
Care of Idle Heating Boilers
Heating boilers are often seriously damaged during summer months
due chiefly to corrosion resulting from the combination of sulphur from
the fuel with the moisture in the cellar air. At the end of the heating
season the following precautions should be taken:
1. All heating surfaces should be cleaned thoroughly of soot, ash and residue, and the
heating surfaces of steel boilers should be given a coating of lubricating oil on the ore
side.
2. All machined surfaces should be coated with oil or grease.
3. Connections to the chimney should be cleaned and in case of small boilers the pipe
should be placed in a dry place after cleaning.
4. If there is much moisture in the boiler room, it is desirable to drain the boiler to
prevent atmospheric condensation on the heating surfaces of the boiler when they are
below the dew-point temperature. Due to the hazard of some one inadvertently building
a fire in a dry boiler, however, it is safer to keep the boiler filled with water. A hot water
system usually is left filled to the expansion tank.
5. The grates and ashpit should be cleaned.
6. Clean and repack the gage glass if necessary.
7. Remove any rust or other deposit from exposed surfaces by scraping with a wire
brush or sandpaper. After boiler is thoroughly cleaned, apply a coat of preservative
paint where required to external parts normally painted.
8. Inspect all accessories of the boiler carefully to see that they are in good working
order. In this connection, oil all door hinges, damper bearings and regulator parts.
BOILER INSULATION
Insulation for cast-iron boilers is of two general types: (1) plastic
material or blocks wired on, cemented and covered with canvas or duck;
and (2) blocks, sheets or plastic material covered with a metal jacket
furnished by the boiler manufacturer. Self-contained steel firebox boilers
usually are insulated with blocks, cement and canvas, or rock wool
blankets; HRT boilers are brick set and do not require insulation beyond
that provided in the setting. It is essential that the insulation on a boiler
261
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and adjacent piping be of non-combustible material as even slow-burning
insulation constitutes a dangerous fire hazard in case of low water in
the boiler.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What basic requirements of boiler design are to be accomplished with a
combination, boiler and oil burner unit?
Combination units vary widely but in general, the basic requirements of design depends
upon a combustion chamber of proper design and arranged for the flame shape with
adequate heating surface for the complete combustion of the fuel.
2 • What is the normal rating range of each type of boiler?
a. Cast-iron boilers are rated at from 200 to 18,000 sq ft EDR.
b. Steel boilers are rated at from 300 to 50,000 sq ft EDR.
3 • What factors contribute to economical fuel operation in low pressure
boilers burning coal or oil?
a. Proper furnace volume for complete combustion.
b. Arrangement of heating surfaces in series to create a turbulent and scrubbing contact
of gases against the convective surfaces.
c. Rapid internal water circulation which will remove steam bubbles from the water
side of heating surfaces and allow other steam bubbles to be formed. Rapid disen-
gagement of steam bubbles increases the steam generating efficiency of each unit
area of heating surface, and thereby lowers flue gas temperatures.
4 • What ecpiipment is usually directly attached to a low pressure heating
boiler?
For coal burning steam boilers: water column, water gage, tri-cocks, steam gage, lever
pop safety valve, boiler damper regulator.
For coal burning hot water boilers: damper regulator, altitude gage, thermometer, relief
valve.
For oil burning boilers, the damper regulators are omitted and the following additional
equipment is usually attached: automatic water feeder, low water cutout, a pressure
control, and a water temperature control. These are generally furnished by the oil
burner manufacturer and do not come with the boiler.
5 • What general precautions regarding the boiler should be taken to make
sure a proposed beating installation will work properly?
a. Select the right size and type of boiler.
&. Be sure the combustion space is proper for the type of fuel burned.
c. Allow sufficient space around the boiler for cleaning.
d. Secure proper height and area of chimney and connecting breeching.
e. Clean the boiler thoroughly and provide surface blowoff connections and bottom
blowoff connections for periodic cleaning after operation is begun.
/. See that the boiler heating surface is cleaned at regular periods.
g. Check flue gas temperatures and make a flue gas analysis at least once a month.
h. Secure information and advice from boiler manufacturer.
5 • What is the average heat transmission rate hi heating boilers hi Btu per
sq ft of beating surface per hour?
3500 for coal burning boilers; 4200 for oil burning boilers.
262
Chapter 14
RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
Heat Emission of Radiators and Convectors, Types o£ Radi-
ators, Output of Radiators, Heating Effect, Heating Up the
Radiator and Convector, Enclosed Radiators, Convectors,
Selection, Code Tests, Gravity-Indirect Heating Systems
THE accepted terms for heating units are: (1) radiators, for direct
surface heating units, either exposed, enclosed, or shielded, which
emit a large percentage of their heat by radiation; and (2) connectors, for
heating units haying a large percentage of extended fin surface and which
emit heat principally by convection. Convectors are dependent upon
enclosures to provide the circulation by gravity of large volumes of air.
HEAT EMISSION OF RADIATORS AND CONVECTORS
All heating units emit heat by radiation and convection. The resultant
heat from these processes depends upon whether or not the heating unit is
exposed or enclosed and upon the contour and surface characteristics of
the material in the units.
An exposed radiator emits less than half of its heat by radiation, the
amount depending upon the size and number of sections. When the
radiator is enclosed or shielded, radiation is further reduced. The balance
of the emission is by conduction to the air in contact with the heating
surface, and the resulting circulation of the air warms by convection.
A convector emits practically all of its heat by conduction to the air
surrounding it and this heated air is in turn transmitted by convection to
the rooms or spaces to be wanned, the heat emitted by radiation being
negligible.
TYPES OF RADIATORS
Present day radiators may be classified as tubular, wall, or window
types, and are generally made of cast iron. Catalogs showing the many
designs and patterns available now include a junior size which is more
compact than the standard unit.
Pipe Coils
Pipe coils are assemblies of standard pipe or tubing (1 in. to 2 in.) which
are used as radiators. In older practice these coils were commonly used
in factory buildings, but now wall type radiators are most frequently used
for this service. When coils are used, the miter type assembly is to be
263
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
preferred as it best cares for expansion in the pipe. Cast manifolds or
headers, known as branch tees, are available for this construction.
OUTPUT OF RADIATORS
The output of a radiator can be measured only by the heat it emits.
The old standard of comparison used to be square feet of actual surface,
but since the advance in radiator design and proportions, the surface area
alone is not a true index of output. (The engineering unit of output is the
Mb or 1000 Btu.) However, during the period of transition from the old
to the new, radiators may be referred to in terms of equivalent square feet.
For steam service this is based on an emission of 240 Btu per hour per
square foot.
TABLE 1. VARIATION IN DIMENSIONS AND CATALOG RATINGS OF
10-SECTiON TUBULAR RADIATORS
No_«rfTuh««
3
4
5
6
7
Wiritfl of T^'ftt™- Tnp.hea
4.6-5.1
6.0-7.0
8.0-8.9
9.1-10.4
11.4-12 8
L$pgt)i p^f Sftfltirm ^it Inches
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5-30
HEIGHT WITH LEGS— INCHES
HEJ
LT EMISSION—
EQUIVALENT S
QUA.RE FEET
13-14
20
25 0-32 5
16-18
28.5
30 0-38 3
20-21
22-23
25-26
30-32
36-38
15.0-17.5
20.0-21.3
20.0-26.7
25.0-30.9
30.0-36.7
20.0-22.5
25
25.0-27.5
33.3-35.0
40.0-42.5
25.0-31.2
30.0-33.9
32.5-39.8
40.0-48.6
50.0-56.5
30
35
37.5-40.0
50
60
36.7-45.0
40.0-45.2
50.0-53.5
63.3-62.5
70.0-75.4
Output of Tubular Radiators
^ Table 1 illustrates the difficulty in tabulating tubular radiator outputs
since there is so much variation in design between the products of the
different manufacturers. Only on the four-tube and six-tube sizes is there
any practical agreement in output value. The heat emission values
appear as square feet but are entirely empirical, being based on the heat
emission of the radiator and not on the measured surface.
Output of Wall Radiators
An^average value of 300 Btu per actual square foot of surface area per
hour has been found for wall radiators one section high placed with their
bars vertical. Several recent tests1 show that this value will be reduced
from 5 to 10 per cent if the radiator is placed near the ceiling with the bars
horizontal and in an air temperature exceeding 70 F. When radiators
are placed near the ceiling, there is usually so noticeable a difference in
temperature between the floor level and the ceiling that it becomes dif-
ficult to heat the living zone of a room satisfactorily.
^University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 223, p. 30.
264
CHAPTER 14. RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
Output of Pipe Coils
The heat emission of pipe coils placed vertically on a wall with the
pipes horizontal is given in Table 2. This has been developed from avail-
able data and does not represent definite results of tests. For such coils
the heat emission varies as the height of the coil. The heat emission of
each pipe of ceiling coils, placed horizontally, is about 12G Btu, 156 Btu,
and 175 Btu per linear foot of pipe, respectively, for l-in.t lj^-in., and
13/2-in. coils.
TABLE 2. HEAT EMISSION OF PIPE COILS PLACED VERTICALLY ON A WALL (PIPES
HORIZONTAL) CONTAINING STEAM AT 215 F AND SURROUNDED WITH AIR AT 70 F
Btu per linear foot of coil per hour (not linear feet of pipe)
SIZE OF PIPE
I
It?.
\\i IN.
VA IN.
Single row
132
162
185
±L s
Two
252
312
348
Four „ _
440
545
616
Six.
Eight. -
567
651
702
796
793
907
Ten -
Twelve
732
812
907
1005
1020
1135
Effect of Paint
The prime coat of paint on a radiator has little effect on the heat output,
but the finishing coat of paint does influence the radiation emission. Since
this is a surface effect, there is no noticeable change in the convection loss.
Thus, the larger the proportion of direct radiating surface, the greater
will be the effect of painting on the radiation. Available tests are on old-
style column type radiators which gave results shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3. EFFECT OF PAINTING 32-iN. THREE COLUMN, SIX-SECTION
CAST-IRON RADiATORa
RADIATOR
No.
FINISH
AREA
SQFT
COEFFICIENT
or HEAT TRANS.
BTU
RELATIVE
HEATING VALUE
PER CENT
1
2
3
4
Bare iron, foundry finish
One coat of aluminum bronze...
Gray paint dipped
27
27
27
27
1.77
1.60
1.78
1.76
100.5
90.8
101.1
100.0
One coat dull black Pecora paint —
^Comparative Tests of Radiator Finishes, by \V. H. Severns (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 33,
1927, p. 41).
Effect of Superheated Steam
Available research data indicate that there is probably a decrease in
heat transfer rate for a radiator or gravity convector with superheated
steam in comparison with saturated steam at the same temperature.
The decrease is probably small for low temperatures of superheats and
additional tests are necessary with varying degrees of superheat to
establish accurate comparisons for all types of radiators and convectors2.
sTests of Radiators with Superheated Steam, by R. C. Carpenter (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 7,
1901, p. 206).
265
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HEATING EFFECT
For several years the heating effect of radiators has been considered by
engineers in order to use it for the rating of radiators and in the design of
heating systems. Heating effect is the useful output of a radiator, in the
comfort zone of a room, as related to the total input of the radiator3.
^CoW room temp m deg F
01234...
Net Ib of steam condensed per hour
5 52 Ib Test R-E2, 5-tube rad
5 62 Ib Test R-E61, 3-tube rad
5.42 Ib Test R-E10, 1-tube panel rad
— 5.50 Ib Test R-2c, (Bui 223) wall rad
5678
2 3
HEIGHT ABOVE FLOOR IN FEET
FIG. 1. ROOM TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS AND STEAM CONDENSING RATES FOR FOUR
TYPES OF CAST-IRON RADIATORS WITH A COMMON TEMPERATURE AT THE 60-lN. LEVEL
Note that the steam condensations are practically the same for all four radiators when the same air
temperature of 69 F is maintained at the 60-in. level. avr
6.68 Ib Test R-E56, 5-tube rad.
6.48 Ib Test R-E20, 3-tube rad.
6 12 Ib Test R-E58, 1-tube panel rad.
55.0 Ib Test R-2c, (Bui. 223} wall rad
7 8
HEIGHT ABOVE FLOOR IN FEET
FIG. 2. ROOM TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS AND STEAM CONDENSING RATES FOR FOUR
TYPES OF CAST-IRON RADIATORS WITH A COMMON TEMPERATURE AT THE 30-lN LEVEL
68 plsma^ai^d ^ SoSn^fel™ *" dftoBlt ^ aU *™ radiatOre when the sam< ** *»*«<**• of
The results of tests conducted at the University of Illinois are shown in
*igs. 1 and 24. For the four types of radiators shown, the following; con-
clusions are given:
« c °a»». by Dr- Charles Brabbee (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS Vol 33 1927
266
CHAPTER 14. RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
1. The heating effect of a radiator cannot be judged solely by the amount of steam
condensed within the radiator.
2. Smaller floor-to-ceiling temperature differentials can be maintained with long, low,
thin, direct radiators, than is possible with high, direct radiators.
3. The larger portion of the floor-to-ceiling temperature differential in a room of
average ceiling height heated with direct radiators occurs between the floor and the
breathing level.
4. The comfort level (approximately 2 ft-6 in. above floor) is below the breathing line
level (approximately 5 ft-0 in. above floor), and temperatures taken at the breathing
line may not be indicative of the actual heating effect of a radiator in the room. The
comfort-indicating temperature should be taken below the breathing line level.
5. High column radiators placed at the sides of window openings do not produce as
comfortable heating effects as long, low, direct radiators placed beneath window
openings5.
HEATING UP THE RADIATOR AND CONVECTOR
The maximum condensation occurs in a heating unit when the steam
is first turned on6. Fig. 3 shows a typical curve for the condensation rate
in pounds per hour for the time elapsing after steam is turned into a cast-
iron radiator. The data are from tests on old style column type radiators.
;± i u
85
Qu
t 0.8
«
oe.
UJ
** OC
1
\
/
\
i
/
\
V
\
z
0
5n,
/
\l
/
\
RATE OF CONDENSE
o c
K) 4
/
\
\
/'
f
^v
/
10 20 30
TIME ELAPSED AFTER STEAM TURNED INTO RADIATOR, MINUTES
40
FIG. 3. CHART SHOWING THE STEAM DEMAND RATE FOR HEATING UP A CAST-IRON
RADIATOR WITH FREE AIR VENTING AND AMPLE STEAM SUPPLY
In practice the rate of steam supply to the heating unit while heating up
is frequently retarded by controlled elimination of air through air valves
or traps. Automatic control valves may also retard the supply of steam.
ENCLOSED RADIATORS
The general effect of an enclosure placed about a direct radiator is to
restrict the air flow, diminish the radiation and, when properly designed,
improve the heating effect. Recent investigations7 indicate that in the
design of the enclosure three things should be considered:
'Effect of Two Types of Cast-iron Steam Radiators in Room Heating, by A. C. Willard and M. K.
Fahnestock (.Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, March, 1930, p. 185).
*The Cooling and Heating Rates of a Room with Different Types of Steam Radiators and Convectors,
by A. P. Kratz, M. K. Fahnestock and E. L. Broderick (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping
and Air Conditioning, April, 1937, p. 251).
'University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin Nos. 192 and 223, and Investigation of
Heating Rooms with Direct Steam Radiators Equipped with Enclosures and Shields, by A. C. Willard,
A. P. Kratz, M. K. Fahnestock and S. Konzo (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 77).
267
HEATING VENTIIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
1. There should be better distribution of the heat below the breathing line level to
produce greater heating comfort and lowered ceiling temperatures.
2. The lessened steam consumption may not materially change the radiator heating
performance.
3. The enclosed radiator may inadequately heat the space.
A comparison between a bare or exposed radiator (A) and the same
radiator with a well-designed enclosure (j5), with a poorly-designed
enclosure (C), and with a cloth cover (D) will illustrate the relative
heating effects. In Fig. 4 the curve (B) reveals that the enclosed radiator
used less steam than the exposed radiator, but gave a satisfactory heating
performance. A well-designed shield placed over a radiator gives about
the same heating effect. Curve (C) shows the unsatisfactory effects
produced by improperly designed enclosures. Curve (D) shows that the
TEMPERATURE IN DEG FAHR
S S 3 S
^^
A-,
^
^j
_— —
'^
8
is'
^
^''
^
?
3t
•&'
^
<
^
XX
>-
Radiator
Steam consumption
Lb per hr
Per cent
V
/
A
B
C
D
5.44
4.71
4.50
4.59
100
86.6
82.7
84.4
2468
HEIGHT ABOVE FLOOR fN FEET
10
FIG. 4. STEAM CONSUMPTION OF EXPOSED AND CONCEALED RADIATORS
effect of a cloth cover extending downward 6 in. from the top of the
radiator was to make the performance unsatisfactory and inadequate.
Practically all commercial enclosures and shields for use on direct
radiators are equipped with water pans for the purpose of adding moisture
to the air in the room. Tests8 show that an average evaporative rate of
about 0.235 Ib per square foot of water surface per hour may be obtained
from such pans, when the radiator is steam hot and the relative humidity
in the room is between 25 and 40 per cent. This source of supply of
moisture alone is not adequate to maintain a relative humidity above
25 per cent on a zero day.
CONVECTORS OR CONCEALED HEATERS
Although any standard radiator may be concealed in a cabinet or
other enclosure so that the greater percentage of heat is conveyed to the
•University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 230, p. 20.
268
CHAPTER 14. RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
room by convection thereby resulting in a form of gravity con vector,
generally better results are obtained with specially designed units which
permit a free circulation of a larger volume of air at moderate tempera-
tures. Since air stratifies according to temperature, moderate delivery
temperatures at the outlet of the enclosure reduce the temperature dif-
ferential between the floor and ceiling and accordingly accomplish the
desired heating effect in the living zone.
Fig. 5 shows a typical built-in convectpr. The heating element con-
sisting of a large percentage of fin surface is usually shallow in depth and
SECTION
FIG. 5. TYPICAL CONCEALED CONVECTOR USING SPECIALLY DESIGNED HEATING UNIT
placed low in the enclosure in order to produce maximum chimney effect
in the enclosure. The air enters the enclosure near the floor line just
below the heating element, is moderately heated in passing through the
core and delivered to the room through an opening near the top of en-
closure. Since the air can only enter the enclosure at the floor line, the
cooler air in the room which always lies at this level, is constantly being
withdrawn and replaced by the warmer air. This air movement accom-
plishes the desired reduction in temperature differentials and assures
maximum comfort in the living zone.
The Convector Manufacturers Association has adopted the A.S.H.V.E.
Standard9 in the formulation of its ratings and has compiled a tentative
•A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing and Rating Concealed Gravity Type Radiation (Steam),
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37. 1931. p. 367); (Hot Water). (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 3<),
1933, p. 237).
269
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
standard of heating effect allowances for various enclosure heights to be
included in the ratings by its members.
All published ratings bearing the title C.M.C. Ratings (Convector Manu-
facturers Certified Ratings) indicate that the convectors have been tested
in accordance with the A.S.H.V.E. Code by an impartial and disinterested
laboratory and that the ratings have been approved by the Standardiza-
tion Committee of the Convector Manufacturers Association.
Concealed heaters or cpnvectors are generally sold as completely
built-in units. The enclosing cabinet should be designed with suitable
air inlet and outlet grilles to give the heating element its best performance.
Tables of capacities are catalogued for various lengths, depths and heights,
and combinations are available in several styles for installations, such as
the wall-hung type, free-standing floor type, recess type set flush with wall
or offset, and the completely concealed type. Most of these types may be
arranged with a top outlet grille in a plane parallel with the floor, although
the front outlet is practically standard. In cases where enclosures are to
be used but are not furnished by the heater manufacturer, it is important
that the proportions of the cabinet and the grilles be so designed that they
will not impair the performance of the assembled convector. It is impor-
tant that the enclosure or housing for the convector fit as snugly as pos-
sible so that the air to be heated must pass through the convector and
cannot be by-passed in the enclosure.
The output of a convector, for any given length and depth, is a variable
of the height. Published ratings are generally given in terms of equiva-
lent square feet, corrected for heating effect. However, an extended
surface heating unit is entirely different structurally and physically from
a direct radiator and, since it has no area measurement corresponding to
the heating surface of a radiator, many engineers believe that the per-
formance of convectors should be stated in Btu's. For steam convectors,
as for radiators, 240 Btu per hour may be taken as an equivalent square
foot of radiation.
RADIATOR AND CONVECTOH SELECTION
Since the capacity of a radiator varies as the 1.3 power and a convector10
as the 1.5 power of the temperature difference between the inside of
radiator and surrounding air it is obvious that for other than 70 F room
temperatures the heat emission will be other than 240 Btu per square foot
of rating. Therefore in selecting the size of radiator or convector to be
used it is necessary to correct for this difference. Table 4 shows factors by
which radiation requirements, as determined by dividing heat load by
240, shall be multiplied to obtain proper radiator or convector sizes from
published rating tables for room temperatures ranging between 50 and
80 F as well as for steam or water temperatures from 150 to 300 F. For
other room and heating medium temperatures the factor is determined by
the following formulae:
For radiators:
Cs - /215 ~ 70V'3
"Factors Affecting the Heat Output of Convectors, by A. P. Kratz, M. K. Fahnestock, and E. L. Brod-
erick (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 443).
270
CHAPTER 14. RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
For con vectors:
where
Cs = correction factor.
/a — steam temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
tT — room temperature, degrees Fahrenheit,
/i = average inlet air temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
TABLE 4. CORRECTION FACTORS FOR DIRECT CAST-IRON RADIATORS AN*I>
Cox VECTOR HEATERS*
STEAM ., FACTORS FOR DIRECT „
PRESS. , bTEAM CAST-IRON RADIATOR FACTORS FOR ( UVVLIT JKS
AFFHOi. . YVxTEH ' R *P P ' T ,. 4 . ! T^..^^^..^. -^« t'
fiagp ' Ahh. TEMP.
Vacuum Lb p<-r ' F '
In. Hg ! Sqlri. j
80 , 75 70 65
60
55 , 50 80 75
70 , 65 GO
J3
5U
22A , 3.7 | 150
2.58 2.36 , 2.17 2.00
1.86
1.73 ] 1.62 ; 3.11 2.83
2.57 2.35
2.15
1.98
1.8*
20.3 4.7 ! 160
2.17
2.00 | 1.86
1.73
1.62
1.52 1.44 I! 2.57
2.35
2.15 1.98
1.84
1.71
1.59
17.7 , 6.0 j 170
1.86
1.73
1.62
1.52
1.44
L35 i 1.28 ;{ 2.15
1.98
1.84 i 1.71
1.59
1.49
1.40
14.6 7.5 . 180
1.62 ' 1.52 1.44
1.35
1.28
1.21 1.15 | 1.84
1.71
1.59 i 1.49
1.40
1.32
1.24
10.9 9.3 ! 190
1.44 1.35 , 1.28
1.21
1.15
1.10
1.05 i. 1.59
1.49
1.40 i 1.32
1.24
117
1.11
6.5 ! 11.5 | 200
1.28
1.21
1.15 ; 1.10
1.05
1.00
0.96 i 1.40
1.32
1.24 ; 1.17
1.11
1.05
1.00
LbperSqln.' I
• :i
!
1 • 15.6 i 215 1.10 ! 1.05 i 1 00
0.96
0.92 ' 0.88
O.S5 I- 1.17 1.11
1.05 i 1.00
095
0.91
087
6 '21 1 230 ! 0.96
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81 0.78
0.76 j 1.00 0.95
0.91 | 0.87
0.83
0.79
0.76
15 , 30 250 j 0.81
0.78
0.76 0.73
0.70
0.68
0.66 'I 0.83
0.79
0.76 , 0.73 ; 0 70
0.68
005
27 : 42 i 270 0 70
068
0.66 0.64
0.62
0.60
0.58 ;| 0.70
0.68
0.65 I 0.63 j 0.60
0.58
0.56
52 i 67 ! 300 1 0.58
0.57
0.55
0.53
0.52
0.51
0.49:i 0.56 0.54
0.53 i 0.51 ! 0.49 j 0.4*
0.47
»To determine the heater size for a given space, divide the heat loss in Btu per hour by 240 and multiply
the result by the proper factor from the above table.
To determine the heating capacity of a heater at other than standard conditions, divide the heating
capacity at standard conditions by the proper factor from the above table.
CODE TEST FOR RADIATORS AND CONVECTORS
As previously indicated, the output of radiators and convectors is still
designated by the terms of older practice, but this is gradually giving place
to an engineering method of designating heat emission. The A.S.H.V.E.
has adopted the following standards : Code for Testing Radiators (1927) ;
Codes for Testing and Rating Concealed Gravity Type Radiation (Steam,
1932, and Hot Water, 1933).
For steam services the actual condensation weight is taken without any
allowance for heating effect ; for hot water services the weight of circulated
water is used without allowance for heating effect* In all cases the total
heat transmission varies as the 1.3 power for radiators11 and the 1.5
power for convectors12 of the temperature difference between that inside
the radiator and the air in the room, and is expressed in Btu or Mb
per hour.
Standard test conditions specify either a steam pressure of 1 Ib gage
(215 F), or hot water at 170 F and a room temperature of 70 F for radi-
ators, or an inlet air temperature of 65 F for convectors. The heating
capacity of a steam radiator or steam converter is determined as follows:
f/t = WJitt W
"Loc. Cit. Note 9.
»Loc. Cit. Notes 9 and 10.
271
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
where
Ht = Btu per hour under test conditions.
Ws ~ condensation in pounds per hour,
//fg = latent heat in Btu per pound.
Ht may be converted to standard conditions of code ratings by using
the proper correction factor from the following formulae :
For radiators:
r - (21* - 70V-3 - ( — 1M__V'3 t*\
L* ~ \Ta-TrJ ~ \TS - TT ) W
For con vectors:
Cs . (™=£)" = (T^)" 0)
The output under standard conditions will be:
Ha * Cs Ht W
where
Cs = correction factor.
rs = steam temperature during test, degrees Fahrenheit.
TT = room temperature during test, degrees Fahrenheit.
T{ = inlet air temperature during test, degrees Fahrenheit.
Hs = heat emission rating under standard conditions, Btu per hour.
Similarly, for hot water converters, the output under test conditions may
be determined as follows:
H = w (B! - 02) ^p (5)
where
H = Btu per hour under test conditions.
W = pounds of water handled during test.
81 — average temperature of inlet water, degrees Fahrenheit.
82 = average temperature of outlet water, degrees Fahrenheit.
t - duration of test, seconds.
To convert test results to standard conditions, the following correction
factor is used:
170-65 \i-« / 105
(6)
•* 1
It has been shown that when the exponent 1.5 is used the range of error
is less than 3 per cent13 for convectors.
GRAVITY-INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS14
The heating units for this system are usually of the extended surface
type for steam or hot water, and are installed about as shown in Fig. 6.
The temperature and volume of the air leaving the register must be great
1!Loc. Cit. Note 10.
"For further information on this subject see A.S.H.V.E. Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating
and Ventilation of Buildings (edition of 1929) and Mechanical Equipment of Buildings, by Harding and
Willard. Vol. 1, second edition, 1929.
272
CHAPTER 14. RADIATORS AND GRAVITY CONVECTORS
enough so that in cooling to room temperature the heat available will jus
equal the heat loss during the same time. In cases where ventilation is <
requirement, the air volume needed may become so large that the enterini
air temperature will be but slightly above the room temperature. T<
establish and maintain a constant heat flow, provision must be made fo
removing the air in the room, after it has cooled to the desired room tern
perature, by a system of vent flues or ducts. As the air flow is maintainec
Supports'hung from joist or floor above
Felt Strips
at Edge"
Recircutatmg Duct-
FIG. 6. GRAVITY-INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEM*
•See Mechanical Equipment of Buildings, by Harding and Willard, Vol. I, second edition, 1929.
by natural draft and this gravity head is very slight, it is necessary to
make all ducts as short as possible, especially the runs from the heating
units to the base of the vertical warm air flues. Gravity-indirect arrange-
ments, such as illustrated in Fig. 6, are not to be generally recommended
for hot water systems unless the water temperature can be maintained at
a reasonably high temperature and rapid circulation of the water can be
had.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
*he effect on the heat output of a wall radiator when installed on
the ceiling of a room?
Because the temperature differential is increased between the floor level and the ceiling
when a wall radiator is placed near the ceiling, the heat output may be decreased from
5 to 10 per cent. Under such circumstances it becomes difficult to heat the living zone
of a room satisfactorily. s
273
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
2 • What are the principal differences between a radiator and a convector?
A radiator is commonly thought of as a commercial heating unit having a maximum
amount of direct heating surface, whereas a convector is a heating device in which the
extended or secondary surface may be several times that of the prime surface and which
is specially designed to utilize to the fullest extent the convection principal of heating.
The radiator ordinarily has vertical tubular chambers for the heating medium but most
converters have horizontal tubular chambers to which fins are attached so as to form
vertical flues for the passage of air. While radiators are either exposed, enclosed, or
shielded, convectors are concealed by means of a tight-fitting enclosure. Radiators are
commonly made of cast iron but convectors may be made of a combination of metals,
such as copper and brass, or copper and aluminum, as well as entirely of cast iron.
3 • How did the term heating effect come into use?
It has been found that a room requiring a radiator of a certain determined capacity
could under certain conditions be properly heated, with less temperature gradient be-
tween^ floor and ceiling and with less steam condensation, by the same radiator or by one
of a different design having the same commercially rated capacity. This resulted in the
use of the term heating effect to apply to the useful heat output of a radiator, in the com-
fort zone of a room, as related to the total input to the radiator.
4 • Is it necessary to make any allowance for the performance of a convector
because it is enclosed?
No. The commercial ratings of convectors have been determined by testing the con-
vectors in proper enclosures with grilles in place just as they should be installed for
ordinary service.
5 • On what basis are the capacities of convectors published?
Published ratings of convectors are expressed in equivalent square feet of direct cast
iron radiation. Some manufacturers have increased their ratings by as much as 30 per
cent to allow for a supposed improved heating effect. Tests indicate that the credit to
be given heating effect is, in all cases, probably less than 10 per cent, and in many cases
negligible.
6 • How are fins of convectors attached to the tubes or prime surface?
Tubes or a solid core may be forced through piercings in the fins under pressure or the
tubes may be expanded into the holes through the fins. In addition a metallic bonding
agent is sometimes used to insure permanent contact.
7 • What is the procedure in selecting a convector when the required amount
of radiation is known?
First the limiting factor or factors of the enclosure must be determined so the available
size of the wall recess can be found. Manufacturers' catalogs show capacities of con-
vectors of each standard length and depth with varying enclosure heights. From these
capacity tables, the proper convector of the required capacity can be selected for the
available wall recess. If all three dimensions of the wall recess are insufficient to accom-
modate a convector of the required capacity, the available height and length can be
maintained, but greater depth can be obtained by using a partially recessed enclosure.
8 • Given a room to be heated to 80 F with outside temperature at 0 F,
assume the heat loss under these conditions to be 10,000 Btu per hour. Deter-
mine the size of the steam radiator to be installed.
A square foot of radiation is equivalent to a heat emission of 240 Btu per hour under
Sta2^d conditions of steam at one pound gage pressure (215 F) and surrounding air
at 70 F. With surrounding air at 80 F, the heat emission from a radiator will be less.
Under these conditions, the heat emission will not be 240 Btu per square foot of catalog
rating per Jiour, but 240 Cs.
- (
" V
~ ft V'* - /^215 - SON1-3 n™«
215 - 70} ~ V215 - 70 J " °'912'
and 240 C8 - 240 X 0.912 - 218.5 Btu. Therefore, the size of the radiator to be
selected shall have a catalog rating of 10,000 divided by 218.5 or 45.8 sq ft.
274
Chapter 15
STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
Gravity and Mechanical Return, Gravity One-Pipe Air- Vent
System, Gravity Two-Pipe Air- Vent System, One-Pipe Vapor
System, Two-Pipe Vapor System, Atmospheric System,
Vacuum System, Sub-Atmospheric System, Orifice System,
Zone Control, Auxiliary Conditioning Unit, Condensation
Return Pumps, Vacuum Pumps, Traps
THE essential features of the common type of steam heating systems
are described in this chapter. They may be classified according to the
piping arrangement, the accessories used, the method of returning the con-
densate to the boiler, the method of expelling air from the system, or the
type of control employed. Information concerning the design and layout
of steam heating systems will be found in Chapter 16.
GRAVITY AND MECHANICAL RETURN
In gravity systems the condensate is returned to the boiler by gravity
due to the static head of water in the return mains. The elevation of the
boiler water line must consequently be sufficiently below the lowest
heating units and steam main and dry return mains to permit the return
of condensate by gravity. The water line difference1 must be sufficient to
overcome the maximum pressure drop in the system and, when radiator
and drip traps are used as in two-pipe vapor systems, the operating
pressure of the boiler. The condensing return of the radiation will
increase the required water line difference and is especially important
where the radiation is a type having a high condensing rate. This applies
only to closed circuit systems, where the condensation is returned to the
boiler. If the condensation is wasted, no water line difference is required,
but other conditions are introduced which warrant the use of an appro-
priate mechanical system in preference to wasting the condensate.
In mechanical systems the condensate flows to a receiver and is then
forced into the boiler against the boiler pressure. The lowest parts of the
supply side of the system must be kept sufficiently above the water line
of the receiver to insure adequate drainage of water from the system, but
the relative elevation of the boiler water line is unimportant in such cases
JThe icatcr line difference is the distance between the water line of the boiler and the level of the water
in the dry or wet return main. (See Fig. 4.)
275
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
except that the head on the pump or trap discharge becomes greater as
the height of the boiler water line above the trap or pump increases.
There are three general types of mechanical returns in common use,
namely, (1) the mechanical return trap, (2) the condensation return
pump, and (3) the vacuum return pump. Further information on pumps
and traps will be presented later in this chapter.
GRAVITY ONEPIPE AIR-VENT SYSTEM
In the gravity one-pipe air- vent system each radiator has but a single
connection through which steam must enter and condensation must
return in the opposite direction. Each radiator has an individual air
valve.
Up-Feed Gravity One-Pipe Air-Vent System
This system is the most common of all methods of steam heating,
especially for small size installations, due largely to its low cost of instal-
Air valve
Hartford
return — • -
connection
Riser dripped
Boiler water line^
Wet return^
FIG. 1. TYPICAL UP-FEED GRAVITY ONE-PIPE AIR- VENT SYSTEM
lation and its simplicity. Where the size of the system is moderate or
largest cannot be assumed that these systems will be lower in cost than
two-pipe systems using steam traps. In some instances it has been found
that the cost of one-pipe systems under these conditions is greater owing
to the higher cost of labor and materials due to the larger pipe sizes. As
will be seen from Fig. 1, the steam piping rises to a point as high as possible
at the boiler and pitches downward from this location until the far end of
the main or mains is reached. At the far ends drips are taken off at the
low points of the steam mains, are water-sealed below the boiler water
line, and then brought back to the boiler in a wet return. Single pipe risers
276
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
are branched off the main or mains to feed the radiators, the steam passing
up the riser and the condensation flowing down it. The steam and con-
densation flow in opposite directions in the riser but after the condensa-
tion enters the steam main it flows in the same direction as the steam and
is disposed of through the drip connection at the end of the main. In
buildings of several stories, it is customary to drip the heel of each riser
separately, whereas in one- or two-story buildings this is not necessary.
Both types of branches and risers are shown in Fig. 1.
Rapid elimination of air and condensation from the steam piping is
essential to the successful operation of this system. It is therefore
desirable that the venting and dripping of the steam main in long runs be
made at several intermediate points where the steam main may again be
brought to a higher elevation.
It is desirable to install the air-vent valves on the steam main about a
foot ahead of the drips, as is indicated in Fig. 1 to prevent possible damage
to the mechanism of the air- vent valve by water, in case the valves are
installed directly above the drips.
Horizontal branches to radiators and risers should be pitched at least
J^ in. in 10 ft downward toward the riser or vertical pipe, and the hori-
Up to radiator or riser-
- Pitch
Steam main
— 5 ft approximately
FIG. 2. TYPICAL STEAM RUNOUT WHERE FIG. 3. TYPICAL STEAM RUNOUT WHERE
RISERS ARE NOT DRIPPED RISERS ARE DRIPPED
zontal branches from the steam main should be graded at least this
amount toward the main, except where the heel of the riser is dripped, in
which case the branch should pitch down toward the riser drip (Figs. 2
and 3). The return line, if wet, may be run without pitch or may be
pitched in either direction, but if it is necessary to carry the return main
overhead for any distance before dropping, the return should slope down-
ward with the flow. It is desirable to install the wet return pipe with a
pitch so that the system may be drained to prevent freezing in case the
building remains unoccupied for a considerable length of time.
The radiator valves may be of the angle-globe or gate type. They
should not be of the straight-globe type because the damming effect of the
raised valve seat interferes with the flow of condensation through the
valve. Graduated valves cannot be used, as the steam valves on this
system must be fully open or closed to prevent the radiators filling with
water. Air valves may be manual or automatic, with or without a check
to prevent the re-entrance of expelled air. Usually the automatic type is
installed. An objection to one-pipe steam systems is that the heat is all
on or all off, with no intermediate position possible. However, intelligent
277
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
use of the on-and-off method of manual control gives reasonably satis-
factory results. Improved systems and devices are now available which
make it possible to obtain a modulating effect from one-pipe gravitv
heating systems. J
It is important that the lowest points of the steam mains and heating
units be kept sufficiently above the water line of the boiler to prevent
Boiler steam pressure
u-x-ii;
Steam pressure at
end of main
Return water
/Floor
FIG. 4. DIFFERENCE IN STEAM PRESSURE
ON WATER IN BOILER AND AT END
OF STEAM MAIN
Supply riser-
^
Supply main
^Drop riser
Air valve
Hartford
return
connection
Mr valve
Air vent
"Air valve
return
FIG. 5. TYPICAL DOWN-FEED GRAVITY ONE-PIPE AIR- VENT SYSTEM
18in- is suffident tat construction limitations foe-
278
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
.usually about 3 in. unless the pipes are small or full of sediment , and it will rise still
farther it a check valve is installed in the return so as to obtain sufficient head to lift the
tongue of the check (usually 4 in. will be necessary /.
If a one-pipe steam system is designed, for example, for a total pressure drop of l/$ Ib,
and utilizes an Undenmters' Loop* instead of a check valve on the return, the rise in the
water level at the far end of the return due to the difference in steam pressure would be
Ys of 28 in., or 3H in. Adding 3 in. to this for the flow through the return main and 6 in.
as a factor of safety gives 12J^ in. as the distance the bottom of the lowest part of the
steam main and all heating units must be above the boiler water line. The same system
however, installed and sized for a total pressure drop of J/£ Ib, and with a check in the
return, would require 1A of 2S in., or 14 in., for the difference in steam pressure, 3 in. for
the flow through the return, 4 in. to operate the check, and 6 in. for a factor of safety,
making a total of 27 in. as the required distance. Higher pressure drops would increase
the distance accordingly.
Down-Feed Gravity One-Pipe Air-Vent System
In the overhead down-feed gravity one-pipe air- vent system there is no
change over the up-feed system in the radiators, the radiator valves, the
air valves, or the radiator runouts as far back as the risers. Beyond this
Pitch
Steam drop to radiators — | ^ Steam drop to radiators
FIG. 6. STEAM RUNOUTS DRIPPING MAIN FIG. 7. STEAM RUNOUTS WITH MAIN
DRIPPED AT END ONLY
* point there are basic differences. The steam is taken from the boiler and
carried to the top of the building as near the boiler as possible (Fig. 5).
If the run to the main riser is long, or if the riser extends several stories in
order to reach the top, the bottom of the riser should be dripped into the
wet return. The horizontal main is taken off the top of the riser and
grades down from the riser toward all of the drops, each drop taking its
share of the main condensation (Fig. 6), or all of the drops except the last
may be taken from the top of the main (Fig. 7), the last drop being from
the bottom and serving as a drain for the entire main. As the overhead
main does not carry any condensation from the radiators it is immaterial
which method is used. The air vent shown on the main just before the
last drop (Fig. 5) may be placed at this point or it may be located at the
bottom of the drop under the last radiator connection and sufficiently
above the water line of the boiler to prevent flooding.
GRAVITY TWO-PIPE AIR-VENT SYSTEM
The gravity two-pipe system is now considered obsolete although many
of these systems are still in use in older buildings. Separate supply and
return mains and connections are required for each heating unit; air
valves are installed on the heating units and mains; hand valves are
installed on the returns.
*See discussion of piping details in Chapter 16.
279
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Up-Feed Gravity Two-Pipe System
This system (Fig. 8) has a steam and a return connection to each
radiator. The radiator valves for steam, return, and air are the same as
those described for the gravity one-pipe air-vent system. The steam
main is run and pitched in the same manner as in the one-pipe system,
but the returns from each radiator are connected into a separate return
line system which has its risers carried down and joined to a wet return
line under the boiler water line level. Where the return has to be kept
high to function as a dry return, it is advisable to connect the return
risers to the dry return main through water seals about 36 in. deep, as
Air valve
Hartford
return
connection
£ Wet return
FIG. 8. TYPICAL UP-FEED GRAVITY Two- PIPE AIR- VENT SYSTEM
shown in Fig. 9, to prevent steam from one riser entering another and
closing the air valves on the nearest radiators.
Down-Feed Gravity Two-Pipe System
The steam main in the down-feed system is carried to the top of the
building, and the piping of the steam side is arranged practically as in the
down-feed one-pipe gravity system. The drips at the bottoms of the
steam drops and the runouts to the radiators are similar to those shown
in Fig. 8 for the up-feed ^gravity two-pipe system. On the return side of
the system, the piping is arranged in exactly the same manner as the
up-feed gravity two-pipe system.
ONE-PIPE VAPOR SYSTEM
A vapor system is one which operates under pressures at or near
atmospheric and which returns the condensation to the boiler by gravity.
The piping arrangement of a one-pipe vapor system is similar to that of
280
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
the gravity one-pipe steam system; in fact, one-pipe gravity installations
may readily be changed to one-pipe vapor systems by making a few
simple alterations. The steam radiator valve is a plug cock which when
opened gives a free and unobstructed passageway for water. The auto-
matic air valve is of special design to permit the ready release of air from
the radiator and to prevent the return of the air after it is expelled. The
air valves on the main are a quick relief type, and the whole system is
designed to operate on a few ounces of pressure.
TWO-PIPE VAPOR SYSTEM
Two-pipe vapor systems may be classified as (1) dosed systems con-
sisting of those which have a device to prevent the return of air after it is
once expelled from the system, and which can operate at sub-atmospheric
pressures for a period of four to eight hours depending upon the tightness
of the system and rate of firing, and (2) open systems consisting of those
FIG. 9. METHOD OF CONNECTING TWO-PIPE
GRAVITY RETURNS TO DRY RETURN MAIN
which have the return line constantly open to the atmosphere without a
check or- other device to prevent the return of air, and which operate at a
few ounces above atmospheric pressure. The open systems have the
disadvantage of not holding heat when the rate of steam generation is
diminishing.
Under the first classification the essentials are packless graduated
valves on the^ radiators, thermostatic return traps on the returns, and
traps on all drips unless they are water sealed. Such a system, illustrated
in Fig. 10, should be equipped with an automatic return trap to prevent
the water from backing out of the boiler. In this up-feed arrangement
the supply piping is carried to a high point directly at the boiler and is
graded down toward the end or ends of the supply main, each supply
main being dripped at the end into the wet return or carried back to a
point near the boiler where it drops down below the boiler water line and
becomes a wet return. From this main, runouts are branched off to feed
risers or radiators above, these being graded back toward the steam main
if they are not dripped at the bottom of the riser, or toward the riser if
the riser heel is dripped. Both conditions are illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3.
Return risers are connected to each radiator on its return end through
281
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
thermostatic traps. Their bottoms are connected to the return main
through runouts which slope toward the main. The return main itself is
sloped back toward the boiler if it is carried overhead; if run wet, the
slope may be neglected, although it is desirably to slope the pipe so that
the system may be drained. An air vent is installed at the point at
which the return main drops below the water line. In the simplest cases
this vent consists of a %-in. pipe with a check valve opening outward, but
certain systems employ special patented forms of vent valves^ designed
to allow the air readily to pass out of the system and to prevent its ^ return.
A check valve is inserted in the return main at a point near the boiler and
a vertical pipe is run up into the bottom of the return trap, which usually
is located with the bottom about 18 in. above the boiler water line. Some
traps are constructed so that they will operate when they are installed
TrapN
Trap.
Supply main
rap
Hartford
return
connection
ir eliminating and
pressure equalizing .
device-See note below* |
Boiler water line--'3' '
Wet return^
FIG. 10. TYPICAL UP-FEED VAPOR SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC RETURN TRAP*
"Proper piping connections are essential with special appliances for pressure equalizing and air elimination.
with their bottom as close as 8 in. above the boiler water line. On the
other side of this connection a second check valve is installed in the main
return just before it enters the boiler (Fig. 11).
Down-Feed Two-Pipe Vapor System
In the down-feed two-pipe vapor system the steam is carried to the top
of the building, the top of the vertical riser constituting the high point of
the system, and the horizontal supply main is sloped down from this
location to the far ends of each branch. The branches are taken off the
main from the bottom or at a 45-deg angle downward, with the runouts
sloped toward the drops (Fig. 6). Thus each branch from the main forms
a drip and no accumulation of water is carried down any one drop.
Another method of running the steam main, which is not considered as
satisfactory but which is practical, is to take the branches off the top of
282
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
the main (Fig. 7) and to drip the end of the main through the last riser, as
illustrated in the down-feed one-pipe system detail shown in Fig. 6. If
this is done, the pipe drop at the end or ends of the mains should be
enlarged one pipe size to provide capacity for this concentration of the
main drip.
The steam drops are carried down through the building with suitable
reductions as the various radiator connections are taken off until the
lowest radiator runout is reached. If the drop is only two or three stories
high, the portion feeding the bottom radiator should be increased one
pipe size to provide for draining the riser, and if the drop is over three
stories high it is well to increase the portion feeding the two lowest radi-
ators one or two pipe sizes, especially if the two lowest radiators are small
Air vent and check
Check
nt=
From steam main
Boiler water
line
FIG. 11. TYPICAL CONNECTIONS FOR AUTOMATIC RETURN TRAP
and the normal size of drop required is 1 in. or less. The bottom of the
steam drops should terminate with a dirt pocket above which a drip trap
connection is located, as shown in Fig. 12. The returns on a down-feed
vapor system are the same as on an up-feed system except that every
steam drop must have a drip at the bottom connected either into the
return through a trap or into a separate water-sealed drip line below the
boiler water line, as illustrated in Fig. 10, in which case the thermostatic
traps may be omitted. The runouts to the radiators and the radiator
connections of the down-feed system are the same as those of the up-feed
system already described.
ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM
The distinguishing features of the atmospheric system are gravity
283
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
return to the boiler or to waste, graduated or ordinary radiator valves, no
automatic air valves on the radiators, thermostatic traps on the radiator
returns, and the venting of all air from the system by means of pipes open
to the atmosphere. The returns are open to the atmosphere at all times,
usually by extending the return risers to the top of the building where
they are either connected together in groups and carried through the roof
or extended through the roof individually. Atmospheric systems, either
up-feed or down-feed, are often used where the condensation is not
returned to the boiler, as in heating systems supplied by high pressure
steam through pressure-reducing valves at locations far from the boilers.
The returns may be delivered back to the boiler, if desired, by condensa-
tion return pumps which are vented to the atmosphere. The return lines
in such systems are simply gravity waste lines in which the condensation
flows entirely by gravity and is not aided by any pressure difference
Bottom of
steam drop
Drip trap
Dirt pocke
Graduated valve
xFloor /
V//////////S
-Connected to dry return
(where connected to wet
return, drip trap may
be omitted)
FIG. 12. DETAIL OF DRIP CONNECTIONS AT BOTTOM OF DOWN-FEED STEAM DROP
Atmospheric systems contemplate maintaining a practically constant
pressure in the steam pipe and atmospheric pressure in the return pipe.
When graduated steam valves are provided, they enable the occupant of
a room to vary the flow area to the radiator so as to obtain a greater or
lesser heating effect.
The steam side may be run as that for either up-feed or down-feed
two-pipe vapor systems, as the conditions require, and the radiator con-
nections are the same as for vapor systems in that they have graduated
valves on the radiator supply ends and thermostatic traps on the radiator
return ends. All drips from the supply main and the steam side of the
system must pass through thermostatic drip traps before entering the
return system where only atmospheric pressure exists. Fig. 13 illustrates
a typical scheme of piping used on atmospheric systems. Such systems
do not maintain heat in the radiators under declining fires. As the
steam supply diminishes, air from the atmosphere re-enters through the
open vent pipe retarding the inflow of steam and cooling the radiator.
284
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
VACUUM SYSTEM
In ^the vacuum system, a vacuum is maintained in the return line
practically at all times but no vacuum is carried on the steam side, and the
usual accessories include graduated valves on the radiator supply and
thermostatic traps on the radiator return. The air is expelled from the
system by a vacuum pump and all drips must pass through thermostatic
traps before connecting to the return side of the system.
These systems are often fed from high pressure steam mains through
pressure-reducing valves but they may be fed direct from a low-pressure
steam heating boiler as shown in Fig. 14, in which a typical up-feed
vacuum system is illustrated. The supply main slopes down in the
direction of flow; the runouts pitch down toward the riser if the riser is
dripped (Fig. 3) or up toward the riser if the riser is not dripped (Fig. 2) ;
both conditions are indicated in Fig. 14. The matter of dripping the
risers depends largely on the height of the riser and the judgment of the
designer. Ordinarily risers less than three stories high are not dripped
and those more than four stories high are dripped, but there is no set rule
for this. When risers are dripped the runouts from the steam main may
be taken from the bottom if desired and each runout then serves as a drip
for the main.
The risers are carried up to the highest radiator connection and are
connected to the radiator through runouts sloping back toward the riser.
The radiators usually have graduated valves on the supply end, although
this is not absolutely necessary. Angle-globe valves and gate valves may
be used where graduated manual control is not desirable. The return
valves must be of the thermostatic type which will pass air and water but
which will close against the passage of steam.
_ The return risers are connected in the basement into a common return
line, which slopes downward toward the vacuum pump. The vacuum
pump discharges the air from the system and pumps the water back to the
boiler, or other receiver, which may be a feed-water tank or a hot well.
It is essential on these systems that no connection from the supply side
to the return side be made at any point except through a trap.
While the best practice demands a return flowing to the vacuum pump
in an uninterrupted downward slope, in some cases limitations make it
necessary to drop the return below the level of the vacuum pump inlet
before the pump can be reached. In such event one of the advantages of
the vacuum system is that the return can be raised by the suction of the
vacuum pump to a considerable height, depending on the amount of
vacuum maintained, by means of a lift fitting inserted in the return.
Best practice dictates that the lift should be limited to a single lift con-
nection at the entrance to the vacuum pump and preferably that an
accumulator tank or receiver with float control be used at the low point
of the return main at the entrance to the vacuum pump. When the lift
is considerable, several lift fittings should be used in steps (Fig. 15),
more successful operation being obtained by this method than when the
lift is made in one step. If the lift occurs close to the vacuum pump, a
special arrangement is used as shown in Fig. 16. It is desirable that
means be provided for draining manually the low point of the lift fittings
to eliminate from the return piping all water in danger of freezing in case
285
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Supply
main.
HartforcU
return
connection
J
eliminating and pressure
equalizing device
See note below*
^Boilen
water line
3==^ ^' ^xWet return
FIG. 13. TYPICAL ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM WITH AUTOMATIC RETURN TRAP*
aProper piping connections are essential with special appliances for pressure equalizing and air eliminatior
Hartford _|
return
connection
^Uft fitting
JTrap_
Check valve "Bypa'ss'to open drain
FIG. 14. TYPICAL UP-FEED VACUUM PUMP SYSTEM
286
CHAPTER IS. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
the system is shut down for a considerable length of time. Lifts for
draining condensate from ends of or rises in steam mains should be
avoided to secure the greatest economy of operation and noiselessness.
Down-Feed Vacuum System
The piping arrangement for the down-feed vacuum system is similar
on the supply side to the down-feed vapor system in that it has similar
runouts, radiator valves, drips on the bottom of the steam drops, and
enlargement of the drops for the lower radiator connections. The return
side of the system is exactly the same as the up-feed system except that
CU3SE NIPPLE
9QTEL&CW
UFTRTnNQ
MfSCUUM QETUQN
(JFTFirnMG
--VACUUM QETUQN
/UFT FITTING
FIG. 15. METHOD OF MAKING LIFTS
ON VACUUM SYSTEMS WHEN DISTANCE
is OVER 5 FT
FIG. 16. DETAIL OF MAIN RETURN
LIFT AT VACUUM PUMP
BEOUCING
FIG. 17. METHOD OF CHANGING SIZE OF STEAM MAIN WHEN RUNOUTS
ARE TAKEN FROM TOP
the steam riser drips at the bottom are connected into the return line
through thermostatic traps. It is preferable to take the runouts for the
risers from the bottom or at a 45-deg angle down from the steam main
(Fig. 6) so that they may serve as steam main drips. When this is done
it is practical to run the steam main level if a runout is located at every
change in pipe size, or if eccentric fittings are used (Fig. 17). A slight
pitch in the steam main, however, should be used when possible. An
overhead vacuum down-feed system is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 18.
SUB-ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS
Sub-atmospheric systems are similar to vacuum systems, but in con-
trast provide temperature control by variation of the heat output from
the radiators both by varying the pressure at which steam is circulated in
the radiation and the amount of steam. The steam supply is continuous
at varying rates. A vacuum pump capable of operating at high partial
287
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
vacua is preferable since the higher the vacuum the greater is the accuracy
in the distribution of steam through the system, particularly in mild
weather. A pump capable of producing up to 25 in. of vacuum on the
system is used in such cases. A controller is placed on the pump so that
the vacuum or absolute pressure carried in the returns can be maintained
at a certain amount below that existing in the line to insure circulation.
The traps are designed to operate in high vacuum. It is apparent that
this system differs from the ordinary vacuum system by haying a vacuum
on both sides of the system, instead of only on the return side, in order to
secure control of the heat emission from the radiators and thus to control
Trap
Pitch
Drip trap
Trap
^Floor
4
*
Hartford
return
connection
icuum pump,
FIG. 18. TYPICAL DOWN-FEED VACUUM SYSTEM
the temperature in the building. These systems permit the heat output
from the steam mains and risers to be diminished as the weather becomes
milder, thus giving control to this portion of a heating system. The
decrease in condensation in the piping as the temperature of the stearn
is reduced under a vacuum is a measure of the saving in heat loss from
piping resulting from steam circulation at sub-atmospheric pressures as
compared with circulation at sub-atmospheric pressure. The system ca.n be
operated in the same manner as the ordinary vacuum system when desired.
In the vacuum system, steam pressure above that of the atmosphere
exists in the supply mains and radiators practically at all times. In the
sub-atmospheric system, steam pressure exists in the steam main and
radiators only during the most severe weather, while under average
winter temperatures the steam is under a partial vacuum which in mild
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
weather may reach as high as 25 in. after which further reduction in heat
output is obtained by partially filling the radiation with steam.
This vacuum is partially self-induced by the condensation of the steam
in the system due to the supply of steam being furnished through the
control which admits it, and it being proportioned to balance the existing
heat loss. To convert an ordinary vacuum return line system to a sub-
atmospheric system, a control valve is inserted on the steam main near
the boiler or the boiler is automatically controlled. The steam supply to
each radiator is provided with a flow proportioning device, such as an
orifice, a high-vacuum pump is substituted for the ordinary type and is
supplied with a pressure-difference control, and traps are placed on the
radiators and drips which will operate satisfactorily at any pressure from
5 Ib gage to 26 in. of vacuum.
The control valve is either a special pressure-reducing valve which may
be controlled manually, or a control valve or combustion equipment
which may be operated thermostatically from points selected in the
building. The vacuum pump regulator is simply a diaphragm so ar-
ranged that, when the vacuum in the return line is insufficient to hold the
desired difference in pressure between the steam and return sides of the
system, the vacuum pump is automatically started and the vacuum
increased to the necessary amount. The actual pressure difference main-
tained between the two sides of the system is only enough to secure
adequate circulation and is often about 2 in. of mercury. This fixed
pressure difference between the supply and return sides of the system
results in practically constant circulation under all pressure conditions.
In order to distribute the steam equally wrhen the system is being
warmed up and also to reduce the amount of steam delivered to the
radiators on mild days, orifice plates are used in the graduated radiator
control valves. A definite, nearly constant, relation exists between the
supply and return pressure differential at various points throughout the
system which promotes proportionate steam distribution between the
various radiators. The heat emitted from the radiators in mild weather
and under conditions of high vacuum is not only reduced in proportion
to the difference in the steam temperature between that for 2 Ib gage and
for 25 in. of vacuum but it is reduced still further by a reduction in the
amount of steam which can pass through the orifice when the steam is
expanded due to the vacuum. This renders possible the control of heat
emission from the radiators to a point not indicated entirely by the
difference in steam temperatures, but far beyond it.
Sub-atmospheric operation has advantages even where individual
thermostatic radiator control is installed. By operating the system with
steam temperatures in parallel with the outside temperature require-
ments, a large part of the load is removed from the temperature control
system, it makes fewer operations and the radiator follows an even tem-
perature without fluctuating from extreme hot to extreme cold.
The high-vacuum pumps on this system are equipped with receivers
having float control so that the pump can be placed on a receiver-return-
pump basis at night if desired so no high vacuum will be carried. One
radical difference between this system and the ordinary vacuum system
is that no Hits can be made in the return line, except at the vacuum pump.
289
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The returns must grade downward constantly and uninterruptedly from
the radiator return outlet to the inlet on the high-vacuum pump receiver.
No attempt should be made to heat service water on this system unless
the steam line for water heating is taken off the boiler header back of the
heating system control valve, and then only when 2 Ib or more will be
carried on the boiler at all times. Sub-atmospheric systems are pro-
prietary.
ORIFICE SYSTEM
Orifice systems of steam heating may have piping arrangements
identical with vacuum systems but some of these systems omit both the
radiator thermostatic traps and the vacuum pump in cases where the
returns are wasted to a sewer or delivered to some type of receiver in
which no back pressure exists. The principle on which they operate is
embodied in the well-known fact that an orifice will deliver varying
velocities when the ratio of the absolute pressures on the two sides of the
orifice exceeds 58 per cent. If the absolute pressure on the outlet side is
less than 58 per cent of the absolute pressure on the inlet side no further
increase in velocity will be obtained.
As a result, if an orifice is so designed in size as to exactly fill a radiator
with steam at 2-lb gage on one side and %-lb gage on the other, the abso-
lute pressure relation is
14.7 + 0.25
14.7+2.0 "9° ^ cent
Should the steam pressure be dropped to %-lb gage, the pressure on each
side of the orifice would be balanced and no steam flow would take place.
From this it will be seen that if an orifice of a given diameter will fill a
given radiator with steam when there is a given pressure on the main, it is
simply a question of dropping this main pressure provided the supply
pipe pressures be controlled sufficiently closely, so as to fill any desired
portion of the radiator down to the point where the main pressure equals
the back pressure in the radiator, at which time no steam will be supplied
at all. If orifices throughout a system are designed on a similar basis, all
radiators will heat proportionately to the steam pressure within the limits
for which the orifices are designed.
Some systems use orifices not only in radiator inlets but also at different
points on the main, thus balancing the system to a greater extent. For
example, the system may be designed for a particularly long run involving
an initial pressure of 3-lb gage on the main and 2 Ib at the end of the main,
but each branch from the main may have an orifice for reducing the
pressure at it to 2-lb gage. This is particularly useful for branches near
the boiler where the drop in the main has not yet been produced.
Orifice systems using a vacuum pump operate successfully with the
ordinary low vacuum type of pump producing 8 to 10 in. of vacuum.
They are controlled by various means to regulate the steam pressure.
One method is by a thermostat located on the roof to govern the steam
pressure by a combination of outside and inside temperatures; another,
useful on systems without traps and vacuum pumps, controls the steam
pressure manually from temperature indication stations in the building,
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CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
or automatically by a thermostatically-controlled pressure reduction
valve or draft regulator on the boiler; with oil or gas firing, the on-and-off
control or a boiler pressure control may be used.
ZONE CONTROL
Certain portions of a building may require more heat at times than
others but if the whole building is on one general control, such as would
occur with a single piping system with an on-and-off control or with the
sub-atmospheric or the orifice systems, it would be necessary to supply
sufficient heat to accommodate the coldest portion of the building even
though some sections would be overheated. By separation of a building
into zones each with its own piping system, each zone of the building may
be controlled separately.
The sides of the building with different exposures should be considered
first, because of ^the varying effects of the wind and sun. With the pre-
vailing winter winds from the northwest, a simple zoning would place the
north and west sides of the building on one system and the south and east
sides on another. If the building is large enough to justify the expendi-
ture, a better arrangement would be to place all north walls on one zone,
all west walls on a second, all east walls on a third, and all south walls on
a fourth.
In case of high buildings, the lowest 8 or 10 stories may be well protected
from wind by surrounding buildings, the next 10 stories may have
moderate exposure, and above this there may be an unobstructed exposure
to gales. On still days the heat demands vertically will vary little, but on
windy days there will be a marked difference in the heat requirements for
the different horizontal sections. In addition, the chimney effect caused
by the difference in density between the warm air on the inside of a
building and the colder air on the outside will give an air movement which
will require zoning to correct. Where such conditions are encountered,
the building should be divided horizontally as well as vertically. An
arrangement of this character would give 12 zones: namely, north, east,
south, and west lower zones; similar middle zones; and similar top zones.
Each zone should constitute an individual and separate system of piping
with its own supply steam valve (controlled by thermostats in its respec-
tive zone) and with its own return or vacuum pump, if one is used.
Certain interior areas, such as basements, light well walls and other
locations where sun and wind do not affect the conditions, should be
placed in still another zone if the most economical results are to be
secured.
Zoning has advantages even where individual thermostatic radiator
control is installed whether this be of pneumatic, electric, or the self-
contained radiator valve type. By operating each zone to supply heat in
parallel with its outside temperature and wind fluctuations, a large part
of the load is taken off the thermostatic controls; they operate less
frequently and the radiators follow a more even temperature instead of
fluctuating from extreme hot to extreme cold.
Sub-atmospheric, orifice, and zone control systems, generally are
proprietary. Sub-atmospheric systems may be zoned to care for ex-
posure, occupancy and stack effect.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
AUXILIARY CONDITIONING UNIT
In connection with a residential steam or hot water system using
radiator or convector heating a unit as shown in Fig. 19, is available to
supplement the old or new system. The unit is arranged in a sheet metal
enclosure with a filter, circulating fan, means for adding moisture to the
air, heating or tempering coil and generally provisions are made for the
addition of a cooling coil in case summer air circulation is desired. The
unit is frequently located on the ceiling of the basement and is connected
with one or more supply and return air ducts in the various rooms. In
some cases, provisions are made for the introduction of a portion of the
outside air to the system and dampers are included to adjust the desired
air quantities.
The heating coil of the unit may be connected to a steam or hot water
boiler system and is adaptable for operation with a one-pipe, two-pipe or
vacuum system. The cooling coil may be connected to a source of
First floor line.
Canvas connection *
Sound absorbing
insulation
Humidifier
L7 Vilter
Motor
Dampers and
locking quadrants
FIG. 19. RESIDENTIAL CONDITIONING UNIT
refrigeration, or in some cases city water is circulated through the coil
when 58 F or lower temperature water is available. The amount of
moisture released is adjustable depending upon the degree of humidifica-
tion desired. The complete unit may be adapted to various automatic
control arrangements to satisfy the comfort demands of the occupants.
CONDENSATION RETURN PUMPS
Whenever the conditions of a heating system are such that the returns
from the radiation can not gravitate freely to the boiler, they must be
returned by some mechanical means such as a condensation pump or a
return trap.
The most generally accepted condensation pump unit for low pressure
heating systems consists of a motor driven centrifugal pump with receiver
and automatic float control. Other types in use include rotary, screw
and reciprocating pumps with steam turbine or motor drive, and direct
acting steam reciprocating pumps.
Fig. 20 illustrates a typical installation of a motor driven automatic
condensation unit. It will be noted that the returns flow by gravity to
292
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
the vented receiver. As the receiver is filled, the float mechanism operate?
either a pilot or an across-the-line switch to start the pump, and upon
emptying the tank disconnects the power and stops it. The pump may
be used to deliver the condensate direct to the boiler, to a feerhvaier
heater or to raise the water to any higher elevation or pressure than
that of the return line.
A useful application, for instance, is to use a small condensation unit
to handle a remote section of radiation that otherwise would be difficult
to grade to the main return.
The receiver capacities of these automatic units should be sized so as
not to cause too great a fluctuation of the boiler water line if fed directly
Trap
-Air vent
-Automatic pump and receiver
x By-pass to drain
FIG. 20. TYPICAL INSTALLATION USING CONDENSATION PUMP
to the boiler and at the same time not so small as to cause too frequent
operation of the unit. The usual unit provides storage capacity between
stops in the receiver of approximately 1.5 times the amount of condensate
returned per minute and the pump generally has a delivery rate of 3 to 4
times the normal flow.
VACUUM HEATING PUMPS
On vacuum or sub-atmospheric systems where the returns are under a
vacuum, it is necessary to use a vacuum pump to discharge the air and
non-condensable gases to atmosphere and to return the condensate to
the boiler. Direct acting steam driven reciprocating vacuum pumps are
sometimes used where high pressure steam is available or where the
exhaust steam from the pump can be utilized, but in general these have
been replaced by the automatic motor driven return line vacuum heating
293
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
pump especially developed for this service. The usual unit consists of a
compact assembly of air and water removal units driven by one motor
and furnished complete with receiver, separating tank and full auto-
matic controls mounted as an integrated unit on one base.
Practically all of such return line vacuum heating pumps make use of
the returned condensate to operate either as a liquid piston or as a jet to
withdraw the air, and in many cases the condensate, from the return line.
Such hydraulic evacuating devices may be classified as:
a. Water ring centrifugal displacement pumps.
b. Water piston pumps.
c. Stationary water ejector pumps.
d. Rotary water ejector pumps.
The evacuating element is generally combined with a centrifugal
water impeller for the delivery of the condensate to the boiler or feed-
water heater.
The assembled units may be further grouped under two general
classifications:
fl. Those which perform the function of air separation under atmospheric pressure.
b. Those which perform the function of air separation under a partial vacuum.
Pumps coming under the first classification remove both the air and
condensate from the returns by means of the hydraulic evacuator and
deliver both to a separating tank under atmospheric pressure. From
this tank the air and non-condensible vapors are vented to atmosphere
while the condensate is removed and delivered to the boiler by means of
the built-in boiler feed pump impeller.
In the second classification, the air and condensate are first separated
under vacuum by means of the receiver which is directly connected to
the returns. The hydraulic evacuator withdraws only the air and non-
condensible vapors from the top of the receiver and delivers them to
atmosphere. The built-in condensate pump impeller removes the con-
densate from the bottom of the receiver and delivers it direct to the
boiler or feedwater heater.
Under special conditions such as returning the condensate to a high
pressure boiler or the furnishing of large air removal units for high
vacuum systems, it is customary to supply separate motor driven air
and water pumps. Steam turbine drive is also frequently used where
high pressure steam is available. There are also special steam turbine
driven units which are operated by passing the steam to be used in heating
the building through the turbine with only a 2 to 3 Ib drop across the
turbine required for its operation.
For rating purposes3 vacuum pumps are classified as low vacuum and
high vacuum. Low vacuum pumps are those rated for maintaining 5J^ in.
mercury vacuum on the system, and high vacuum pumps are those rated
to maintain vacuums above SJ^ in.
The vacuum that may be maintained on a system depends upon the
'A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing and Rating Return Line Low Vacuum Heating Pumps, (A.S.
H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 33).
294
CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
relationship of the operating air capacity of the hydraulic evacuator at
the vacuum and temperature of the returns to the air leakage rate into
the system. It is particularly essential on high vacuum installations
that the system be tight and that steam be prevented from entering the
return lines through leaky traps, high pressure drips, etc.
Vacuum Pump Controls
In the ordinary vacuum system the vacuum pump is controlled by a
vacuum regulator which cuts in when the vacuum drops to the lowest
point desired and which cuts out when the vacuum has been increased
to the highest point. This is done largely to eliminate the constant
starting and stopping of the vacuum pump which would occur if the
vacuum were maintained constant. In addition to this control, a float
control is included which will automatically start the pump whenever
sufficient condensation accumulates in the receiver, regardless of the
vacuum in the system. A selector switch is usually provided to allow
operation at night as a condensation pump only, also to give continuous
operation if desired.
There are several variations to the above control, especially as concerns
the control of the vacuum maintained on the system. This may be
accomplished by some form of coordinating control which maintains
the vacuum of the return system in a pre-determined definite or varying
relationship to the system supply pressure.
Piston Displacement Vacuum Pumps
Piston displacement return vacuum heating pumps may be either
power or steam driven. They should be provided with mechanical
lubricators and their piston speed in feet per minute should not exceed
20 times the square root of the number of inches in their stroke. They
are usually supplied with an air separating tank, open to atmosphere,
placed on the discharge side of the pump and at an elevation sufficiently
high to allow gravity flow of the condensate to the boiler. If the boiler
pressure is too high for such gravity feed then an additional steam pump
for feeding the boiler is desirable. The extra pump is sometimes avoided
by using a closed separating tank with a float controlled vent. In both
arrangements, the air taken from the system must be discharged against
the full discharge pressure of the vacuum pump. In the case of high or
medium pressure boilers, it is better to use the atmospheric separator
and the second pump.
In figuring the required displacement for such pumps, a value of from
6 to 10 times the volumetric flow of condensation is used for average
vacuums and systems. However, as in the case of return line vacuum
heating pumps, the displacement is largely dependent upon the tightness
of the system, the efficiency of the traps and the vacuum that is desired
to be maintained.
TRAPS
Traps are used for draining the condensate from radiators, steam
piping systems, kitchen equipment, laundry equipment, hospital equip-
ment, drying equipment and many other kinds of apparatus. The usual
functions of a trap are to allow the passage of condensate and to prevent the
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
passage of steam. In addition to these functions, traps are frequently
required to allow the passage of air as well as condensate. Traps are also
required to allow the passage of air and to prevent the passage of either
water or steam, or both.
In addition, traps are used for returning condensate ei thereby gravity,
by steam pressure, or by both, to a boiler or other point of disposal, and
for lifting condensate from a lower to a higher elevation, or for handling
condensate from a lower to a higher pressure.
The fundamental principle upon which the operation of practically all
traps depends is that the pressure within the trap at the time of discharge
shall be equal to, or slightly in excess of, the pressure against which the
trap must discharge, including the friction head, velocity head and static
head on the discharge side of the trap. If the static head is in favor of
the trap discharge it is a minus quantity and may be deducted from the
other factors of the discharge head.
Traps may be classified as to function as separating and return or
lifting traps. Traps may be classified according to the principle of
operation as (1) float, (2) bucket, (3) thermostatic, (4) tilting, or (5)
float and thermostatic traps.
Float Traps. A discharge valve is operated by the rise and fall of a float due to the
change of water level in the trap. When the trap is empty the float is in its lowest
position, and the discharge valve is closed. A gage glass indicates the height of water
in the chamber.
Unless float traps are well made and proportioned there is danger of considerable
steam leakage through the discharge valve due to unequal expansion of the valve and
seat and the sticking of moving parts. The discharge from a float trap is usually con-
tinuous since the height of the float, and consequently the area of the outlet, is propor-
tional to the amount of water present.
Float and thermostatic traps have both a thermostatic element to release air and a
float element to release the water.
Bucket Traps. Bucket traps are of two types, the upright and inverted, and although
they are both of the open float construction, their operating principle is entirely different.
In the upright bucket trap, the water of condensation enters the trap and fills the space
between the bucket and the walls of the trap. This causes the bucket to float and forces
the valve against its seat, the valve and its stem usually being fastened to the bucket.
When the water rises above the edges of the bucket it flows into it and causes it to sink,
thereby withdrawing the valve from its seat. This permits the steam pressure acting
on the surface of the water in the bucket to force the water to a discharge opening. When
the bucket is emptied it rises and closes the valve and another cycle begins. The discharge
from this type of trap is intermittent.
In the inverted bucket trap, steam floats the inverted submerged bucket and closes the
valve. Water entering the trap fills the bucket which sinks and through compound
leverage opens the valve, and the trap discharges. It is impossible to install a water
gage glass on an inverted bucket trap, but if visual inspection is necessary, a gage glass
can be placed on the line leading to the trap. No air relief cocks can be used, but this is
unnecessary, as the elimination of air is automatically taken care of by air passing through
the vent in the top of the inverted bucket regardless of temperature.
Thermostatic Traps. Thermostatic traps are of two types, those in which the discharge
valve is operated ^by the relative expansion of metals, and those in which the action of
a volatile liquid is utilized for this purpose. Thermostatic traps of large capacity for
draining blast coils or very large radiators are called blast traps.
Tilting Traps. With this type of trap, water enters a bowl and rises until its weight
overbalances that of a counter-weight, and the bowl sinks to the bottom. As the bowl
sinks, a valve is opened thus admitting live steam pressure on the surface of the water
and the trap then discharges. After the water is discharged, the counter-weight sinks
and raises the bowl, which in turn closes the valve and the cycle begins again. Tilting
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CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
traps are necessarily intermittent in operation. They are not ordinarily equipped with
glass water gages, as the action of the trap shows when it is filling or emptying. The air
relief of tilting traps is taken care of by the valves of the trap.
Thermostatic traps are generally used for draining radiators and
heaters, except for very large capacities where bucket, float or blast-type
thermostatic traps are used. Thermostatic traps for this service usually
pass both condensate and air and in the case of float and upright bucket
traps the air is usually relieved through an auxiliary thermostatic trap in
a by-pass around the main trap. Sometimes this auxiliary air trap is an
integral part of the trap. Such traps are termed float and thermostatic
traps.
Blast-type thermostatic traps are sometimes used on vacuum heating
systems for connecting old one- or two-pipe gravity systems in parallel
with vacuum return line systems, in which case the blast-type thermo-
static traps should not be provided with auxiliary air by-pass, as the
High pressure drip
» valve
.Vent to heat main
or atmosphere
T Connection to main
vacuum return
A— -* Dirt.
High pressure trap pocket
Low pressure trap
FIG. 21. METHOD OF DISCHARGING HIGH- PRESSURE APPARATUS INTO LOW-PRESSURE
HEATING MAINS AND VACUUM RETURN MAINS THROUGH
A LOW-PRESSURE TRAP
action of this will allow the vacuum to draw air into the old system
through its "air valves, especially when the steam is wholly or partially
cut off. The air from the returns of such old systems should be relieved
just ahead of the traps by means of quick-venting automatic air valves,
preferably of the non-return type, especially if the other air valves on
the old system are non-return valves.
Return traps used for discharging to a higher or a lower pressure are
provided with two or three valves operated by the action of the trap.
In the case of the two-valve return traps, one valve closes a steam inlet
and the other valve opens a vent outlet while the trap is filling, and as
soon as the trap dumps, the first valve opens the steam inlet and the
second valve closes the vent outlet, while the trap discharges. In this
type of trap there must be a swinging check-valve on each side of the
trap, in addition to the usual by-pass, to prevent the pressure in the trap,
while discharging, from backing up through the inlet and the pressure
in the discharge line from backing up into the trap while it is filling. This
297
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
type of trap will blow steam out through the vent while filling, if the
pressure on the inlet side is sufficient, and should not be used, therefore,
with such pressures unless the vent is properly piped back into the return
Swing check valvex
Check valv
Gage glass
Returns
/Thermostatic air valve
- Safety valve to waste
Check valve
Connection
for test
gage
Drip valve
-from
strainer
FIG. 22. RETURN TRAP AND RECEIVER FOR AUTOMATIC BOILER FEED
to a feed water heater, a condenser or a perforated pipe in the bottom
of the receiver to which the trap discharges in such a way as to prevent
the escape of the steam that comes in with the condensate and passes
through the vent. In the three-valve traps of this type there is an extra
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CHAPTER 15. STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
valve for closing the discharge while the trap is filling with condensate.
High pressure traps should not discharge directly into a vacuum return
because of the vapor formed by the re-evaporation of a part of the hot
condensation. Fig. 21 shows a method which may be used for disposing of
the greater part of the vapor of re-evaporation. An expansion chamber
often is installed between the high- and low-pressure traps.
Automatic Return Traps
In the general heating plant, where thermostatic traps are installed on
the heating units, it becomes necessary to provide a means for returning
the water of condensation to the boiler, if a condensation or vacuum pump
is not used. When the return main can be kept sufficiently high above the
boiler water line for all operating conditions, the water of condensation
will flow back by gravity, and no mechanical device is required. But
actually this does not work out in practice. It follows, therefore, that a
direct return trap is needed for the handling of the condensation even
though it may not be called into action except under some operating
condition where the pressure differential exceeds the static head provided.
The installation of a direct return trap assures safety for such systems,
and guarantees the operation of the plant under varying conditions.
Automatic return traps, sometimes called alternating receivers, may
be of the counter-balanced, tilting type, or spring actuated. These consist
of a small receiver with an internal float, and when the condensate will
not flow into the boiler under pressure, it will feed into the receiver of the
trap, and in so doing, raise or tilt the float or mechanism which actuates a
steam valve automatically. This admits steam to the receiver, at boiler
pressure, and the equalizing of the pressures which follows allows the
water to flow into the boiler. Fig. 22 shows a direct return tilting trap
and receiver properly connected for automatically feeding a boiler from a
system of returns delivering the condensate to the receiver.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is meant by water line difference in a gravity steam heating system?
The water line difference is the distance between the level of the water in the dry or wet
return and the boiler water line. This difference is equivalent to the pressure required
to overcome the maximum drop in the system and the operating pressure of the boiler.
2 • How many types of common mechanical returns are there and what are
they?
Three: (1) the mechanical return trap, (2) the condensation return pump, and (3)
the vacuum pump.
3 • In the ordinary vacuum system of steam heating, where does the vacuum
usually exist?
On the return side of the system only, between the radiator trap and the vacuum pump.
If the radiator supply valve is closed off, the vacuum may extend back through the
radiator as far as the supply valve; if an inadequate supply of steam is furnished to
the system, some vacuum may be developed in the steam main, but neither of these can
be termed normal operation.
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HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
4 • What is the distinction between the open and the closed vapor systems?
The open vapor system has the return line always open to the atmosphere, while the
closed vapor system has an automatic device on the air vent so that air once expelled
from the system through the vent cannot re-enter via this route.
5 • On a vacuum system, what device must be placed on all drips before they
enter the vacuum return line?
A thermostatic drip trap or occasionally, where large volumes of condensation are to be
handled, a float trap, or combination float and thermostatic trap.
6 • How does the sub-atmospheric system differ in operation from the ordinary
vacuum system?
The ordinary vacuum system has pressure in the steam line, and a vacuum produced by
the vacuum pump in the return line, usually varying between 5 and 10 in. of mercury.
The sub-atmospheric system may have either a vacuum or pressure on the steam and
return lines according to the weather conditions, but a constant difference in pressure is
maintained between the lines regardless of what vacuum may be carried. The vacuum,
which is generally produced jointly by condensation and the exhausting action of the
pump, in the system under conditions of throttled steam supply, will run much higher
than in the ordinary vacuum system, and as high as 25 in. of mercury in the radiators.
7 • What is generally understood by zoning in building steam heating systems?
Zoning is a term applied to the placing of certain sections of a building on a single
temperature control instead of having either individual room control or a single tempera-
ture control governing the whole building. Zones may be horizontal, such as a single
story, a basement, or an attic, or vertical such as the north side, or the west side.
8 • Why does the water line in the far end of a wet return in a. gravity steam
system rise higher than the water line in the boiler?
The friction of the steam flowing through the steam main from the boiler to the far end of
the system and the pressure reduction resulting from the condensing action of the radi-
ators causes a drop in steam pressure at the point where the wet return is connected;
consequently, the steam pressure on top of the water in the wet return is less than the
steam pressure on top of the water in the boiler, so the water in the end of the wet return
rises until a balanced condition is set up.
9 • On gravity one-pipe systems as indicated hi Fig. 1 and Fig. 3, why is the
drip on the steam runout connected to wet return?
Because if it were connected to dry return, the pressure drops to two different points
would not necessarily be the same and the system would short circuit.
10 • What is the function of the automatic return trap?
To insure the return of condensate to the boiler when the operating condition is such that
the boiler pressure exceeds the static head on the returns.
11 • "What advantage is there to an air valve with a check to prevent the re-
entrance of expelled air?
A system equipped with such valves builds up a vacuum and holds the heat longer.
With proper controls on the boiler, lower radiator temperatures can be maintained in
mild weather, giving better plant efficiency.
12 • What are the essentials of a two-pipe closed vapor system?
Packless graduated valves on radiators; thermostatic return traps on return and drips;
an automatic return trap to prevent water from backing out of the boiler.
13 • Why must the automatic return trap on two-pipe vapor systems be about
18 in. above the boiler water line?
That height is necessary to overcome water line difference owing to pressure drop and
friction in pipe and fittings.
300
Chapter 16
PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
Flow of Steam in Pipes, Pipe Sizes, Tables for Pipe Sizing,
One-Pipe Gravity Air Vent Systems, Two-Pipe Gravity Air
Vent Systems, Two-Pipe Vapor Systems, Vacuum Systems,
Atmospheric Systems, Sub-Atmospheric Systems, Orifice
Systems, High Pressure Steam, Expansion in Steam and
Return Lines, Piping Connections and Details, Boiler Con-
nections, Hartford Return Connection
THE design of a steam heating system should be considered under four
headings, namely, (1) the details of the heating units, (2) the arrange-
ment of the general piping scheme, (3) the details of connections, and (4)
the sizing of the lines. Items 1 and 2 are covered in Chapters 14 and 15,
respectively, while this chapter considers the two latter items.
The functions of piping are to supply the heating units with steam and
to remove the condensation. In some systems both the air and con-
densation are removed from the heating units by the return piping. To
accomplish this effectively, the distribution of the steam should be
efficient and equitable, without noise, and the returns should be as short
as possible. When air is handled its escape should be facilitated to the
utmost since an air-bound system will not heat properly. Condensation
takes place in a steam system not only in the heating units, but through-
out the piping system as well, and the returns also condense any steam or
vapor that may be contained. At the same time part of the condensation
may flash back into steam when the vacuum or pressure in the return is
considerably below the steam pressure.
It is essential that steam piping systems not only distribute steam at
full load but also at partial loads, as the average winter demand is less
than half of the demand in most severe outside temperatures. Further-
more, in heating up rapidly the load on the steam main may exceed the
maximum operating load even in extreme weather, due to the necessity
of raising the temperature of the metal in the system to the steam tem-
perature. This may require more heat than would be emitted from the
system itself after it once is thoroughly heated.
STEAM FLOW
The rate of flow of dry steam or steam with a small amount of water
flowing in the same direction is in accordance with the general laws of gas
flow and is a function of the length and diameter of the pipe, the density
of the steam, and the pressure drop through the pipe. This relationship
of flow of dry steam or steam with a small amount of water has been
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
established by Babcock in formula 1.
P = 0.0000000367 ( H" ^) jff- (1)
or
w-saao+l, M\L <2)
where
P — loss in pressure, pounds per square inch.
d = inside diameter of pipe, inches.
L = length of pipe, feet.
D = weight of 1 cu ft of steam.
W = weight of steam flowing per hour, pounds.
Example 1. How much steam will flow per hour through JLOO ft of 2-in. pipe if the
initial pressure is 1.3 Ib per square inch and the pressure drop is 1 oz?
Solution. P - ^ - 0.0625 Ib; d = 2.067 in. (Table 1, Chapter 18); L - 100 ft;
D - 0.04038 Ib (Table 8, Chapter 1). Substituting these values in Formula 2:
V 0.0625 X 0.04038 X 2.067*
7 3.6 \ = 97.2 Ib per hour.
.
7 3.6 \
\ 1 + 2356T/
Formula 2 does not allow for entrained water in low-pressure steam,
condensation in pipe, and roughness in commercial pipe as found in
practice.
The latent heat of steam (&fg) at atmospheric pressure (Table 8,
Chapter 1) is 970.2 Btu per pound. Inasmuch as the heat emission of an
equivalent square foot of heating surface (radiation) is 240 Btu, 1 Ib of
970 2
steam at this pressure will supply 0 ' or 4.04 sq ft of equivalent heating
surface. This figure is usually taken as 4 even. In Example 1, the weight
of steam flowing per hour would therefore supply 4 X 97.2 or 388.8 sq ft
of equivalent heating surface.
PIPE SIZES
The determination of pipe sizes for steam heating depends on the
following principal factors:
1. The initial pressure and the total pressure drop which may be allowed between the
source of supply and the end of the return system.
2. The maximum velocity of steam allowable for quiet and dependable operation of
the system.
3. The equivalent length of the run from the boiler or source of steam supply to the
farthest heating unit.
4. Unusual conditions in the building to be heated.
Initial Pressure and Pressure Drop
Theoretically there are several factors to be considered, such as initial
pressure and pressure required at the end of the line, but it is most im-
portant that (1) the total pressure drop does not exceed the initial pressure
of the system; (2) the pressure drop is not so great as to cause excessive
velocities; (3) there is a constant initial pressure, except on systems
specially designed for varying initial pressures, such as tfie sub-atmos-
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CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
pheric which normally operate under controlled partial vacua, the orifice,
and the vapor systems which at times operate under such partial vacua
as may be obtained due to the condition of the fire; (4) there is sufficient
difference in level, for gravity return systems, between the lowest point
on the steam main, the heating units, and the dry return, when considered
in relation to the boiler water line.
All systems should be designed for a low initial pressure and a reason-
ably small pressure drop for two reasons: first, the present tendency in
steam heating unmistakably points toward a constant lowering of pres-
sures even to those below atmospheric; second, a system designed in this
manner will operate under higher pressures without difficulty. When a
system designed for a relatively high initial pressure and a relatively high
pressure drop is operated at a lower pressure, it is likely to be noisy and
have poor circulation.
The total pressure drop should never exceed one-half of the initial
pressure when condensate is flowing in the same direction as the steam.
Where the condensate must flow counter to the steam, the governing
factor is the velocity permissible without interfering with the condensate
flow. Laboratory experiments limit this to the capacities given in
Tables 1 and 2 for vertical risers and in Table 3 for horizontal pipes at
varying grades.
Maximum Velocity and Reaming
The capacity of a steam pipe in any part of a steam system depends
upon the quantity of condensation present, the direction in which the
condensate is flowing, and the pressure drop in the pipe. Where the
quantity of condensate is limited and is flowing in the same direction as
the steam, only the pressure drop need be considered. When the con-
densate must flow against the steam, even in limited quantity, the ve-
locity of the steam must not exceed limits above which the disturbance
between the steam and the counter-flowing water may produce object-
ionable sounds, such as water hammer, or may result in the retention of
water in certain parts of the system until the steam flow is reduced
sufficiently to permit the water to pass. The velocity at which such
disturbances take place is a function of (1) the pipe size, whether the pipe
runs horizontally or vertically, (2) the pitch of the pipe if it runs hori-
zontally, (3) the quantity of condensate flowing against the steam, and
(4) freedom of the piping from water pockets which under certain con-
ditions act as a restriction in pipe size.
Three factors of uncertainty always exist in determining the capacity
of any steam pipe. The first is variation in manufacture, which appar-
ently cannot be avoided and which caused an actual difference of 20 per
cent in the capacity of a 1-in. pipe in experiments carried on at the
A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory (Table 4). The second is the reaming
of the ends of the pipe after cutting, which, experiments indicate, might
reduce the capacity of a 1-in. pipe as much as 28.7 per cent (Table 5).
The third is the uniformity in grading the pipe line. All of the capacity
tables given in this chapter include a factor of safety. However, the pipe
on which Table 4 is based showed no particular defects or constrictions
on the inside, and the factor of safety referred to does not cover abnormal
defects or constrictions nor does it cover pipe not properly reamed.
303
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CAPACITIES OF UP-FEED RISERS FOR ONE-PIPE
Low PRESSURE STEAM
Based on A. S. H. V. E. Research Laboratory Tests
POTS SIZE
INCHES
VELOCITT
FEET PER SECOND
PRESSURE DROP
OUNCES
PEE 100 FT
CAPACITY
SqFt
Radiation
Btu per Hour
Lb
Steam per Hour
A
B
C
D
E
F
1
14.1
0.68
45
10,961
11.3
1J€
17.6
0.66
98
23,765
24.5
1J*
20.0
0.66
152
36,860
38.0
2
23.0
0.57
288
69,840
72.0
m
26.0
0.54
464
112,520
116.0
3
29.0
0.48
799
193,600
199.8
3J£
31.0
0.44
1144
277,000
286.0
4
32.0
0.39
1520
368,000
380.0
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TABLE 1
1. Capacities given in Table 1 should never be exceeded on one-pipe risers.
2. Capacities are based on J^-lb condensation per square foot eQuivalent radiation and actual diameter
of standard pipe.
3. All pipe should be well reamed and free from constrictions. Fittings should be up to size. (See
Tables 4 and 5).
TABLE 2. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE CAPACITIES OF UP-FEED RISERS FOR TWO-PIPE
Low PRESSURE STEAM
Based on A. S. H. V. E. Research Laboratory Tests
PIPE SIZE
INCHES
VELOCITY
FEET PER SECOND
PRESSURE DROP
OUNCES
PER 100 FT
CAPACITT
SqFt
Radiation
Btu per Hour
Lb
Steam per Hour
A
B
C
D
E
F
H
20
40
9550
10.0
1
23
1.78
74
17,900
18.45
1«
27
1.57
151
36,500
37.65
1H
30
1.48
228
55,200
57.0
2
35
1.33
438
106,100
109.5
m
38
1.16
678
164,100
169.4
3
41
0.95
1129
273,500
282.2
3H
42
0.81
1548
375,500
387.0
4
43
0.71
2042
495,000
510.5
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING TABLE 2
1. The capacities given in this table should never be exceeded on two-pipe risers.
2. Capacities are based on K-lb condensation per square foot equivalent radiation and actual diameter
of standard pipe.
3. All pipe should be well reamed and free from constrictions. Fittings should be up to i
Tables 4 and 5.)
304
(See
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
TABLE 3. COMPARATIVE CAPACITY OF STEAM LINES AT VARIOFS PITCHES FOR STEAM
AND CONDENSATE FLOWING IN OPPOSITE DlRECTIONSa
Pitch of Pipe in Inches per 10 Ft
PITCH OF
,
PIPE
2* i
N.
H i
N. ] ID
r.
1'ai
2»
3D
4 IN.
Si?
r.
Pipe
fcize
In'hes
S«iFt
Had.
Baaed
on 240
Bta
Max.Vel.
Si Ft
Rad.
Based
on 240
Btu
_• i Sq Ft
5 Rad.
W iBawid
J3 on 240
* j Btu
SqFt
Based
on 240
Btu
Max.Vel.
SqFt
Rad.
Based
on 240
Btu
m
I
SqFt
Rad.
Baaed
on 240
Btu
Max.Vri.
&2|*
Bae*-i C'
on 240 45
Btu ; •*
SqFt
Rad.
Based
on 240
Btu
MM.VeL
Sx
25. 0
12
30.3
14 I 37.3
40.4
19
42.5
20
46.1
21
47.5 { 22
49.3
7,3
1
45.8
12
52.6
15 63.0
17
70.0
20
75.2
2?
83.0
87.9 J 25
90.2
1^
104.9
IS
117.2
20 1 133. 0
23
144.5
25
154.0
27
165.0
2ft
172.6 < 29
178.2
31
Jl^
142.6
18
159.0
21 i 181.0
23
196.5
25
209.3
27
224.0
28
234.8 , 50
242.6
3t
2
236.0
19
263.5
20 J 299.5
23
325.5
25
346.5
27
371.5
28
3SS.4 j 29
;
401.1
30
•Data from AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS Research Laboratory.
Equivalent Length of Run
All tables for the flow of steam in pipes, based on pressure drop, must
allow for the friction offered by the pipe as well as for the additional
resistance of the fittings and valves. These resistances generally are
stated in terms^of straight pipe; in other words, a certain fitting will
produce a drop in pressure equivalent to so many feet of straight run of
the same size of pipe. Table 6 gives the number of feet of straight pipe
usually allowed for the more common types of fittings and valves. In all
pipe sizing tables in this chapter the length of run refers to the equivalent
length of run as distinguished from the actual length of pipe in feet. The
length of run is^not usually known at the outset; hence it is necessary to
assume some pipe size at the start. Such an assumption frequently is
considerably in error and a more common and practical method is to
assume the length of run and to check this assumption after the pipes are
sized. For this purpose the length of run usually is taken as double the
actual length of pipe.
TABLE 4. PER CENT DIFFERENCE IN CAPACITY FOR CARRYING STEAM AND CONDENSATE
DUE TO VARIATION OF PIPE SIZE AND SMOOTHNEssa
MAXIMUM CONDENSATION, LB PER HOUR
Size of pipe
XIn.
lln.
IX In.
l«In.
Minimum.-
14.00
15.20
24.89
30.08
45.42
52.08
70.50
82.00
Maximum
Per cent variation
8.6
20.8
14.7
16.3
aData from AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS Research Laboratory.
TABLE 5. EFFECT OF REAMING ENTRANCE TO ONE-INCH ONE-PIPE RISERS*
MixnniM CAPACITY
ov RISER
PEE CENT
DECREASE
Reamed entrances
24.7 Ib per hour
23.9 Ib per hour
22.2 Ib per hour
19.2 Ib per hour
17.6 Ib per hour
0.0
3.2
10.1
22.2
28.7
Rounded entrances.
Squared entrances
Three wheel cutter. .
Single wheel cutter.
•Data from AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS Research Laboratory.
305
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 6. LENGTH IN FEET OF PIPE TO BE ADDED TO ACTUAL LENGTH OF RUN —
OWING TO FITTINGS — TO OBTAIN EQUIVALENT LENGTH
SIZE OF PIPE
INCHES
ST'D. ELBOW
SIDE OUTLET
TEE
GATE VALVE
GLOBE VALVE
ANGLE VALVE
Length in Feet to be Added to Run
2
5
16
2
18
9
2H
7
20
3
25
12
3
10
26
3
33
16
3Ji
12
31
4
39
19
4
14
35
5
45
22
5
18
44
7
57
28
6
22
50
9
70
32
7
26
55
10
82
37
8
31
63
12
94
42
9
35
69
13
105
47
10
39
76
15
118
52
12
47
90
18
140
63
14
53
105
20
160
72
Example of length in
feet of pipe to be added
to actual length of run.
TABLES FOR PIPE SIZING1
Factors determining the size of a steam pipe and its allowable limit of
capacity are as follows:
1. Pipe condensate flowing with steam.
2. Pipe condensate flowing against steam.
3. Pipe and radiator condensate flowing with steam.
4. Pipe and radiator condensate flowing against steam.
It is apparent that (3) and (4) are practically limited to one-pipe
systems while (1) and (2) cover all other systems.
Tables 7 and 8, worked out for determining pipe sizes, have their col-
umns lettered continuously, Columns A through L being in Table 7, and
M through EE in Table 8. In the following text, reference made to
columns will be by letter. The tables are based on the actual inside
diameters of the pipe and the condensation of J^ lb (4 oz) of steam per
square foot of equivalent direct radiation2 (abbreviated EDR) per hour.
The drops indicated are drops in pressure per 100 ft of equivalent length
of run. The pipe is assumed to be well reamed without unusual or notice-
able defects.
JPipe size tables in this chapter have been compiled in simplified and condensed form for the convenience
of the user; at the same time all of the information contained in previous editions of THE GUIDE has been
retained. Values of pressure drops, formerly expressed in ounces, are now expressed in fractions of a pound.
*As steam system design has materially changed in recent years so that 240 Btu no longer expresses the
heat of condensation, from a square foot of radiator surface per hour, and as present day heating units have
different characteristics from older forms of radiation, it is the purpose of THE GUIDE to gradually eliminate
the empirical expression square foot of equivalent direct radiation. EDR, and to substitute a logical unit based
on the Btu. The new terms to express the equivalent of 1000 Btu (Mb), and 1000 Btu per hour (Mbh),
have been approved by the A.S.H.V.E.
306
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
Table 7 may be used for sizing piping for steam heating systems by
determining the allowable or desired pressure drop per 100 equivalent
feet of run and reading from the column for that particular pressure drop.
This applies to all steam mains on both one-pipe and two-pipe systems,
vapor systems, and vacuum systems. Columns B to G, inclusive, are used
where the steam and condensation flow in the same direction, while
Columns H and I are for cases where the steam and condensation flow in
opposite directions, as in risers and runouts that are not dripped. Columns
/, Kt and L are for one-pipe systems and cover riser, radiator valve, and
vertical connection sizes, and radiator and runout sizes, all of which are
based on the critical velocities of the steam to permit the counter flow of
condensation without noise.
Sizing of return piping may be done with the aid of Table 8 where pipe
capacities for wet, dry, and vacuum return lines are shown for the pressure
drops per 100 ft corresponding to the drops in Table 7. It is customary to
use the same pressure drop on both the steam and return sides of a system.
TABLE 7. STEAM PIPE CAPACITIES
Capacity Expressed in Square Feet of Equivalent Direct Radiation
(Reference to this table will be by column letter A through L)
This table is based on pipe size data developed through the research investiga-
tions of the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS.
CAPACITIES OF STEAM MAINS AND RISERS
SPECIAL CAPACITIES F-OR
OmB-PiFR SYSTEMS ONLT
DIRECTION or CONDENSATION FLOW IN Pxra Lunc
PIPE
SIZE
Iv
With the Steam in One-Pipe and Two-Pipe Systems
Against the Steam
Two-Pipe Only
Supply
Risers
Radiator
Valves
and
Radiator
and
Riser
Vsa Ib
1/2* Ib
Vie Ib
Hlb
Klb
J*lb
or
or
or
or
or
or
Up-
Vertical
MOz
Drop
MOz
Drop
lOz
Drop
20z
Drop
40z
Drop
80z
Drop
Vertical
Hori-
zontal
Fe5
Con-
nections
Run-
outs
A
B
C
Z>
E
F
0
ff«
/c
/b
K
L«
%
30
30
25
39
46
56
79
iff
157
56
26
45
20
20
IK
87
100
122
173
245
346
122
58
98
55
55
IK
134
155
190
269
380
538
190
95
152
81
81
2
273
315
386
546
771
1,091
386
195
288
165
165
2^
449
518
635
898
1,270
1,797
635
395
464
260
822
948
1,163
1,645
2,326
3,289
1,129
700
799
475
m
1,228
1,419
1,737
2,457
3,474
4,913
1,548
1,150
1,144
745
4
1,738
2,011
2,457
3,475
4,914
6,950
2,042
1,700
1,520
1,110
5
3,214
3,712
4,546
6,429
9,092
12,858
3,150
2,180
6
5,276
6,094
7,462
10,553
14,924
21,105
.........
........
8
10,983
12,682
15,533
21,967
31,066
43,934
........
— .._.
........
__„_
10
20,043
23,144
28,345
40,085
56,689
80,171
12
32,168
37,145
45,492
64,336
90,985
128,672
_„
16
60,506
69,671
84,849
121,012
169,698
242,024
An Horizontal Mains and Down-Feed Risers
Up-
Fned
Mains
andTJn-
dripped
Up-
Feed
Radiator
Con-
Run-
outs
Not
Risers
Run-
outs
Risers
nections
Dripped
Note. — All drops shown are in pounds per 100 ft of equivalent run — baaed on pipe properly reamed.
aDo not use Column H for drops of 1/24 or 1/32 Ib; substitute Column C or Column B as required.
bDo not use Column J for drop of 1/32 Ib except on sizes 3 in. and over; below 3 in. substitute Column B.
On radiator runouts over 8 ft long increase one pipe size over that shown in Table 7.
f AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING EWGIVEBRS \ Not to be Reprinted With-
| HeaKngt piping an& ^ Conditioning Contraeton Naiiond Aaociatim j out Special Permission
307
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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308
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Kft,
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
Example 2. What pressure drop should be used for the steam piping of a system if
the measured length of the longest run is 300 ft and the initial pressure is not to be over
2-lb gage?
Solution. It will be assumed, if the measured lengtn of the longest run is 500 ft, that
when the allowance for fittings is added the equivalent length of run will not exceed
1,000 ft. Then, with the pressure drop not over one half of the initial pressure, the drop
could be 1 Ib or less. With a pressure drop of 1 Ib and a length of run of 1,000 ft, the
drop per 100 ft would be Ho ft), while if the total drop were J^ Ib, the drop per 100 ft
would be }>20 lb- *n *!}e ^rst instance the pipe could be sized according to Column D for
?^6 Ib per 100 ft, and in the second case, the pipe could be sized according to Column C
for } 34 Ib. On completion of the sizing, the drop could be checked by taking the longest
line and actually calculating the equivalent length of run from the pipe sizes determined.
If the calculated drop is less than that assumed, the pipe size is all right; if it is more, it is
probable that there are an unusual number of fittings involved, and either the lines must
be straightened or the column for the next lower drop must be used and the lines resized.
Ordinarily resizing will be unnecessary.
ON&PIPE GRAVITY AIR-VENT SYSTEMS
One-pipe gravity air-vent systems in which the equivalent length of run
does not exceed 200 ft should be sized as follows:
1. For the steam main and dripped runouts to risers where the steam and condensate
flow in the same direction, use Ke-lb drop (Column D).
2. Where the riser runouts are not dripped and the steam and condensation flow in
opposite directions, and also in the radiator runouts where the same condition occurs, use
Column L.
3. For up-feed steam risers carrying condensation back from the radiators, use Column 7,
4. For down-feed systems the main risers of which do not carry any radiator con-
densation, use Column H.
5. For the radiator valve size and the stub connection, use Column K.
6. For the dry return main, use Column U.
7. For the wet return main use Column T.
On systems exceeding an equivalent length of 200 ft, it is suggested that
the total drop be not over % Ib. The return piping sizes should correspond
with the drop used on the steam side of the system. Thus, where M-t-lb
drop is being used, the steam main and dripped runouts would be sized from
Column C; radiator runouts and undripped riser runouts from Column L;
up-feed risers from Column J; the main riser on a down-feed system from
Column C (it will be noted that if Column H is used the drop would
exceed the limit of }^4 Ib) ; the dry return from Column R; and the wet
return from Column Q.
With a 3^2-lb drop the sizing would be the same as for J^4 Ib except that
the steam main and dripped runouts would be sized from Column 5, the
main riser on a down-feed system from Column J5, the dry return from
Column 0, and the wet return from Column N.
Example 3. Size the one-pipe gravity steam system shown in Fig. 1 assuming that
this is all there is to the system or that the riser and run shown involve the longest run
on the system.
Solution. The total length of run actually shown is 215 ft. If the equivalent length
of run is taken at double this, it will amount to 430 ft, and with a total drop of }4 Ib
the drop per 100 ft will be slightly less than He Ib. It would be well in this case to use
H* lbt and this would result in the theoretical sizes indicated in Table 9. These theo-
309
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
retical sizes, however, should be modified by not using a wet return less than 2 in. while
the main supply, g-h, if from the uptake of a boiler, should be made the full size of the
main, or 3 in. Also the portion of the main k-m should be made 2 in. if the wet return
is made 2 in.
Notes on Gravity One-Pipe Air-Vent Systems
1. Pitch of mains should not be less than l/i in. in 10 ft.
2. Pitch of horizontal runouts to risers and radiators should not be less than J^ in.
in 10 ft. Where this pitch cannot be obtained runouts over 8 ft in length should be one
size larger than called for in the table.
3. In general, it is not desirable to have a main less than 2 in. The diameter of the
far end of the supply main should not be less than half its diameter at its largest part.
4. Supply mains, branches to risers, or risers, should be dripped where necessary.
TABLE 9.
PIPE SIZES FOR ONE- PIPE UP-FEED SYSTEM SHOWN
IN FIG. 1
PAST OF SYSTEM
SECTION
OTPlPE
RADIATION
SUPPLIED
(SQ FT)
THEORETICAL
PIPE SIZE
(INCHES)
PRACTICAL
PIPE SIZE
(INCHES)
Branches to radiators..
Branches to radiators..
Riser
Riser
Riser
a to b
btoc
c to d
100
50
200
300
400
2
Ifc
2
2iz
fZ
Wz
2
IJi
2
2M
2H
Riser
Riser
Branch to riser
Supply main
dtoe
etof
/tog
g to h
500
600
600
600
3
3
3Ji
3
3
3
3M
3
Branch to supply main
Dry return main
Wet return main
Wet return main
Wet return main
htoj
ftok
ktom
mton
ntop
600
600
600
600
600
2^
IK
1
1
3
2
2
2
2
FIG. 1. RISER, SUPPLY
MAIN AND RETURN MAIN
OF ONE-PIPE SYSTEM
From Boiler or
Source of Supply
TWO-PIPE GRAVITY AIR-VENT SYSTEMS
The method employed in determining pipe sizes for two-pipe gravity
air-vent systems is similar to that described for one-pipe systems except
that the steam mains never carry radiator condensation. The drop
allowable per 100 ft of equivalent run is obtained by taking the equiva-
lent length to the farthest radiator as double the actual distance, and
then dividing the allowable or desired total drop by the number of
hundreds of feet in the equivalent length. Thus in a system measuring
400 ft from the boiler to the farthest radiator, the approximate equivalent
length of run would be 800 ft. With a total drop of ^ Ib the drop per
100 ft would be ^~ or
o
Ib; therefore, Column D would be used for all
steam mains where the condensation and steam flow in the same direc-
tion. If a total drop of J^ Ib is desired, the drop per 100 ft would be J^ Ib
310
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
and Column B would be used. If the total drop were to be 1 Ib, the drop
per 100 ft would be Y% Ib and Column E would be used.
For mains and riser runouts that are not dripped, and for radiator
runouts where in all three cases the condensation and steam flow in
opposite directions, Column I should be used, while for the steam risers
Column H should be used unless the drop per 100 ft is J^ Ib or \<& Ib,
when Columns B or C should be substituted so as not to exceed the drop
permitted.
On an overhead down-feed system the main steam riser should be
sized by reference to Column H, but the down-feed steam risers sup-
plying the radiators should be sized by the appropriate Columns B through
G, since the condensation flows downward with the steam through them.
The riser runouts, if pitched down toward the riser as they should be, are
sized the same as the steam mains, and the radiator runouts are made the
same as in an up-feed system.
In either up-feed or down-feed systems the returns are sized in the
same manner and on the same pressure drop basis as the steam main ; the
return mains are taken from Columns 0, R, U, X, or A A according to the
drop used for the steam main; and the risers are sized by reading the
lower part of Table 8 under the column used for the mains. The hori-
zontal runouts from the riser to the radiator are not usually increased on
the return lines although there is nothing incorrect in this practice. The
same notes apply that are given for one-pipe gravity systems.
TWO-PIPE VAPOR SYSTEMS
While many manufacturers of patented vapor heating accessories have
their own schedules for pipe sizing, an inspection of these sizing tables
indicates that in general as small a drop as possible is recommended. . The
reasons for this arer^l) to have the condensation return to the boiler by
gravity, (2) to obtain a more uniform distribution of steam throughout
the system, especially when it is desirable to carry a moderate or low
fire, and (3) because with large variation in pressure the value of gradu-
ated valves on radiators is destroyed.
For small vapor systems where the equivalent length of run does not
exceed 200 ft, it is recommended that the main and any runouts to risers
that may be dripped should be sized from Column D, while riser runouts
not dripped and radiator runouts should employ Column I. The up-feed
steam risers should be taken from Column H. On the returns, the risers
should be sized from Column U (lower portion) and the mains from
Column U (upper portion). It should again be noted that the pressure
drop in the steam side of the system is kept the same as on the return side
except where the flow in the riser is concerned.
On a down-feed system the main vertical riser should be sized from
Column JET, but the down-feed risers can be taken from Column D al-
though it so happens that the values in Columns D and H correspond.
This will not hold true in larger systems.
For vapor systems over 200 ft of equivalent length, the drop should not
exceed K Ib to J£ Ib, if possible. Thus, for a 400 ft equivalent run the
drop per 100 ft should be not over y% Ib divided by 4, or J^ Ib. In this
case the steam mains would be sized from Column B ; the radiator and
311
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
undripped riser runouts from Column /; the risers from Column B,
because Column H gives a drop in excess of J^ Ib. On a down-feed
system, Column B would have to be used for both the main riser and the
smaller risers feeding the radiators in order not to increase the drop over
^2 Ib. The return risers would be sized from the lower portion of Column
0 and the dry return main from the upper portion of the same column,
while any wet returns would be sized from Column^. The same pressure
drop is applied on both the steam and the return sides of the system.
Notes on Vapor Systems
1. Pitch of mains should not be less than %'m.m 10 ft.
2. Pitch of horizontal runouts to risers and radiators should not be less than 3^ in.
in 10 ft. Where this pitch cannot be obtained runouts over 8 ft in length should be one
size larger than called for in the table.
3. In general it is not desirable to have a supply main smaller than 2 in., and when the
supply main is 3 in. or over at the boiler or pressure reducing valve it should not be less
than 2J^ in. at the far end.
4. When necessary, supply main, supply risers, or branches to supply risers should be
dripped separately into a wet return. The drip for a vapor system- may be connected
into the dry return through a thermostatic drip trap.
VACUUM SYSTEMS
Vacuum systems are usually employed in large installations and have
total drops varying from % to % Ib. Systems where the maximum
equivalent length does not exceed 200 ft preferably employ the smaller
pressure drop while systems over 200 ft equivalent length of run more
frequently go to the higher drop, owing to the relatively greater saving in
pipe sizes. For example, a system with 1200 ft longest equivalent length
of run would employ a drop per 100 ft of J^ Ib divided by 12, or ^4 Ib.
In this case the steam main would be sized from Column C, and the risers
also from Column C (Column H could be used as far as critical velocity is
concerned but the drop would exceed the limit of J^4 Ib). Riser runouts,
if dripped, would use Column C but if undripped would use Column 7;
radiator runouts, Column /; return risers, lower part of Column 5;
return runouts to radiators, one pipe size larger than the radiator trap
connections.
Notes on Vacuum Systems
1. It is not generally considered good practice to exceed H-rt> drop per 100 ft of
equivalent run nor to exceed 1 Ib total pressure drop in any system.
2. Pitch of mains should not be less than J£ in. in 10 ft.
3. Pitch of horizontal runouts to risers and radiators should not be less than J^ in.
in 10 ft. Where this pitch cannot be obtained runouts over 8 ft in length should be one
size larger than called for in the table.
4. In general it is not considered desirable to have a supply main smaller than 2 in.
When the supply main is 3 in. or over, at the boiler or pressure reducing valve, it should
not be less than 2% in. at the far end.
5. JWhen necessary, the supply main, supply riser, or branch to a supply riser should
be dripped separately through a trap into the vacuum return. A connection should not
be made between the steam and return sides of a vacuum system without interposing a
trap to prevent the steam from entering the return line.
6. Lifts should be avoided if possible, but when they cannot be eliminated they
should be made in the manner described in Chapter 15 under Up-Feed Vacuum Systems.
312
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS
The sizing of the supply and return piping on atmospheric systems is
practically identical with the sizing used for vacuum systems and the
same notes appty, except that no lift can be made in the return line.
SUB-ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS
Any properly pitched, correctly sized vacuum system without a'lift
except at the vacuum pump may be used as a sub-atmospheric system
when the proper equipment is substituted for the ordinary vacuum
pump, traps, and controls. On new systems manufacturers usually
recommend a drop on the steam line of between J£ and } o lb for the total
run, and suggest adding 25 ft to the total equivalent length of run to
insure that the steam gets through to the last radiator.
The same notes apply to these systems as for vacuum systems, except
that no lifts can be made In the returns.
ORIFICE SYSTEMS
The orifice systems can be operated with any piping system suitable
for vacuum operation, according to experienced designers. Because these
systems vary considerably in detail, it is advisable to consult the manu-
facturer of the particular system contemplated for recommendations.
The same notes apply to these systems as to vacuum systems, except
that lifts cannot be made in the returns of orifice systems if a vacuum
pump is used.
HIGH PRESSURE STEAM
When steam heating systems are supplied with steam from a high
pressure plant, one or more pressure-reducing valves are used to bring the
pressure down to that required by the heating system. It has been con-
sidered good practice to make the pressure reductions in steps not to
exceed 50 lb in each case. For example, in reducing from 100-lb gage to
2-lb gage, two pressure reducing valves would be used, the first reducing
the pressure from 100-lb gage to 50 lb and the second reducing the pressure
from 50-lb gage to 2-lb gage. Valves are available that will reduce 100 lb
in one step, and it is questionable whether two valves are now required
for initial pressures of 150 lb or less.
The pressure-reducing valve, or pressure-regulator as it is sometimes
termed, has ratings which vary 200 to 400 per cent. Some of these
ratings are based on arbitrary steam velocities through the valve of
5,000 to 10,000 fpm and it is assumed that the valve when wide open has
the same capacity as the pipe on the inlet opening of the valve. At times
it is considered desirable to keep the steam velocity in the high pressure
section of the piping and the low pressure section constant. The velocity
through the valve port is obviously a function of the pressure drop across
the valve. It is well known that steam flowing through an orifice increases
its velocity until the pressure on the outlet side is reduced to 58 per cent
of the absolute pressure on the inlet side, and that with further reduction
of pressure on the outlet side little change in velocity will be obtained.
As practically all pressure-reducing valves used for steam heating work
313
HEATING VENTIIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
lower the steam pressure to less than 58 per cent of the inlet pressures,
only the maximum velocity through such valves need be considered.
If it is assumed that the valve, when fully open, has an area equal to
that of the inlet pipe size, that the steam is flowing into a pressure less
than 58 per cent of the initial pressure, that the orifice efficiency is approx-
imately 70 per cent, and that 20 per cent more is allowed for a factor of
safety, then the pressure reducing valves will have the working capacities
shown in Table 10. If the valve, when fully open, does not give an orifice
area equal to that of the pipe on the inlet side, then the capacities will be
proportional to the percentage of opening secured, taking the pipe area
as 100 per cent. More frequently, difficulty is encountered from the use
of pressure reducing valves which are too large in size instead of being
TABLE 10. CAPACITIES OF PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES
(100-LB GAGE DOWN TO ANY PRESSURE — 52 LB OR LESS)
INLBT NOMINAL
PIPS DIAMBTBB
(INCHES)
POIWDS STEAM
PER HOUR
AT 100-Ls GAGK
EQUIVALENT DIRECT
RADIATION SQ FT
AT^LB
EQUIVALENT DIRECT
RADIATION SQ FT
AT^LB
M
866
3,464
2,598
a/
1,576
6,304
4,728
1
2,459
9,836
7,377
IK
4,263
17,052
12,689
1H
5,808
23,232
17,424
2
9,564
38,256
28,692
2Ji
13,623
54,492
40,869
3
21,041
84,104
63,123
3Ji
28,213
112,852
84,039
4
36,285
145,140
108,855
5
56,971
227,884
170,913
6
82,336
329,344
247,008
Formula:
where
A X V X 3600 X .50
144 X 3.88
• pounds per hour passed by orifice.
A = area of inlet pipe, square inches. *
V = velocity of steam through orifice (approximately 870 fps).
50 = 70 per cent efficiency of orifice less 20 per cent for factor of safety.
144 = square inches in 1 sq ft.
3600 = seconds in one hour.
3.88 ** cubic feet per pound at 100-lb gage.
too small. Where valves are large in size, the valve tends to work close
to the seat, causing it to cut out in a relatively short time, as well as
being noisy in operation.
Most exact regulation of pressure on steam heating systems is secured
from diaphragm-operated valves controlled by a pilot line from the low
pressure pipe, taken off the low pressure main at least 15 ft from the
reducing valve. The reducing valves operating on the proportional-
reduction principle will give a variation of steam pressure on the low
pressure side if the initial pressure varies between considerable limits.
The so-called dead-end valve is used for reduced pressures where the line
has not sufficient condensing capacity at all times to condense the leakage
that might occur with the ordinary valve. Single-disc valves do not give
as close regulation as double-disc valves, but the single disc is preferable
where dead-end valves are necessary, such as on short runs to thermo-
314
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
statically controlled hot water heaters, central fan heating units and
unit heaters.
The correct installation (Fig. 2) of a pressure-reducing valve includes
a pressure-reducing valve with a gate valve on each side, a by-pass con-
trolled by a globe valve, a pressure gage on the low pressure side, and a
safety valve on the low pressure main at some point, usually within a
reasonable distance of the pressure-reducing valve. Pressure-reducing
valves should have expanded outlets for sizes greater than 2 in. Where
the steam main is of still larger diameter than the expanded outlet, and in
cases where straight valves are used, an increaser is placed close against
the outlet of the valve to reduce the velocity immediately after passing
through the valve. Strainers are recommended on the inlets of all
pressure-reducing valves. A pressure gage may be located on the high-
pressure line near the valve if desired.
Owing to the large variation in steam demand on the average heating
system , it is generally advisable to use two pressure-reducing valves con-
Less trouble from expansion leaks will occur when the bypass
valve is on the same center line as the pressure reducing valve
Bypass (same size as high ^ Globe valve
pressure supply line) ^ ^fa—j^^S* fety valve
Pressure gage,
if desired
High pressure steam
Drip' , , ^
Pressure reducing valve ^ Pilot line
FIG. 2. TYPICAL PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVE INSTALLATION
nected in parallel. One valve should be large enough for the maximum
load and the other should have a diameter approximately half that of the
first. The smaller valve can be used most of the time, for it will give
much better regulation than the larger one on light or normal loads.
Control Valves
Gate valves are recommended in all cases where service demands that
the valve be either entirely open or entirely closed, but they should never
be used for throttling. Angle globe valves and straight globe valves
should be used for throttling, as done on by-passes around pressure
reducing valves or on by-passes around traps.
EXPANSION IN STEAM AND RETURN LINES
Because all steam and return lines expand and contract with changes
in temperature, provision should be made for such movement. The
expansion in steam supply pipes is normally taken at 1J£ to 1^ in. per
100 ft and in return lines at one-half or two-thirds of this amount. It
may be calculated accurately if the temperature rise and fall can be
determined with reasonable certainty (Chapter 18). The temperature
at the time of erection often has a greater expansion effect on piping than
the temperature in the building after it has been put into service.
315
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Expansion may be taken care of by any, or all, of three different
methods, namely, (1) the spring in the pipe including offsets and expan-
sion bends, (2) the turning of the pipe on its threads and swing joints, and
(3) the use of expansion joints.
By the first scheme, which is the most popular method where space
permits, the pipe is offset, or broken, around rooms or corners, and is hung
so that the spring in the pipe at right angles to the expansion movement
is sufficient to absorb the expansion. If conditions do not lend themselves
to this treatment, regular expansion bends of the U or offset type may be
used. In tight places such as pipe tunnels the expansion joint is pre-
ferable. See additional material on pipe expansion bends in Chapter 18.
On riser runouts and radiator runouts the swing joint is used almost
without exception. On high vertical risers the pipes may be reversed
every five to ten stories; that is, the supply is carried over to the adjacent
return riser location and the return riser is run over to the former supply
riser location, thus making horizontal offsets in each line. Corrugated
copper expansion joints also are used on risers but must be made acces-
sible in case future replacement becomes necessary.
PIPING CONNECTIONS AND DETAILS
Piping connections may be classified into two groups: first, those
suitable for any system of steam heating; second, those devised for certain
systems which cannot be satisfactorily applied to any other type. There
are also various details that apply to piping on the steam side which
cannot be used on the returns. An installation that is designed and sized
correctly and installed with care may be rendered defective by the use of
improper connections, such as runouts that do not allow for expansion,
thermostatic traps unprotected from scale, pressure-reducing valves
without strainers, and lack of drips at required points.
BOILER CONNECTIONS
Supply
Boiler headers and connections have the largest sizes of pipe used in a
system. Cast-iron, horizontal-type, low pressure heating boilers usually
have several tapped outlets in the top, the manufacturers recommending
their use in order to reduce the velocity of the steam in the vertical up-
takes from the boiler and to permit entrained water to return to the
boiler instead of being carried over into the steam main where it must be
cared for by dripping. Steel heating boilers usually are equipped with
only one steam outlet but many engineers believe that better results are
obtained by specifying that such boilers have two. The second outlet,
usually located 3 or 4 ft back of the regular one, reduces the velocity
50 per cent in the steam uptake.
Fig. 3 shows a type of boiler connection that was used for many years
and one with which some boilers are now piped. The uptakes are carried
as high as possible, turned horizontally and run out to the side of the
boiler and then are connected together into the main boiler runout which
drops into the^top of the boiler header through a boiler stop valve. No
drips are provided on this type of runout except a very small one which
is sometimes installed on the boiler side of the stop valve. Fig. 4 shows a
316
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
type of boiler connection which is regarded as superior to that shown in
Fig. 3 and which is the type illustrated in the system diagrams in Chapter
15. This type is similar to that shown in Fig. 3 except that the horizontal
branches from the uptakes are connected into the main boiler runout, and
the steam is carried toward the rear of the boiler. The branch to the
building or boiler header is taken off behind the last horizontal boiler con-
nection. At the rear end of this main runout, a large size drip, or balance
pipe, is dropped down into the boiler return, or into the top of the Hart-
ford Loop, which is described in a following paragraph. As a result, any
water carried over from the boiler follows the direction of steam flow
Reducing ell
Uptake-
Main runout to
building or
header
-Drip and balance pipe
Water line
Hartford return connection
Main wet return
FIG. 3. OLD STYLE STANDARD BOILER
CONNECTIONS
FIG. 4. APPROVED METHOD OF BOILER
CONNECTIONS
toward the rear and is discharged into the rear drip, or balance pipe,
without being carried over into the system.
Return
Cast-iron boilers are generally provided with return tappings on both
sides, but steel boilers often are equipped with only one return tapping.
A boiler with side return tappings will usually have a more effective cir-
culation if both tappings are used. Check valves generally should not be
used on the return connection to steam heating boilers from one and two
pipe gravity systems because they are not always dependable inasmuch
as a small piece of scale or dirt lodged on the seat will hold the tongue open
and make the check useless. These valves also offer a certain amount of
resistance to the returns coming back to the boiler, and in gravity systems
will raise the water line in the far end of the wet return several inches3.
However, if check valves are omitted and the steam pressure is raised
with the boiler steam valve closed, the water in the boiler will be blown
out into the return system with the accompanying danger of boiler
damage. These objections are largely overcome with the Hartford
return connection.
*See method of calculating height above water line for gravity one-pipe systems in Chapter 15
317
mains. The a ^
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
boiler and the horizontal main or runout is compensated for by the use of
reducing ells (Figs. 3 and 4).
The following example illustrates the sizing of the boiler connections
shown in Fig. 6.
Example 4. Determine the size of boiler steam header and connections (Fig. 6) if
there are three boilers, two to carry 50 per cent of the load each, and the third to be used
as a spare. The steam mains are based on J^-lb drop per 100 sq ft of equivalent direct
radiation CEDR).
6,000 sq ft
2,000 sq ft
]
D
,000 sq ft 3,000 sq ft
A_ D
_ >ft. D
E y* F
Header
18,000
Solution:
Water line
FIG. 6. BOILER STEAM HEADER AND CONNECTIONS
Size of Boiler Header
WHEN
OPERATING
ON BOILERS
LOJLD ON VARIOUS PORTIONS or HKAJDHS
MAXIMUM
LOAD
A
B
C
D
E
F
Nos. 1 and 2
Nos. 2 and 3
Nos. 3 and 1
6000
6000
6000
0
6000
0
2000
8000
2000
4000
2000
2000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
3000
6000
8000
6000
Max. Load
6000
6000
8000
4000
3000
3000
8000
8000 sq ft @ H Ib per 100 ft - 6 in. main. (See Table 7.)
Size of Boiler Runouts
The three runouts
8000
= 2667 sq ft each @ >g Ib per 100 ft = 4 in. pipe.
Hi, H*, Hi = 2667 sq ft each © % Ib per 100 ft = 4 in. pipe4 (See Table 7).
/i, Js, Ji - 5333 sq ft each @ J£ Ib per 100 ft = 5 in. pipe4 (See Table 7).
£1, jRTs, K* = 8000 sq ft each @ }g Ib per 100 f t = 6 in. pipe4 (See Table 7).
The uptakes from the boiler probably would be 6 in. pipe with a 6 in. X 4 in. reducing
ell at top.
*Note. — As Ki, Ks, K» all carry 8000 SQ ft and are 6 in. pipe, the whole runout including Ji, 7s and Ji
and Hi, Hi and Hz and the leads from the boiler headers to the main steam header would also be made
6 in. pipe.
319
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Return connections to boilers in gravity systems are made the same
size as the return main itself. Where the return is split and connected to
two tappings OR the same boiler, both connections are made the full size
of the return line. Where two or more boilers are in use, the return to
each may be sized to carry the full amount of return for the maximum load
which that boiler will be required to carry. Where two boilers are used,
one of them being a spare, the full size of the return main would be
carried to each boiler, but if three boilers are installed, with one spare, the
return line to each boiler would require only half of the capacity of the
entire system, or, if the boiler capacity were more than one-half the entire
system load, the return would be sized on the basis of the maximum
boiler capacity. As the return piping around the boiler is usually small
and short, it should not be sized to the minimum.
inout.
Wall line
Swing
"Miiii I hi 1 1 il Mull H1 1
^^ Runout below floor
PLAN
^Runout below floor
ELEVATION
FIG. 7. ONE-PIPE RADIATOR CONNECTIONS
With returns pumped from a vacuum or receiver return pump, the size
of the line may be calculated from the water rate on the pump discharge
when it is operating, and the line sized for a very small pressure drop, the
size being obtained from the Chart for Pressure Drop for Various Rates of
Flow of Water, Fig. 3, Chapter 43. The relative boiler loads should be
considered, as in the case of gravity return connections.
Radiator Connections
Radiator connections are important on account of the number of
repetitions which occur in every heating installation. They must be
properly pitched and they must be arranged to allow not only for move-
ment in the riser but, in frame buildings, for the shrinkage of the building.
In a three story building this sometimes amounts to 1 in. or more. The
simplest connection is that for the one-pipe system where only one radia-
tor connection is necessary. Where the radiator runouts are located on
the ceiling or under the floor, sufficient space usually is available to make
320
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
FIG. 8. CONNECTIONS TO
STEAM-TYPE RADIATOR
FOR Two- PIPE SYSTEM
FIG. 9. TOP AND BOTTOM
OPPOSITE END RADIATOR
CONNECTIONS
FIG. 10. TOP AND
BOTTOM RADIATOR
CONNECTIONS
a good swing joint with plenty of pitch, but where the runouts must come
above the floor the vertical space is small and the runouts can project out
into the room only a short distance. Fig. 7 illustrates two satisfactory
methods of making runouts on a one-pipe gravity air vent system of
either the^up-feed or down-feed type, the runout below the floor being
indicated in full lines and the runout above the floor in dotted lines.
Sometimes it is necessary to set a radiator on pedestals, or to use high
legs, in order to obtain sufficient vertical distance to accommodate above-
the-floor runouts. Particular attention must be given to the riser expan-
sion as it will raise the runout and thereby reduce the pitch.
Similar connections for a two-pipe system of the gravity air vent type
are illustrated in Fig. 8 for the old steam type radiator. If the water
type is used, the supply tapping is at the top instead of at the bottom, the
runouts otherwise remaining as shown in Fig. 8. A satisfactory type
of radiator connection for atmospheric, vapor, vacuum, sub-atmos-
pheric, and orifice systems of both the up-feed and down-feed types is
shown in Fig. 9.
While short radiators, not exceeding 8 to 10 sections, may be supplied
and returned from the same end as indicated in Fig. 10, the top-and-
bottom-opposite-end method is to be preferred in all cases where it can be
used. On down-feed systems of the atmospheric, vapor, vacuum, sub-
atmospheric, and orifice types, the bottom of the supply riser must be
dripped into the return somewhat as illustrated in Fig. 11. On up-feed
systems of the vapor and atmospheric types, where radiators in the
basement are located below the level of the steam main, the drop to the
radiator is dripped into the wet return and an air line is used to vent the
return radiator connection into an overhead return line, as illustrated in
Fig. 12. When the radiator stands on the floor below the main, the drip
ttetpodaufflft
FIG. 11. TOP AND BOTTOM
OPPOSITE END RADIATOR
CONNECTIONS
FIG. 12. CONNECTIONS
TO RADIATOR HUNG
ON WALL
321
FIG. 13. CONNECTING
DROP RISER DIRECT
TO RADIATOR
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
on the steam branch down to the radiator may be omitted if an overhead
valve, as shown in Fig. 13, is used. This method is also suitable for
vacuum, sub-atmospheric, and orifice systems.
Converter Connections
Convectors often are installed without control valves, a damper being
used to shut off the flow of air to retard the heat transfer from the con-
vector even though it is still supplied with steam. The piping connec-
tions for a convector with the inlet and outlet at the same end are shown
in Fig. 14. There is no valve on the steam side but there is a thermostatic
trap on the return. The damper for control is shown immediately above
the convector. This piping is suitable for atmospheric, vapor, vacuum,
FIG. 14. CONVECTOR CON-
NECTIONS SAME END
FIG. 15. HORIZONTAL
FIN-TYPE HEATING
UNIT
FIG. 16. HEATING UNIT
VALVES BEHIND GRILLE
FIG. 17. HEATING UNIT
WITH VALVES IN
BASEMENT
it radiator
FIG. 18. FIN-TYPE HEAT-
ING UNIT IN CABINET
Dirt pocket
FIG. 19. PIPING CONNEC-
TIONS TO INDIRECT
RADIATORS
sub-atmospheric, and orifice systems of the up-feed type. A similar unit
with connections on opposite ends ^and suitable for the same systems is
shown in Fig. 15. This unit has no damper but requires a valve on the
steam connection for control. When valves must be located so as to be
accessible from the supply air grille, the arrangement usually takes the
form indicated in Fig. 16. A convector located in the basement and
supplying air to a room on the floor above may be piped as pictured in
Fig. 17 for all systems except gravity one-pipe or two-pipe systems.
Convectors with damper control, installed in cabinets or under window
sills, usually are connected as shown in Fig. 18.
Vapor systems with heating units in the basement where the returns
are dry would be treated as in Fig. 19. Similar heating units where a wet
return is available would be connected as shown in Fig. 20. If the dry
322
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
return were on a vacuum, atmospheric, sub-atmospheric or orifice system,
the treatment would be identical.
On all heating units it is important to use a nipple the full size of the
outlet and to reduce the pipe size to the normal return size required, by
the use of a reducing ell, as indicated in Fig. 21.
Pipe Coil Connections
Pipe coils, unless coupled in a correct manner, often give trouble from
short circuiting and poor circulation. The method of connecting shown
in Fig. 22 is suitable for atmospheric, vapor, vacuum, sub-atmospheric,
and orifice systems.
Indirect radiator
is point to be at least
24 in. above boiler water line
FIG. 20. TYPICAL PIPING CON-
NECTIONS TO CONCEALED HEAT-
ING UNITS WITH WET RETURNS
Reducing ell
•Thermostatic trap
To return line
beyond blast traps
To blast trap
Check valve
FIG. 21. HEATING UNIT RETURN CON-
NECTION WITH SEPARATE AIR LINE
Indirect Air Heater Connections
Heating units for central fan systems have simple connections on the
steam side. The steam main is carried into the fan room and has a
single branch tapped off for each row of heating units. Each of these
main branches is split into as many connections as need be made to each
row, governed by tihe number of stacks and the width of the stacks. Each
stack must have at least one steam connection, and wide stacks are more
evenly heated with two steam connections, one at each end.
323
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Typical connections to manifold
coils of not over 8 pipes
Typical connections to manifold
coils having more than 8 pipes
Dirt pocket
RetunvjTU
K ODVfrT
Dirt pocket Jl
R-+,,m^y
FIG. 22. TYPICAL PIPE COIL CONNECTIONS
The piping shown in Fig. 23 is for small stacks and has the steam con-
nected at only one end. On the return side all of the returns are collected
together through check valves and are passed through blast traps which
are connected to the vacuum return or to an atmospheric return. The air
from the stacks, in the case illustrated, passes up into a small air line and
through a thermostatic trap into a line connecting into the return beyond
the blast trap.
Where the stacks contain some thirteen or more sections, an auxiliary
air tapping is made to the lower portion of one of the middle sections, in
the manner illustrated in Fig. 24, to prevent air collecting at this point.
Thermostatic control as applied to such heating units in modern practice
-Valve
Blast heaters .
Blast traps -
Return^
FIG. 23. SUPPLY AND RETURN CON-
NECTIONS FOR HEATING UNITS OF
CENTRAL FAN SYSTEMS
FIG. 24. TYPICAL CONNECTIONS TO
CENTRAL FAN SYSTEM HEATING
UNITS EXCEEDING 12 SECTIONS
324
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
consists of a thermostatic valve located in each main branch from the
steam line so that each valve will open or close a complete row of stacks
across the entire face of the heating unit. In such cases the outlet con-
nections from each stack should be provided with a check valve. The
stack closest to the outside air intake usually is not equipped with a
thermostatic valve. A gate valve on the steam pipe to the first coil is
operated manually to supply steam continuously in freezing weather.
Good practice demands that the returns be connected in parallel with
the steam supplies, with a separate steam trap for each bank of coils
having a separately valved steam supply. This arrangement is illustrated
in Fig. 23, for blast traps having external thermostatic by-passes and
integral thermostatic by-passes, respectively.
Steam main
FIG. 25. UNIT HEATER CONNECTED TO ONE-PIPE AIR- VENT SYSTEM
A method of connecting a unit heater to a one-pipe air-vent steam
heating system is illustrated in Fig. 25.
PIPE SIZING FOR INDIRECT HEATING UNITS
Pipe connections and mains for indirect heating units are sized in a
manner similar to radiators, but the equivalent direct radiation must be
ascertained for each row of heating unit stacks and then must be divided
into the number of stacks constituting that row and into the number of
connections to each stack,
77 r»E> — y ^ X (*1 EC) (2 X (*1 *t) fn\
EDR 55.2 X 240 2208 (3)
where
EDR = equivalent direct radiation, square feet.
Q = volume of air, cubic feet per minute.
fe = the temperature of the air entering the row of heating units under con-
sideration, degrees Fahrenheit.
ft = the temperature of the air leaving the row of heating units under considera-
tion, degrees Fahrenheit.
60 = the number of minutes in one hour.
55.2 = the number of cubic feet of air heated 1 F by 1 Btu.
240 = the number of Btu in 1 sq ft of EDR.
325
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Example 6. Assume that the heating units shown in Fig. 26 are handling 50,000 cfm
of air and that the rise in the first row is from 0 to 40 Ff in the second row from 40 to
65 F, and in the third row from 65 to 80 F. What is the load in EDR on each supply
and return connection?
Gate valves N
/Thermostatic valves
FIG. 26. TYPICAL PIPING FOR ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM SYSTEMS WITH
THERMOSTATIC CONTROL (CENTRAL FAN SYSTEM)
Solution. For row 1,
_ 50.000 X (40 - 0) _
R -- 2208 -- 90SS Sq ft
For row 2,
R
50,000 ^ (65 - 40)
For row 3,
=3397s<1ft.
Each row of heating units consists of four stacks and each stack has two connections
so that the load on each stack and each connection of the stack is as follows:
Row
TOTAL LOUD
(EDR)
STACK LOAD*
(EDR)
CONNECTION LoADb
(EDR)
1
9058
2265
2265 or 1132
2
5661
1415
1415 or 708
3
3397
S49
849 or 425
•One quarter of total row load.
fcOne half of stack load If two steam connections are made; otherwise, same as stack load.
326
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
The pipe sizes would then be based on the length of the run and the pressure drop
desired, as in the case of radiators. It generally is considered desirable to place the in-
direct heating units on a separate system and not on supply or return lines connected to
the general heating system.
DRIPPING
Any steam main in any type of steam heating system may be dropped
to a lower level without dripping if the pitch is downward with the steam
flow. Any steam main in any heating system can be elevated if dripped
(Fig. 27). Steam mains also may be run over obstructions without a
change in level if a small pipe is carried below the obstruction to care for
r
Reoueing coupUng-^y >
U
FIG. 27. DRIPPING MAIN
WHERE IT RISES TO
HIGHER LEVEL
Haixlhote
Plug tee for
FIG. 28. LOOPING MAIN
AROUND BEAM
FIG. 29. LOOPING DRY
RETURN MAIN AROUND
OPENING
r
45°elbowN
Acceptable method
•Main
Preferred method
FIG. 30. METHODS OF
TAKING BRANCH FROM
MAIN
To find length Omutopty A
by constant for angleB
FIG. 31. CONSTANTS FOR
DETERMINING LENGTH
OFFSET PIPE
FIG. 32. DIRT POCKET
CONNECTION
the condensation (Fig. 28). Return mains may be carried past doorways
or other obstructions by using the scheme illustrated in Fig. 29 ; in vacuum
systems it is well to have a gate valve in the air line.
Branches from steam mains in one-pipe gravity steam systems should
use the preferred connection shown in Fig. 30, but where radiator condensa-
tion does not flow back into the main the acceptable method shown in the
same figure may be used. This acceptable method has the advantage of
giving a perfect swing joint when connected to the vertical riser or radia-
tor connection, whereas the preferred connection does not give this swing
without distorting the angle of the pipe. Runouts from the steam main
are usually made about 5 ft long to provide flexibility for movement in
the main.
Offsets in steam and return piping should preferably be made with
327
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
90-deg ells but occasionally fittings of other angles are used, and in such
cases the length of the diagonal offset will be found as shown in Fig. 31.
Dirt pockets, desirable on all systems employing thermostatic traps,
should be so located as to protect the traps from scale and muck which
will interfere with their operation. Dirt pockets are usually made 8 in.
to 12 in. deep and serve as receivers for foreign matter which otherwise
would be carried into the trap. They are constructed as shown in Fig. 32.
On vapor systems where the end of the steam main is dripped down
into the wet return, the air venting at the end of the main is accomplished
by an air vent passing through a thermostatic trap into the dry return
line as shown in Fig. 33. On vacuum systems the ends of the steam mains
are dripped and vented into the return through drip traps opening into
the return line. The same method may be used in atmospheric systems.
A float type trap is preferable to a thermostatic trap for dripping steam
mains and large risers. If thermostatic traps are used a cooling leg
NDry return
FIG. 33. DRIPPING END FIG. 34. DRIPPING END FIG. 35. DRIPPING HEEL
OF MAIN INTO WET OF MAIN INTO DRY OF RISER INTO DRY
RETURN RETURN RETURN
(Fig. 34) should always be provided. The cooling leg is for cooling the
condensation sufficiently before it reaches the trap so the trap will not be
held shut by too high a temperature. On down-feed systems of atmos-
pheric, vapor, and vacuum types, the bottom of the steam risers are
dripped in the manner shown in Fig. 35. On large systems it is desirable
to install a gate valve in the cooling leg ahead of the trap.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What factors determine the size of steam piping and the allowable limit
of capacity?
Factors which determine the size of steam piping are the desired initial pressure and the
allowable drop in pressure which is permissable to maintain a pressure in the farthest
radiator. The length of run in sizing piping is important and it is generally considered
as the distance along the piping from the source of steam supply to the farthest radiator,
with allowances for resistance of elbows and valves expressed in terms of equivalent
length.
2 • "When the size of pipe is still undetermined, what arbitrary percentage is
usually added to the actual length to obtain the equivalent length?
Usually 100 per cent; in other words, the actual length is doubled to allow for the added
drop produced by the valves, tees, elbows, and other fittings.
328
CHAPTER 16. PIPING FOR STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
3 • What are the major factors to I>e considered in determining the flow of
htcatu in pipes?
a. The initial steam pressure available and the total pressure drop allowable between the
source of steam supply and the end of the return system. The pressure drop should
never exceed one half of the initial pressure.
b. The maximum steam velocity allowable. When condensate is flowing against the
steam, the velocity must not be so great as to produce water hammer, or hold up
water in parts of the system until the steam flow is reduced sufficiently to permit the
water to pass. The velocity at which disturbances take place depends upon :
1. Size of pipe.
2. Whether pipe is vertical or horizontal.
3. Pitch or grade of pipe.
4. Quantity of water flowing against steam.
c. The equivalent length of run from the source of steam supply to the farthest heating
unit, with allowance for friction in pipe fittings and valves.
4 • Name three fundamental considerations in designing the piping system
for steam heating.
a. Provision for the distribution of suitable quantities of steam to the various heating
units.
b. Provision for the return of condensate from the radiators and piping to the boiler.
c. Provision of means for expelling air from the radiators and piping.
5 • Why is the proper reaming of the ends of pipe necessary?
The capacities of pipes depend upon the free area available for flow. In cutting^the pipe
this area may be restricted by a burr, which may decrease the capacity of a pipe more
than 25 per cent in the smaller pipe sizes.
6 • a. What are the major factors to he considered when selecting a pressure
reducing valve?
b. How should such valve he installed?
a. The initial pressure of the steam must be considered along with the desired reduced
pressure. The connected load to be supplied must be known in square feet of equiva-
lent direct radiation or in pounds of steam per hour. For operation with a continuous
load, a semi-balanced or double-seated valve operated by a diaphragm gives good
results. Where the load is intermittent, as in process work or with thermostatically
controlled blast heaters, a so-called dead end or single-seated valve should be used.
b. The pressure reducing valve should be installed in a horizontal line with a gate valve
on each side, and with a by-pass operated by a valve. The pressure balancing pipe
from the diaphragm chamber should be connected into the top or side of the low
pressure main not less than 15 ft from the reducing valve.
7 • What is the usual expansion allowance and how it is compensated for in
heating system supply risers?
The expansion of low pressure steam piping is normally taken as 1J4 to IJi in. per 100
ft of pipe. With a five story building a double swing connection between the riser and the
main will suffice. In buildings between 5 and 10 stories high the riser should be anchored
near its center and have double swing connections to the main. For taller buildings
expansion loops or riser offsets are used which are capable of handling a length of riser
reaching 5 stories in either direction from the joint. The risers are anchored at each
alternate 5 stories. All radiators must have double swing connections, and those con-
nected above where the riser is anchored must be given greater pitch to insure their
having proper grade when the riser is heated.
329
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
8 • Why should all boiler steam supply tappings be used full size?
In order to operate at low steam velocities so the water in suspension can separate from
the steam and remain in the boiler.
9 • What is the Underwriters Loop or the Hartford Connection?
An arrangement of piping on the returns to low pressure boilers wherein the return line
is raised up yearly to the water line of the boiler and is then dropped back and con-
nected to the boiler return inlet; the high point is connected by a balanced pipe to the
steam runout from the boiler on the boiler side of all stop valves. With this loop no
check valve is required on gravity systems, and water cannot be backed out of the boiler
and into the return at a point lower than the invert of the pipe at the top of the loop.
10 • What are the important factors in making radiator connections?
Connections to radiators should be made as direct as possible, of proper size, with ample
pitch of piping and allowance for expansion.
11 • Why should careful attention be given to proper dripping and drainage
of steam piping?
The steam mains and risers must be quickly drained of condensate and where necessary
vented of air in order to obtain a sufficient supply of steam to the radiators. Proper
drainage is also necessary to insure a noiseless heating system.
12 • What is the limit of pressure drop usually recommended in a vacuum
system?
Not over J^ Ib (2 oz) per 100 ft of equivalent run, and not over 1 Ib total drop.
13 • When steam and condensation are flowing in the same direction, what is
the maximum total pressure drop which should be used?
The maximum total pressure drop should not exceed one half of the initial steam pressure.
14 • What does a proper installation of a pressure reducing valve include?
A strainer in front of the pressure reducing valve; a gate valve in front of the strainer; a
gate valve after the reducing valve; a by-pass around the two gate valves, strainer, and
pressure reducing valve; and a globe valve in the by-pass. Sometimes a safety valve on
the low pressure side and pressure gages on both sides are installed. The high pressure
line should be dripped just before the high pressure steam enters the pressure reducing
valve assembly.
15 • Will a pressure reducing valve which is reducing the steam pressure from
100 Ib gage to 50 Ib gage pass more or less steam than the same valve when
reducing the steam pressure from 100 Ib gage to 5 Ib gage?
The valve will pass practically the same volume of steam in each case as the velocity of
steam flowing through an orifice shows no material increase after the reduced absolute
pressure has fallen to 58 per cent of the initial absolute pressure. Because of its greater
density, the weight of steam passed will be greater in the case of the reduction to 50 Ib
gage.
330
Chapter 17
HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
AND PIPING
One- and Two -Pipe Systems, Mechanical Circulation, Cir-
culators, Iron Pipe and Copper Tube Sizes, Gravity Circula-
tion, Expansion Tanks, Relief Valves, Installation Details
THE various forms of hot water heating may be fundamentally classi-
fied according to motive force, namely, forced circulation or gravity
flow. Forced circulation is accomplished by the use of centrifugal or
propeller type pumps which are especially designed for this particular
type of application. Gravity flow is maintained by the difference in
weight of the water in the flow and return mains.
These systems may be further classified as to high or low operating
water temperatures. Higher water temperatures permit a reduction in
radiator size. A large temperature differential between the flow and
return results in smaller pipe sizes as also does the use of forced circulation.
Light wall copper tubing has recently been introduced to supplement the
customary black iron piping which has been used for these systems in
the past.
Low temperature water(150 to 180 F) is generally that which provides
a heat emission per square foot of radiation of from 150 to 165 Btu while
a high temperature water (200 to 220 F) will deliver from 200 to 240 Btu.
The use of high temperature water in a heating system is desirable as
the maximum outside temperature ^f or which the system is designed will
occur for a relatively short time during the average season. The increased
use of automatic heating equipment with more accurate controls, makes
it possible to use higher temperatures and smaller heating units without
sacrificing good design.
The unit, a square foot of equivalent direct radiation, EDR, has been
used for many years for rating purposes in both steam and hot water systems,
but its use, especially in hot water systems, has always resulted in compli-
cations and confusion. It is the plan of THE GUIDE to eventually eliminate
this empirical expression and to stibstitute a logical unit based on the Btu.
The Mb, the equivalent of 1000 Btu and the Mbh, the equivalent of 1000 Btu
per hour, which have been approved by the A.S.H.V.E. are used in this
chapter on hot water systems to replace 'the square foot of radiation formerly
used.
331
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In designing a piping arrangement for a hot water heating system, it is
necessary to observe the fundamental rule that the total friction head in
any circuit must not exceed the pressure head available for circulating the
water. It is necessary to size the pipe in any circuit, so that the friction
loss produced by the movement of a sufficient volume of water to handle
the heating load will not be greater than the available head.
In designing a hot water heating system, it is necessary to determine:
1. The heat losses of the rooms or spaces to be heated. (See Chapter 7.)
2. The size and type of boiler. (See Chapter 13.)
3. The location, type, and size of heating units. (See Chapter 14.)
4. The method of piping.
5. The type and size of circulating pump (if forced circulation).
6. Suitable pipe sizes.
7. The type and size of expansion tank.
ONE- AND TWO-PIPE SYSTEMS
Piping systems may be divided into two general types, namely, one-
pipe and two-pipe systems. These fundamental piping layouts may
differentiate between up-flow, down-flow and zoned systems. Also the
type of riser and radiator connection may vary considerably. Zoning is
important in modern design and it is accomplished by dividing the system
into a number of circuits and controlling each circuit individually. In a
two-pipe system the piping is arranged so that the water flows through
only one radiator during a circuit through the system, so that all radiators
are supplied with water at practically the same temperature as that in the
boiler. In some one-pipe systems, the water flows through more than one
radiator during its circuit. In that case, the first radiator* receives the
hottest water; the second radiator, somewhat cooler water; the third one,
still cooler; and so on. As the temperature of the water supplied to a
radiator is lowered, the size of the radiator must be increased and, con-
sequently, the total heating surface for a one-pipe system must be greater
than for a two-pipe system for the same requirements. As the velocity is
increased in a one-pipe system, the drop in temperature is decreased, so
that water at a higher average temperature is delivered to the radiators.
This means that the radiators at the end of the main can be sized on the
same basis as the radiators at the beginning of the main. If the system is
correctly designed, the resulting error is less than the variation in calcu-
lating the heating load for the enclosure.
By making use of improved devices now available, one-pipe forced
circulation systems may be calculated by the same procedure described
later for two-pipe systems. Operation may be obtained as satisfactory as
with a two-pipe system.
Two-pipe systems may be divided into two classes, direct return sys-
tems (Fig. 1), and reversed return systems (Fig. 2). In a direct return
system the water returns to the heater by a direct route after it has
passed through its radiator and, as a result, the paths through the three
radiators shown in Fig. 1 are of unequal lengths, the path through the
first radiator being the shortest and that through the third radiator, the
332
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
longest. In a reversed return system, the water returns to the heater by
an indirect route after it has passed through the radiators, so that the
paths leading through the three radiators shown in Fig. 2 are practi-
cally of equal length.
The reversed return system has an advantage over the direct return
system in that it is more likely to function satisfactorily even though the
pipe system is not accurately designed. For example, if in Fig. 2 all pipes
are of one size, each of the three radiators will receive approximately the
same quantity of hot water because the three paths are practically of
equal length, whereas in Fig. 1, if all pipes are of the same size. Radiator
1 will receive more water than the others because the path through it is
shorter than those through the other radiators. As a result, Radiator 1
will be filled with water at a higher average temperature than the re-
maining two radiators, and will therefore dissipate more heat. To pre-
vent this unequal distribution of heat it is necessary to throttle the paths
through Radiators 1 and 2 so that the friction heads of the three paths are
equal when each radiator receives its proper quantity of water.
The two-pipe direct return system, with its inherent lack of balance,
is the least satisfactory type of piping possible, yet is the most widely used.
FIG. 1. A DIRECT RETURN SYSTEM
J
m,
1
ni
i,
til,
i
4
1
H
_J
FIG. 2. A REVERSED RETURN SYSTEM
The modern applications of automatic heating require a system to be very
nearly in balance so that uniform distribution of heat will be obtained.
Two-pipe systems must be balanced first by calculation and then by
test after the plant is in operation. Unbalanced conditions in a forced
circulation system are more detrimental to satisfactory operation than in
the system circulated by gravity. The selection of orifices for correcting
the unbalance must be more accurate. Due to the variations in water
delivery from pipes, the accuracy of calculations is decreased, so that
more reliance must be placed on actual test work. This is always costly
and seldom completely satisfactory.
A comparison of Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 may suggest that a reversed return
system requires considerably longer mains than a direct return system.
This is not always the case, as will be noted from the reversed return
system of Fig. 3.
MECHANICAL CIRCULATION AND CIRCULATORS
The designer of a forced circulation system generally makes use of the
pumps commercially available. Pumps of this type will have character-
istics which govern the water velocity selected for the heating system.
However, available pumps generally have a sufficient range of capacities
333
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
to promote the selection of an economical velocity. If a system is designed
to handle a load of 96 Mbh with a 20 F drop allowable in the system, a
circulating pump will be required, handling about 10 gpm and at a head
pressure high enough to allow a satisfactory friction drop in the system.
Frequently water velocities are selected wrhich produce objectionable
noises in the system. A velocity of over 4 fps is apt to cause noise in the
smaller pipes and tubes. Velocities higher than this value will cause no
objectionable trouble in industrial applications.
•HlOMbhH"
FIG. 3. A FORCED CIRCULATION REVERSED RETURN SYSTEM**
*Note that the numbers on the radiators indicate thousands of Btu per hour (Mbh) and not square feet.
Low head centrifugal pumps especially designed for hot water sys-
tems are used to provide the necessary head pressure for forced circulation
ind to improve the operation of an improperly designed or installed
gravity system. These pumps are designated by the nominal pipe size of
iieir connection, but the selection of the pump should be governed by
the capacity curves and not by the npminal pipe size. These pumps
pperate with little noise and low power consumption, both of which are
Matures of prime importance to the satisfactory operation of a forced
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
circulation system. They are designed for installation directly into the
heating main and require no other support. The common practice is to
install them in the return line but where desirable there is no objection to
their location in the supply line. Gate valves should be installed in either
side of the pump so that it can be removed without draining a system.
A by-pass is not necessary as the friction drop through the pump' is not
sufficient to prevent gravity recirculation if the pump should become
inoperative.
Propeller type pumps are also available for hot water service, generally
being built into a fitting and are made in all of the commercial pipe sizes
commonly used in heating. They are installed in the same manner as a
centrifugal pump.
Forced circulation lends itself to automatic control and the arrangement
of the circuit depends entirely on the design of the system. The control
may consist of a thermostat controlling both the automatic firing device
and the circulator with the same type of limit control, as a safety switch.
This type of control can be satisfactory, provided the radiation is properly
selected and accurately located in the building. A circuit using flow
control valves to regulate the gravity flow of the water when the pump
is not running allows the temperature to be maintained closer to the
desired setting. Under these circumstances, the circulator motor is
controlled by a room thermostat while the automatic firing device is
controlled by a limit switch with a safety device in 'series.
For exceptionally large installations, such as central heating plants
circulating pumps of the centrifugal single stage type having an average
operating efficiency of 70 per cent against heads up to 125 ft are sometimes
used. In some cases it is advisable to install pumps in duplicate to provide
for contingencies and to insure continuous operation. In such cases,
each pump should be made equal to the maximum capacity required.
PIPE SIZES
The pressure heads available in forced circulation systems are much
greater than those in gravity circulation systems, consequently, higher
velocities may be used in designing the system, with the result that smaller
pipes may be selected and the first cost of the installation reduced. As
the pipes of a heating system are reduced in size, the necessary increase in
the velocity of the water increases both the cost of operation and the
initial cost of the circulating equipment. The increased velocity of a
forced circulation system offers a number of advantages, such as a much
shorter heating-up period and a more flexible control of hot water circu-
lation. This improved performance merits the small increase in operating
cost necessary to mechanically circulate the system. The velocity
required should be determined by calculation for the particular system
under consideration.
Since the velocities in forced circulation systems are higher than those
in gravity circulation systems, and since the friction heads in a heating
system vary almost as the squares of the velocities, a given error in the
calculation or assumption of a velocity is less important in a forced circu-
lation system than in a gravity circulation system and, consequently, it
335
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
50 100 500 1000
HlTAT CONVEYED PEP HOUP IN 1000 D.T.U.
5000 10000
FIG. 4. FRICTION HEADS IN BLACK IRON PIPES FOR A 20 F TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE OF THE WATER IN THE FLOW AND RETURN LINES
336
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
is easier to design a satisfactory forced circulation system than a satis-
factory gravity circulation system.
FORCED CmCULATION
In designing a forced circulation system, black iron pipe sizes may be
selected from either Fig. 4 or Table 1, both of which are based on a 20 F
temperature difference between the flow and return lines. For other
temperature drops, the pipe capacities may be changed to correspond
to the desired differentials. Research data are lacking for determining
the capacities of copper tube sizes. In the absence of complete test data
at the present time, capacities are given in Table 2 for type L copper tube
sizes which are based on a recently developed hydraulic formula1. The
friction heads of boiler, radiator valve and tee may be expressed in terms
of friction head in one elbow according to the values given in Table 3 for
iron pipe, and Table 4 for copper tubing.
The following examples will illustrate the procedure to be followed in
designing forced circulation systems.
Example 1. From the plan of Fig. 3 note that the longest circuit consists of 151 ft of
iron pipe; 1 boiler; 1 radiator; 1 radiator valve; 1 stop cock; 10 ells and 3 tees; and the
shortest circuit consists of 127 ft of pipe; 4 tees; 1 boiler; 1 radiator; 1 radiator valve;
1 stop cock; and 6 ells. Design the piping for this system.
Solution. The friction in the various fittings can be expressed in terms of the friction
in a 90-deg elbow from the values given in Table 3. The longest circuit consists of 151 ft
of pipe and 44 elbow equivalents. The short circuit consists of 127 ft of pipe and 39
elbow equivalents.
The friction head in one elbow is approximately equal to the friction produced by the
same sized pipe 25 diameters in length. Assume that the average pipe size for this
system is 1 in. The equivalent length of the longest circuit will be 151 ft plus 100 ft or
251 ft of pipe. The equivalent length of the short circuit will be 217 ft.
Having determined the equivalent length of the circuits, the next step is to assume the
rate at which the water is to be circulated in the system. The water may flow through
the system so that it will cool any reasonable number of degrees. For the most economi-
cal average system a 20 F drop seems to be a satisfactory rate. This entails a slower
water flow from the pumping equipment with a reasonable relationship between pipe
size and flow. Assume 20 F drop for this system. One gallon of water per minute with a
density of 7.99 at 215 F will deliver approximately 9600 Btu per hour with a 20 F drop.
The total radiation load is 98 Mbh, therefore the pump must deliver 10.2 gpm or 4900
Ib of water per hour.
Knowing that the rate of flow is 10.2 gpm, the next step is to determine from the
characteristics of available pumps, which one will produce a satisfactory velocity in the
system. Assume that 4 pumps are available for this load which will produce 10.2 gpm at
pressure heads of 2, 5, 10 and 18 ft. At these heads the pumps would produce a velocity
high enough to make available a friction head per foot of pipe of 96, 240, 480 and 860
milinches per foot respectively. If 95 milinches per foot were used, the gravity head at
215 F average temperature in the mains would be 26 per cent of the total head and
should be considered in sizing the system. At 240 milinches per foot the gravity effect is
10 per cent and as this is lower than the delivery variation from the pipe used, it can be
neglected. At 480 and 860 milinches the gravity effect is still a smaller percentage of
the total, but at these losses in the average system the cost of pumping will more than
offset the advantage gained in pipe sizes. Therefore, pipe size this system at 240 mil-
inches per foot which is equivalent to a total loss of 60,000 milinches for the 250 ft
equivalent length of pipe.
Hydraulic Service Characteristics of Small Metallic Pipes, by G. M. Fair, M. C. Whipple and C. Y.
Hsiao (Journal of the Xew England Water Works Association, Vol. XLIV, No. 4, 1930).
337
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. CAPACITIES FOR BLACK IRON PIPE
A = Carrying capacities inMbh
B = Velocity in inches per second
HEAD
Loss,
FT
MlLINCH
FRICTION Loss
PER FOOT
OF PIPE
720 480 | 360 300
I
240
j 180
i
160 | 144
120 |
i
96
90 ! 80
l
70
60
EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF PIPE IN FEET (LONGEST CIRCUIT)
2 33
2J« 42
3 50
50
62
75
66
84
100
SO
100
120
100
125
150
133
167
200
150
188
225
167
208
250
200
250
300
250
312
375
270
333
400
300
375
450
340
428
510
400
500
600
3*
4H
59
67
75
87
100
112
117
133
149
140
160
180
175
200
225
233
266
300
263
300
338
291
333
374
350
400
450
437
500
562
463
533
593
525
600
675
593
685
758
700
800
900
5
5*
83
02
100
125
137
150
167
183
200
200
220
240
250
275
300
333
366
400
375
413
450
416
457
500
500
550
600
625
687
750
666
713
800
750
825
900
860
923
1030
1000
1100
1200
««
7M
108
116
124
162
175
187
217
233
249
260
280
300
325
350
375
433
465
500
488
525
563
540
580
623
650
700
750
812
875
937
843
933
973
975
1050
1125
1088
1200
1252
1300
1400
1500
8
8M
133
142
150
200
212
225
266
283
300
320
340
360
400
425
450
533
566
600
600
638
675
666
706
750
800
850
900
1000
1062
1125
1070
1103
1200
1200
1275
1350
1370
1417
1540
1600
1700
1800
&*
10H
159
167
175
237
250
262
317
333
349
380
400
420
475
500
525
633
666
700
713
750
788
789
833
872
950
1000
1050
1187
1250
1312
1233
1333
1363
1425
1500
1575
1577
1715
1737
1900
2000
2100
11
11H
12
183
192
200
275
287
300
366
383
400
440
460
480
550
575
600
733
766
800
825
863
900
916
955
1000
1100
1150
1200
1375
1437
1500
1466
1533
1600
1650
1725
1800
1885
1897
2030
2200
2300
2400
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZE,
IN.
CAPACITY OF PIPES Mbh WITH A 20 F* DROP
A
>* B
20
27
16
£2
14
19
13
17
11
15
10
IS
9
12
9
11
8
10
7
9
7
9
6
5
6
5
5
7
A
J* -B
43
S3
35
So
30
23
27
21
24
18
21
16
19
15
18
14
17
IS
15
11
14
11
13
10
12
9
11
9
A
1 B
85
39
70
32
60
27
54
25
48
22
41
19
39
18
36
17
33
15
30
IS
28
IS
27
12
25
11
23
10
Itf B
ISO
48
145
39
125
S3
115
SO
98
27
85
S3
80
£1
75
SO
68
19
60
16
58
15
55
15
51
14
47
12
A
U* B
285
54
230
44
195
S8
180
54
160
SO
135
86
125
£4
120
23
110
SI
96
19
92
18
88
17
82
15
75
U
A
2 B
540
64
435
52
370
45
340
40
300
36
255
SO
240
29
230
27
205
24
180
22
175
21
165
SO
150
19
140
17
A
2^ B
890
74
720
60
610
SO
550
46
480
41
420
35
390
33
370
31
330
25
300
54
280
*4
270
22
250
21
230
15
A
3 B
1650
88
1340
70
1130
60
1000
54
900
48
760
41
720
35
670
36
600
33
540
29
520
28
480
26
450
*4
410
22
A
3H B
2500
99
2000
78
1700
00
1500
60
1350
a'4
1150
40
1080
43
1000
40
900
30
800
35
760
31
720
29
670
27
620
55
A
4 B
3500
110
2800
87
2400
74
2200
00
1900
J5
1600
50
1520
47
1440
45
1300
40
1150
35
1100
34
1050
35
960
SO
880
57
A
5 B
7000
132
5600
106
4700
90
4300
80
3700
70
3200
60
3000
56
2750
53
2500
45
2200
42
2100
41
2000
35
1800
35
1700
32
A
6 B
12,000
156
9200
i4?4
7800
104
7000
54
6200
55
5200
03
4800
04
4600
01
4100
5J
3600
45
3500
40
3300
44
3000
41
2800
37
"For other temperature drops the pipe capacities may be changed correspondingly. For example, with
a. temperature drop of 30 F, the capacities shown in this table are to be multiplied by 1.5.
338
CHAPTER 17.
HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
TAIILE
2. CAPACITIES FOR TYPE L COPPER TIDE
A = Carrying capacity in Mbh
B — Velocity in inches per second
MILIKCH FRICTION Loss PER FOOT or TUBE
HEAD
LOSS
FT
7JO
600 4SO
360
300
240
ISO
150 ILU 00
75 60
EQUIVALENT LENGTH
OF TUBE
IN FEET
(LONGEST ClKCl'IT
o
3'"
; 33
i 42
I 50
40 50 1
50 ; 63 i
60 i 75 i
67
83
100
80
100
120
100
, 125
150
133 ,
167 ,
200 :
1*50 , 200 207
200 250 333
240 300 i 400 '
3^0 , 400
400 ' 500
4SO GOO
33 a 5S
4 67
4f2 (. 75
70
SO
90
SS ! 117 , 140 175 233 2bO 350 467 560
100 133 160 ! 200 ' 2C7 320 ; 400 533 040
113 150 ISO 225 300 ; 3GO 450 , 600 ! 720
700
800
900
5
5i a
6
83
92
100
100
110
120
125
138
150
• 167 200
183 220
200 240
250 333 ; 400 500 667 \ 800 1000
275 . 367 44U I 550 : 733 SSO , 1100
300 j 400 480 GOO SOO ItfO , 1200
61-5
?H
10S
117
125
130
140
150
163
175
188
217 260
233 280
250 300
325 ! 433
350 i 467
375 j 500
520 r 650 807
560 700 933
600 750 ; 1000
1040
1120
1200
1300
1400
1500
8
8*
133
142
150
160
170
180
200
213
225
267
283
300
320
340
360
400 533
425 i 567
450 600
640
680
720
SOO
850
900
1067
1133
1200
1280
1360
1440
1600
1700
1800
18*
iolA
159
167
175
190
200
210
238
250
263
317
333
350
380
400
420
475
500
525
633
667
700
760
800
840
950 ;
1000
1050
1267
1333
1400
1520
1600
16SO
1900
2000
2100
11
n^
12
183
192
200
220
230
240
275
288
300
367
383
400
440
460
480
550
575
600
733
767
800
880
920
960
1100
1150
1200
1467
1533
1600
1760
1840 j
1920
2200
2300
2400
NOMINAL
TUBE
SIZE, IN.
CAPACITY OF TUBES Mbh WITH A 20 F* DROP
A
*A B
10
£7
9
24
8
21
6.8 i 6.2
18 | 16.5
5.4
14
4.6
13
4
11
3.6
10
3
8.5
2.8
8
2.4
7
A
K B
20
53
18
SO
16
25
13.5
21
8
10.8
17
9
15
8
IS
7
12
6
10
5.4
9
4.7
A
5A B
36
57
30
34
26
50
22.1
24
20
21
17.8
19
15
17
13.1
15
11.8
13
9.9
11
9
10
7.9
9
A
« 5
51
42
46
38
40
55
34
27
31
24
28
SI
23.2
19
20.5
17
1S.1
14
15.3
12
13.9
11.5
12.1
to
A
1 B
104
48
94
4$
82
89
70
34
63
50
56
25
47
22
42
19
37
17
32
14-5
28 j 25
13 12
A
IK B
185
55
169
51
149
45
125
3d
112
55
100
SO
84
£5
75
S2
66
19
56
17
50
15
44
IS
A
1H 3
300
62
270
or
235
51
200
43
180
SO
160
5J
134
50
120
25
105
m
90
19
81 71
17 15
A
2 B
625
76
560
68
495
59
420 375
51 \ 47
335
&
280
S6
250
S3
200
27
188
22
170
20
150
18
A
2H B
1130
90
1010
50
890
69
750
58
680
49
600
47
500
42
450
$7
395
55
335
26
305
23
270
21
A
3 B
1840
98
1650
50
1450
80
1210
66
1100
59
980
52
820
47
740
42
650
36
550
50
490
27
420
S3
A
3H B
2750
no
2480
100
2170
89
1840
75
1650
66
1450
57
1210
51
1100
43
980
40
820
So
740
30
650
26
A
4 B
3900
120
3505
W
3100
96
2600
83
2350
75
2090
63
1760
55
15SO
49
1390
44
1180
57
1080
34
950
29
*For other temperature drops the pipe capacities may be changed correspondingly. For example, with
i temperature drop of 30 F, the capacities shown in this table are to be multiplied by 1.5.
339
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. IRON ELBOW EQUIVALENTS5*
1 90-deg elbow 1 Q
1 45-deg elbow ~~.™ Q?
1 90-deg long turn elbow._ 9*5
1 open return bend._ " J|Q
1 open gate valve ..."."."." 0.5
1 open globe valve „ " 120
1 angle radiator valve "___[ 2JO
1 radiator ...".." 3*0
1 boiler or heater "..I™!.!""..."], 3.0
1 tee
«The loss of head in one elbow can be expressed in terms of the velocity head by the formula:
ohere
the loss of head in feet, P = the velocity of approach in feet per second,
and 2g = 64.4 ft per second per second.
bThe loss of head in tees when water is diverted at right angles through a branch of the tee varies with
,he per cent diverted. When the water diverted is less than 60 per cent of that approaching the tee, the
oss of head, in elbow equivalents, may be expressed as follows:
(2)
ohere
Ae = the loss of head in elbow equivalents, vi = the velocity of approach,
PS = the velocity of water diverted at right angles.
Values in elbow equivalents for the most common percentages of water diverted in a Ixlxl-in. tee are
LS follows:
25 percent 16.0
33 per cent ""..""".."] 9.0
50 per cent 4.0
100 percent 1.8
TABLE 4. COPPER ELBOW EQUIVALENTS*
90-deg elbow I.Q
45-deg elbow.__ 07
90-deg long turn elbow 0.5
open return bend „ 1.0
open gate valve ] 0.7
open globe valve "" 17.0
radiator valve.__ _._"__._" 3^0
radiator 4 Q
boiler or heater. " 40
tee r"".~"~.I(Noteb)
»The loss of head in an elbow can be expressed in terms of the velocity head by the formula:
*=^ (3)
here
h = loss of head in milinches, v — velocity in inches per second, and g = acceleration of gravity (386
in. per second per second) .
bThe loss of head in copper tees:
here
N => number of elbows that would cause the same loss as the tee when the velocity of water in the
connecting pipe is i%
»i = velocity of the water in the pipe entering the tee, and
v* » velocity of the water in the pipe discharging from the tee at right angles to n.
Values in elbow equivalents for most common percentages of water diverted in a 1 in. x 1 in. tee.
100 per cent
50 per cent.
30 per cent
25 per c
340
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
The pipe sizes may be selected from Fig. 4 or from Table 1 which has been derived
from Fig. 4.
Size the supply main of the longest circuit first. Section AB Carrie OS Mbh. From
Fig. 4 it will be noted that at 240 milinches per foot, a I1/, in. pipe carries OS Mbh.
Therefore, u-e 1}^ in. pipe in Section AB. Section BO carrii-a 40 Mbh, A 1 in. pipe
carries 4S Mbh at 240 milinches per foot. U»e a 1 in. pipe. Section UP carrier 20 Mbh
and this will require ?4 in. pipe. Section PQ carries 10 Mbh and requires ? 2 in. pipe.
To size the return start from the boiler and proceed backward-. Section l"*R carries
40 Mbh and from Fig. 4 a 1 in. pipe is required. Section RS carries 30 Mbh which is only
slightly over the capacity of a £4 in. pipe, so use ?* in. Section ST carries 20 Mbh and
requires a $4 in. pipe. The radiator branches are determined in the tame manner. It is
evident from the chart that it is impossible to maintain a constant friction loss per foot
and therefore as the delivery varies there will be a change in the desired friction lo*5 per
foot of pipe.
It is desirable to check the various circuits so that if the variation from the calculated
resistance^ too great, it may be compensated by adding additional resistance at the
proper point. This may be accomplished by sizing the short circuits by the procedure
previously outlined. Prepare a chart such as Table o to be used in 'calculating the
resistance of each circuit.
Section AB carries 98 Mbh with a unit head of 240 milinches per foot. In section AB
there are 37 ft of pipe and 1 Jj in. elbow. At 240 milinches per foot this is equivalent to
9600 milinches total loss in this section. Section BC carries 58 Mbh with a length of 2 ft
and 4 elbows. The unit loss in this section is 90 milinches per foot. Loss in this section is
then 1080 milinches. Section CD carries 38 Mbh and has 16 ft of pipe and 1 elbow. The
unit loss in 1 in. pipe is loo milinches. The loss in this section is 2790 milinches. The
balance of the supply main and the return main are handled in a similar manner.
TABLE 5. PIPING CHECK CHART
I
LOAD, Mbh
PIPE
LENGTH
FT
ELBOWS
PIPE
SIZE
IN-.
UNIT HEAD
MILINCHES
' PER FT
TOTAL
Loss
MlLINCHES
Supply Main
AB
98
37
1 114
240
9000
1 9,000
BC
58
2 '
4 1 *'4
i 90
1080
10,080
CD
38
16
1 , 1
loo
2790
1 13,470
DE
23
9
0 ?'
220
19SO
15, 4,50
EF
11
12
0 i*
240
28SO
: 18,330
FG
4
16
1 , H
50
SoO
, 19,180
'
1
i
Return Main
HI 98
; 5
5 : m
240 j 4320
4,320
IJ 58
11
1 1J'4
90 i 1260
! 5,580
JK 54
16
i : i
300 , 5400
10,880
KL 47
; 11
0 i 1
230 i 2530
1 13,410
LM 35
: 9
0 1
140 i 1200
; 14,670
MN 20
i 15
i
i : U
170 1 2890
! 17,560
Radiator Circuits
CN 20 Supply
Return
3
4
13
2
8
170
170
3910
1190
5,100
DM 15 Supply
Return
3
4
19
17
i!
420
96
9250
2880
12,130
EL 12 Supply
Return
14
15
20
20
£
270
270
9180
9450
18,630
FK 7 Supply
Return
I
19
17
£
100
100
2200
2100
4,300
GJ 4 Supply
Return
B
9
5
17
%
50
50
650
1300
1,950
341
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The radiator circuits are then checked. The 20 Mbh radiator on this circuit has 3 ft
of supply pipe and 13 elbow equivalents while the return is composed of 4 ft and 2
elbows. The unit loss in % in. pipe at this delivery is 170 milinches per foot. The total
loss in the supply is 3910 milinches. The loss in the return is 1190. Total loss in the
radiator circuit is 5100 milinches. Check each radiator circuit in a similar manner.
The total calculated loss for the longest circuit was determined as 60,000 milinches.
The maximum loss in the short circuit is 18,630 plus 13,410 plus 15,450 or a total of
47,490 milinches. This difference is caused by the variation in length of the two circuits
and may be corrected by using a flow control in the return main to supply the additional
resistance or by introducing resistance into each separate circuit to compensate for the
difference. A 10 per cent variation will cause no complication as the flow from the various
pipes will not exactly follow the curves of Fig. 4 any closer than this value.
Example 2. Design a two-pipe direct return forced circulation system with copper
tubing and fittings for the piping layout as detailed in Fig. 5, based on a 20 F tempera-
ture drop through the radiation.
The piping circuit from the boiler to the highest radiator on the farthest riser and
back to the boiler is 250 ft of pipe. There are about 16 elbow equivalents having an
equivalent pipe length of about 50 ft, so that the total equivalent pipe length is 300 ft.
Assume that a circulator is available which will provide a pressure head of 6 ft.
FIG. 5. A FORCED CIRCULATION DIRECT RETURN SYSTEM
Solution. Refer to Table 2, which indicates the total equivalent lengths for pressure
heads from 2 to 12 ft. With a circulator having a 6 ft pressure head and a system with
a total equivalent length of 300 ft, the piping system will be designed on a basis of 240
milinch.
Checking the piping diagram it will be noted that sections AB and KA, both supply
117.6 Mbh.^ Referring to the 240 milinch column of Table 2, 1 J^ in. is shown to be the
necessary pipe size. Sections BC and JK carry 88.8 Mbh and require 1-^t in. tubing.
Sections CD and IJ supply 67.2 Mbh and require 1 J^ in. tubing. Sections DE and HI
supply 43.2 Mbh, which requires 1 in. tubing. Sections EF and GH with a load of 14.4
Mbh require % in. tubing.
The risers are pipe sized in a similar manner. To secure proper distribution of hot
arater in the direct return system among the several risers, it is necessary to introduce
'esistances to balance the circuit.
The first riser is 80 ft nearer the boiler than the fifth riser. In order that the two may
De balanced, that is, operated under equal pressure heads, resistance must be added to
;he first riser equal to the friction head in the 80 ft of supply main B to F plus the 80 ft of
•eturn main G to K for a total of 160 ft of pipe.
Having designed the piping system on a 240 milinch basis, the total friction head in
,he supply and return mains between the first and fifth risers is therefore 160 X 240 =
58,400 milinches, or 3.2 ft which must be supplied by additional resistance in the first
•iser,
342
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
TABLE 6. FRICTION HEADS (IN MILINCHES', OF CENTRAL CIRCULAR
DIAPHRAGM ORIFICES IN UNIONS
IA^!rEE VELOCITY OF WATEB IN POTS ra INCHES PEE SZCOND
(INCHES) 23468
10 12 IS 24 36
-in. Pipe
0.25
1300
2900
5000
11,300
20,800
32,000
45,000
0.30
650
1450
2500
5700
10,400
16,000
23,000
57,000
0.35
330
740
1300
2900
5200
8000
12,000
26,000
47,000
0.40
170
380
660
1500
2600
4000
6800
13,000
24,000
53,000
0.45
185
330
740
1300
2000
2900
6500
12,000
27,000
0.50
155
350
620
970
1400
3200
5700
13,000
0.55
75
170
300
480
700
1600
2800
6400
1-in. Pipe
0.35
900
2000
3500
7800
14,000
22,000
32,000
0.40
460
1000
1800
4000
7200
12,000
17,000
37,000
65,000
0.45
270
570
1000
2300
4100
6400
9300
21,000
37,000
0.50
160
330
580
1400
2300
3700
5400
12,000
22,000
50,000
0.55
190
330
750
1300
2200
3000
7000
13,000
28,000
0.60
200
440
800
1300
1800
4200
7400
17,000
0.65
120
260
460
720
1100
2400
4300
10,000
1%-in. Pipe
0.45
1000
2250
4000
8900
16,000
25,000
36,000
0.50
660
1450
2600
5800
10,400
16,400
23,000
53,000
0.55
430
950
1700
3800
6800
10,500
15,000
34,000
60,000
0.60
280
630
1100
2500
4400
6900
10,000
22,000
40,000
0.65
190
420
750
1700
3000
4700
6700
15,000
27,000
60,000
0.70
285
510
1150
2000
3100
4500
10,000
18,000
40,000
0.75
190
330
750
1300
2100
3000
6700
12,000
26,000
in. Pipe
0.55
850
1900
3300
7400
13,000
21,000
30,000
0.60
600
1300
2300
5400
8600
16,800
21,000
50,000
0.65
400
850
1500
3600
7200
10,400
14,000
30,000
53,000
0.70
260
600
1100
2600
4400
7000
10,000
21,000
39,000
0.75
180
400
760
1800
3000
5000
7000
14,000
28,000
0.80
300
540
1200
2200
3200
5000
10,200
19,000
45,000
0.85
200
380
860
1600
2300
3000
7800
13,000
30,000
in. Pipe
0.70
890
1850
3500
7400
14,000
22,300
33,000
0.80
470
975
1800
3900
7400
11,700
17,000
37,000
0.90
255
560
1000
2200
4200
6500
9500
20,500
38,000
1.00
160
340
610
1320
2520
4000
5800
12,500
23,000
49,000
1.10
214
375
850
1600
2500
3700
7900
14,000
30,000
1.20
195
460
950
1360
1910
4200
8100
16,800
1.30
275
525
980
1375
3100
4400
8850
Note. — The losses of head for the orifices in the IH-in. and 2-in. pipe were calculated from those in the
smaller pipes, the calculations being based on the assumption that, for any given velocity, the loss of head
is a function of the ratio of the diameter of the pipe to that of the orifice. This had been found to be
practically true in the tests to determine the losses of head in orifices in %-in., 1-in., and l&-in. pipe, con-
ducted by the Texas Engineering Experiment Station, and also 'in the tests to determine the losses of head
in orifices in 4-in., 6-in.. and 12-in. pipe, conducted by the Engineering Experiment Station of the University
of Illinois. (Bulletin 109, Table 6, p. 38. Davis and Jordan).
343
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
This resistance can be supplied by a calibrated and adjusted modulating valve or by
an orifice resistor in a union. If the orifice resistor is to be used, its size may be selected
from Table 6.
wo
f WATEJL /N now
ttO 130 140 ISO . 160 170 ISO 190 ZOO tlO ?tO
«
*
a/a?
•
BO
to
i
FIG. 6. GRAVITY PRESSURE HEADS FOR VARIOUS TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES
Since the first section of riser No. 1 is M in. pipe and supplies 28.8 Mbh, it may be
noted from Table 2 that a corresponding velocity is approximately 22 in. per second.
From Table 6 a % in. pipe with a velocity of 24 in. per second, used with a 0.35 orifice
will produce a loss of 47,000 milinches. For a velocity of 22 in. per second the loss of
344
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
head will be less, probably about 41,700 milinches, which i-, approximately 10 per cent
more than the required resistance. This is permissible and the 0.3.J in. oriiice is M-U'Cted.
The sizes of the orifice resistors for the second, third and fourth risers arc- selected in a
similar manner and found to be 0.38, 0.42 and 0.50 in. respectively.
GRAVITY CmCULATION
In a gravity system the motive force to supply circulation is the
• difference in the weight of the water in the supply and the return and is
proportional to the height of the risers. In this system, two distinct heads
are available, the head provided in the mains by their elevation above the
boiler and the head produced by the elevation of the risers above the
mains. From Fig. 6 it is possible to determine the head produced per foot
of height by the temperature difference to be used in designing the system.
A chart such as Table 1 can be arranged using Fig. 4 for black iron.
To affect a balanced circulation in a gravity hot water heating system
careful consideration must be given in sizing the pipes against the amounts
of water to be carried, and the head available. The larger the tempera-
ture drop, the greater the motive force available.
It is generally customary to use a heat emission of 150 Btu per square
foot of radiation, which normally requires an average water temperature
of 170 F in the radiator. This can be accomplished by using a 35 F drop
with the water entering the radiation at 187 F and leaving at 153 F.
Raising the water temperature leaving the boiler will increase the average
radiator temperature and alter the heat emission of the radiator.
Assuming that the height of mains above the boiler is 4 ft and that a
35 F drop is desirable, it will be noted that from Fig. 6, a maximum tem-
perature of 200 F and return temperature of 165 F with a pressure head of
150 milinches per foot of height will be produced. A total head of 600
milinches or 0.6 in. is thus produced in the mains. Assuming that the
average height of first floor radiators to be 3 ft above the main and second
floor* radiators to be 12 ft, third floor radiators 21 ft and fourth floor
radiators 30 ft, "the circulating head will be respectively, 450, 1800, 3150
and 4500 milinches.
The data given in Fig. 4 are based on a 20 F temperature drop which
may be converted for capacities of 35 F drop by multiplying the capacity
by 1.75. From these data, Tables 7 and 8 may be constructed.
The most common piping layouts used in gravity design are the one-
pipe system of Fig. 7 and the two-pipe system of Fig. 8. The same
objections are to be found with direct return design in gravity as in forced
circulation and the reverse return system of Fig. 2 is to be preferred.
Example S. Design a one-pipe gravity circulation system for the layout shown in
Fig. 7. Assume that the main circuit consists of 150 ft of pipe, 7 elbows, and one boiler.
Solution. Replace the boiler by 3 elbow equivalents and assume that the size of the
main will be about 2 in. According to Table 7 Column 2, a 2 in. elbow is equivalent to
4 ft of pipe, and the total equivalent length of the main will be about 150 plus 40, or
190 ft. Assuming that the center of the boiler will be about 4 ft lower than the horizontal
portion of the main and that the temperature drop in the system is to be 35 F, Table 7
may be used to determine the size of the mains. Note from Column 8, for a 200 ft
length, that a 2 in. main will supply 48 Mbh and a 2J£ in. main, 75.4 Mbh. Since the
system to be designed is to supply 66 Mbh, a 2 in. pipe is too small and a 2J^ in. pipe
345
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
too large. The solution is to use some 2 in. and some 2}^ in. pipe. Since the 2^ in. is
nearer the correct size than the 2 in., select 2 in. pipe for the first 50 or 60 ft from the
boiler and 2H in. for the remaining pipe back to the boiler.
Tables 8 and 9 may be used to design the radiator risers and connections. According
to Table 8, for 12 Mbh the flow riser should be % in. and the return riser 1 in., and the
riser branches should be 1 in. and 1M in., respectively. Note that according to Table 9,
both radiator tappings should be 1 in. To simplify the construction, select 1 in. flow
risers with 1 in. riser branches and 1 in. radiator tappings. Also select 1^£ in. return
risers with 1% in. riser branches, and 1M in. radiator tappings. Similarly, for 18 Mbh,
select 1M in. flow and return risers and riser branches, and 1% in. radiator tappings.-
FIG. 7. A ONE-PIPE GRAVITY CIRCULATION SYSTEM
*''*".
"1 14 Mbh I
|V
itf
FIG. 8. A TWO-PIPE DIRECT RETURN GRAVITY CIRCULATION SYSTEM
To develop a rule for determining radiator sizes, assume a system
similar to that of Fig. 7, in which the total temperature drop is to be 35 F
and which is equipped with 7 radiators, all radiators dissipating equal
quantities of heat. The mean temperature of the water in the radiators
will be reduced 5 F for each successive radiator. If the mean temperature
of the water in the first radiator is 200 F, the mean temperature of the
water in the seventh radiator will be 170 F, and, according to Table 4,
Chapter 14, the heat dissipation of these two radiators will be to each
other as 1.62 is to 1.15, or as 140 is to 100, and therefore if the last radiator
is to dissipate as much heat as the first, its size must be 40 per cent larger.
346
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
TABLE 7. CAPACITIES OF MAINS IN Mbh, FOR OXE-PIPE AND FOR TWO-PIPE DIRECT
RETURN GRAVITY CIRCULATION SYSTEMS WITH A TOTAL FRICTION HEAD
OF 0.6 IN.. A TEMPERATURE DROP OF 35 F, WHEN THE MAINS
ARE 4 FT ABOVE THE CENTER OF TEE BOILEK
1
2
3 4
5
6
7
S
9
10
11
PIPS
SIZE j
(INCHES) j
EQUIVALENT
LENGTH
OF PIPE
EQUIVALENT TOTAL LENGTH or PIPE IN FEET IN LONGEST Ciacrrr
75 , 100
125
150
175
200
250
300
350
UNTI
r FHICTJ
ON
HEAD,
w MIL:X'
JHE3
8.0
6.0
4.8
4.0
3.4
3.0
2.4
2.0
1.7
1H
3.0'
43.0
37. 5
33.0
30.0
27.0
2o.O
22.2
20. 2
IS. 7
2
4.0
83.0
72.0
63.0
57.0
51.0
48.0
42.0
38.0
35.0
2H
4.5
140.0
115,0
100.0
90.0
81.5
75.4
67.2
61.0
56.0
3
5.0
234.0
204.0
175.5
160.0
143.0
133.0
110.0
107.5
100.0
3M
5.5
S47.0
300.0
260.0
236.0
214.0
200.0
177.0
160.0
146.0
4
6.0
490.0
422.0
370.0
334-0
297.0
27S.O
248.0
223.0
205.0
aApproximate length of pipe in feet equivalent to one elbow in friction head. This value varies with
the velocity.
Example^- ^Design a two-pipe, direct return, gravity circulation system for the lay-
out shown in Fig. 8. Assume that the main circuit from the boiler to the farthest flow
riser and from the farthest return riser back to the boiler consists of 160 ft of pipe,
6 elbows, and 1 boiler.
Solution. Replacing the boiler by 3 elbow equivalents and assuming that the largest
size of the main will be about 3 in., the total equivalent length of the main will be 160
plus 45, or 205 ft. Assuming that the center of the boiler will be about 4 ft lower than the
horizontal portion of the main, and that the temperature drop will be 35 F for the
system, the pressure head caused by the difference in weight between the water in the
flow and return risers joining the mains to the boiler will be about 0.6 in. of water.
Table 7 may be used to determine the size of the main as follows: Refer to Column 8
and note that for Sections AB and IA, which supply 105.6 Mbh, a 3 in. pipe is too large
and a 2% in. pipe is too small; hence, select 2J^ in. rather than 3 in. as noted in Fig. 8
for Section AB and 3 in. for Section IA. For Sections BC and HI, which supply 76.8
Mbh, a 2J^ in. pipe is almost exactly the correct size and is selected for both sections.
Tables 7 and 8 are based on the assumption that the boiler pressure head must be
equal to the friction head in the mains, and that the several radiator pressure heads must
be equal to the respective radiator and riser friction heads.
To design the radiator risers, use Table 8 and begin with the set nearest the boiler.
The first floor risers must supply 28.8 Mbh. According to the table, 1 J£ in. flow and
return risers will supply 26.0 Mbh; if the return riser is increased to 1 Ji in., the capacity
will be increased to 34.0 Mbh. This is considerably larger than necessary, and 1J4 in.
flow and return risers are selected. However, it must be remembered that the riser
branches, which are the connections from the flow and return mains to the flow and
return risers, are to be one size larger than the risers.
The second floor risers must supply 19.2 Mbh. According to the table, the capacity
of 1 in. flow and return risers is 20.0 Mbh, and that size is selected.
The third floor risers must supply 9.6 Mbh. If a % in. flow and a % in. return riser
is used, the capacity will be 8.0 Mbh; if both risers are ?£ in., the capacity will be
14.0 Mbh. The % in. pipe is selected for both risers.
To design the radiator connections, use Table 9 and note that for the first floor
radiator connections the capacity of a Ji in. flow and 1 in. return is 9,1 Mbh, and that of
347
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 8. MAXIMUM CAPACITIES OF RisERsa IN Mbh, AND Velocities of Water in
Pipes in Inches Per Second FOR ONE-PIPE AND FOR TWO-PIPE DIRECT
RETURN GRAVITY CIRCULATION SYSTEMS WITH A DROP OF
35 F THROUGH EACH RADIATOR
PIPE SIZE (INCHES)
1ST FLOORb
2ND FLOOR
3RD AND 4TH FLOORS
Flow
OF PIPE (FEETC)
IfTJL
VeL(In.perSec.d)
JUT l
Flow
Return
Mbh
y%
J^
1.0
5
6.2
j^
?€
6.4
8.0
%
M
1.5
9
2.3
2.3
10.1
14.0
%
1
IS
3.2
2.0
12.8
17.1
i
1
2.0
18
2.5
2.5
20
26.0
i
1J€
21
3.0
2.0
25.2
84
ij€
l^t
3.0
26
3.0
3.0
43
55
1J€
1J^
34
4.0
2.5
1*4
m
3.5
48
3.0
3.0
aThis table is based on pressure heads of 450, 1SOO, 3150, and 4500, respectively, for the first, second,
third, and fourth floor radiatorg, and on friction heads of 200 milinches for the first floor radiators and con-
nections, and 700 milinches for all other radiators and their connections.
"The riser branches, the piping -which connects the risers to the mains, are to be one size larger than the
risers.
^Approximate length of pipes in feet equivalent to one elbow in friction head. This value varies with
dVelocities apply to the riser branches.
a 1 in. flow and a 1 in. return is 12.5 Mbh. The former is more nearly the correct size,
but since it is difficult ^to secure a good flow through first floor radiators, the 1 in. flow
and return connection is selected. For the two upper floors, the capacity of a % in. flow
and return connection is 10.5 Mbh, and that size is used.
As explainecHn the design of the forced circulation system of Fig. 5,
the two-pipe direct return system of Fig. 8 will not function correctly
unless its four sets of risers are balanced among themselves. This neces-
sary balancing is accomplished by adding resistances to all risers, except
the one farthest from the boiler, equal to the excess boiler pressure heads
available for those risers above the boiler pressure head available for the
farthest riser. For example, the first set of risers is 60 ft nearer the boiler
than the last set. Since the flow and return mains are designed for a
friction head of 3 milinches per foot (see Table 7, Column 8), the boiler
pressure head available for the first set of risers is 360 milinches in excess
TABLE 9. MAXIMUM CAPACITIES OF RADIATOR CONNECTIONS IN Mbh, FOR ONE-PIPE
AND FOR TWO-PIPE DIRECT RETURN GRAVITY CIRCULATION SYSTEMS WITH
A TEMPERATURE DROP OF 35 F THROUGH EACH RADIATOR
PirasSizB
EQUIVALENT LENGTH
OP Pms (Fnfflra)
IST FLOOR
2ND, 3RD, AND 4TH FLOORS
Flow
Return
Mbh
Mbh
H
H
1-
IK
%
i 4
k
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4*1
5.2
7.0
9.1
12.5
17.5
2S.S
5.9
7.5
10.5
13.0
17.8
2S.2
33.2
aApproximate length of pipe in feet equivalent to one elbow in friction head. This value varies with
the velocity.
348
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
of that available for the fourth set. The velocity in the riser branch is
3 in. per second (see Table 8) and, therefore, according to Table 6, an
0.65 in. orifice in a 1J^ in. union should be used. This will provide a
resistance of about 420 milinches. In the same manner it is found that
for the second set of risers a resistance of 240 milinches is required and
that an 0.70 in. orifice in a 1 J^ in. union will provide a resistance of 285
milinches. For the third set of risers, a resistance of 120 milinches is
required and an 0.60 in. orifice in a 1 in. union will provide sufficient
resistance.
EXPANSION TANKS
When water at ordinary temperatures is heated or cooled, its volume is
increased or decreased. This variation in the volume of the water in a
heating system is generally provided for by means of an expansion tank
VENT-** .
OVERFLOW $, VENT
OVERFLOW
GAUGE
GLASS
CIRCULATION
. P'IPE
EXPANSION
TANK
GATE VALVE
(^ — PRESSURE
GLOBE VALVE
EXPANSION
TANK
EXPANSION
PIPE
IATE VALVE To DRAIN
GATE VALVE
FIG. 9. AN OPEN EXPANSION TANK
-DRAIN
FIG. 10. A CLOSED EXPANSION TANK
into which the water can flow from the system during the heating-up
periods and from which it can flow back into the system during the
cooling-down periods.
The expansion tank may be open or closed. In an open expansion tank
(Fig. 9), the water is subjected to atmospheric pressure and can expand
freely without a material increase in pressure. In a closed expansion
tank (Fig. 10), the water is subjected to the pressure of the compressed air
within the tank, and as the water expands, the volume of the air in the
tank is decreased and its pressure increased.
The open expansion tank must be placed at a sufficient elevation above
the highest radiator to prevent boiling when the water in that radiator is
at the highest temperature to which it is to be heated. For example, if
the water is to be heated to 225 F on extremely cold days, the absolute
pressure on the water in the highest radiator must be at least 19 Ib per
square inch. This pressure will be secured if the open expansion tank is
located 15 ft above the highest radiator. If a closed expansion tank k
used and is located 30 ft below the highest radiator, an absolute pressure
349
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
of about 32 Ib per square inch must be maintained in the expansion tank
if the water in the highest radiator is to be heated to 225 F without danger
of boiling.
The type of expansion tank used in a heating system, whether open or
closed, has no influence on the operation of the system. The only function
performed by the expansion tank is to provide for the variation in the
volume of the water in the system, and at the same time to maintain a
sufficient pressure in the system to prevent boiling when the water is at
the highest temperature for which the system is designed. The capacity
of the cushion or expansion tank should not be less than the tank sizes
indicated in Table 9 and in addition provisions must be made for draining
it without emptying the system.
The capacity of the expansion tank should be at least twice the in-
crease in volume produced when the water in the system is heated from
its normal to its maximum temperature. When 25 gal of water are heated
TABLE 9. EXPANSION TANK SIZES FOR HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS
TANK SIZE
GALLONS
EQUIVALENT DIRECT
RADIATION INSTALLED
CAPACITY DIRECT
RADIATION INSTALLED
INSQPT
INMBH
18
Up to 350
Up to 52.5
21
Up to 450
Up to 67.5
24
Up to 650
Up to 97.5
30
Up to 900
Up to 135.0
35
40
Up to 1100
Up to 1400
Up to 165.0
Up to 210.0
2-30
Up to 1600
Up to 240.0
2-30
2-35
Up to 1800
Up to 2000
Up to 270.0 .
Up to 300.0
2-40
Up to 2400
Up to 360.0
from 40 F to 200 F, the volume of water increases to 26 gal. A safe rule,
therefore, is to make the water capacity of the expansion tank equal to
10 per cent of the capacity of the heating system.
In a forced circulation system, the expansion tank can either be con-
nected to the flow or return main. In a gravity circulation system, the
expansion tank should be connected to the flow riser so that air liberated
from the water in the boiler may escape through the expansion tank.
The expansion tank should be protected so that the water in the tank
or in the connecting pipe lines cannot freeze. If the water should freeze
and the water in the system is heated causing further expansion, the
resulting force will burst the boiler or some other portion of the system.
RELIEF VALVES
A relief valve should be installed on any hot water system using a
closed circuit. ^The valve should be of ample capacity to provide for
relief of expansion of the system without allowing an excessive pressure
rise above the valve setting.
350
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
A relief valve should be of the diaphragm-operated or gravity-weighted
type without guide wings below the seat. Provision should be made for
manual operation to assure that the valve is in the proper operating
condition at all times, and valves should be checked periodically.
A relief valve installed in conjunction with a compression tank will not
operate often provided the tank is of adequate size. It is essential that
the relief valve be kept in good condition to eliminate any possible failure
when operation is necessary.
INSTALLATION DETAILS
The detailed installation of the pipe system should be governed by
four fundamental rules:
1. All piping must be pitched either up or down so that all gases which are liberated
from the water can move freely to a vented section of the system. Whenever practicable,
the pipe line should be pitched so that gases flowing to a vent will flow in the same direc-
tion as the water. When a pipe system cannot be installed without creating air pockets,
that is, sections in the system from which liberated gases cannot escape, such sections
must be provided with automatic air relief valves or with air valves which may be
operated manually when necessary, or trapped into a pressure tank.
2. All piping must be arranged so that the entire system can be drained, either to
permit alterations or repairs, or to prevent freezing if the system is not to be operated
during a cold period.
It is well to install a gate valve and union in every riser near thejnain to permit the
draining of individual risers without draining the entire system. It is also well, in large
installations, to divide the system into branches and to provide each branch with unions
and valves so that any one branch can be drained without disturbing the remaining
ones.
The dividing of large heating systems into branches or zones and providing each zone
with individual valves has the further advantage of permitting a varying temperature
control. For example, if a building is equipped with a forced circulating system and if
the south rooms are on one branch of the main and the north rooms are on a separate
branch, the valves may be set so that the water will circulate through the north branch
with a temperature drop of, say, 10 F, and through the south branch with a tempera-
ture drop of, say, 20 F, thus delivering less heat to the south rooms than to the north
rooms. This arrangement is especially valuable when the regulating valves are controlled
thermostatically by the temperatures in the two zones, because no matter how accurately
the heating system may have been designed, the heat demand of any group of rooms
varies with sunshine and with wind velocity, and these intermittent variations can be
provided for only by the individual control made possible by changing the valve settings
controlling the heat supplied to particular groups of rooms.
3. All piping must be installed so that it is free to expand and contract with changes of
temperature without producing undue stresses in the pipes or connections. For this
purpose it is generally sufficient to allow for a variation in length of 1 in. for 100 ft of pipe.
4. The pipe system must be installed so that each circuit has its correct friction head.
To bring this about, it is necessary in some cases to minimize the friction, ».«., to make
the pipe line as short as possible and to provide as few fittings as possible; and in other
cases it is necessary to increase the length of the pipe and the number of fittings so that,
for every circuit, the friction head will be equal to the available pressure head.
The connections from the boiler to the mains should be short and direct, to reduce the
friction head. It is frequently possible to avoid an elbow and to reduce the length of the
pipe by running tie pipe in a diagonal direction, either in a horizontal or in a vertical
plane.
The mains and branches should pitch up and away from the heater, generally not
less than 1 in. in 10 ft. The flow main should always be covered; the return main should
be covered except where it is to provide the heating surface for the basement.
The connections from mains to branches and to risers should be such that circulation
through the risers will start in the right direction. Hence, in a one-pipe system the flow
351
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
connection must be nearer the heater than the return connection. In a correctly-
designed two-pipe system, the pressure in the flow main is higher than that in the return
main, and a slight variation in the distances of the flow and return connections from the
heater is not material; but it is generally best to have the two connections about equally
distant from the heater.
In some cases it may be advisable to take^the flow connection off the top of the main
and the return connection from the side, but in most cases both connections should be at
an angle of 45 deg. This method shortens the lines and substitutes 45-deg ells for
90-deg ells.
Preferably, connection of the flow riser to a radiator should be to the upper tapping,
and connection of the return riser to a radiator should be to the lower tapping. When
hot water enters at the top of a radiator it will distribute itself along the entire length of
the radiator, and as it cools it will settle gradually to the bottom; the cool water may
then be taken out of the radiator at either end.
FIG. 11. METHOD OF CONNECTING RADIATOR
TO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION OF PIPE
With forced circulation and high velocities, it is advisable to let the water enter at the
top of the radiator and leave at the bottom of the opposite end. With gravity circulation
and low velocities it makes little difference whether the water leaves at the end at which
it enters or at the opposite end.
The connections of the risers to the radiators should be such that provision is made for
the vertical expansion of the risers. This can be accomplished as indicated in Fig. 11 by
using one tee and two ells for each connection. These connections should be pitched
upward or downward, whichever may be necessary to prevent the formation of air
pockets and to permit draining.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Will altering a hot water heating system from an open to closed type
system (a) increase the circulation and (6) give more heat?
a. No. Tests conducted by the A.S.H.V.E. indicate that there is little, if any difference
in the circulation when the system is under pressure. The difference in temperature
between the supply and return, and the friction are the governing factors.
b. With a ^ closed system the water may be carried at a higher temperature without
boiling which permits warmer radiators.
2 • "What tends to prevent or to retard the circulation of water in hot water
heating systems?
In both gravity flow and forced circulation systems, the friction which must be overcome
when the water is flowing through pipes, fittings, valves, heaters, and radiators tends to
352
CHAPTER 17. HOT WATER HEATING SYSTEMS AND PIPING
prevent or retard circulation. For a given pipe the friction varies approximately as the
1.7 power of the velocity, and for given fittings, valves, heaters, and radiators, the friction
varies approximately as the square of the velocity. It is therefore sufticiently accurate
to express the friction in fittings, valves, heaters, and radiators in terms of the friction
in one standard elbow, as shown in Table 3.
3 • If a single radiator located 10 ft above a boiler is connected with a flow and
return black iron pipe, what is the pressure head maintaining the circulation if
the water in the return riser is at 180 F and that in the flow riser is at 200 F?
It is found, from Table 7, Chapter 1, that ISO F water weighs 60.61 Ib per cubic foot and
200 F water weighs 60.13 Ib per cubic foot. The pressure head is independent of the size
of the pipe. If the two risers were each 1 ft square, the water in the flow riser would
weigh 601.3 Ib and that in the return riser would weigh 606.1 Ib. Thus the water in the
return riser would weigh 4.8 Ib more than that in the flow riser. Consequently, the
resulting pressure head is 4.8 Ib per square foot.
Pressure heads are generally expressed in feet, or inches, or milinches of water of a given
temperature. In this case water is at both 180 F and 200 F, so the pressure head is
expressed in terms of 190 F water. Such water weighs 60.39 Ib per cubic foot, and to
secure a pressure of 4.8 Ib per square foot, it is necessary to have a column of water
having a weight of 4.8 divided by 60.39 = 0.0795 ft, or 0.9540 in., or 954 milinches. This
is the pressure head which maintains the circulation.
4 • In the elementary system of Question 3, if the radiator dissipates 14,000
Btu per hour, what is the velocity of the water in the pipe line, if the pipes are
1 in. in diameter? What, if they are % in. in diameter?
Since the temperature drop through the radiator is from 200 F to ISO F or 20 F, every
pound of water flowing through the radiators delivers 20 Btu; consequently, 14,000
divided by 20 = 700 Ib of water, or for 190 F water, 700 divided by 60.39 = 11.59 cu ft
oif water must flow through the radiator and through the pipe lines every hour.
The interior area of a 1 in. pipe is 0.864 sq in. The velocity in the 1 in. pipe is 11.59
divided by 0.864 and multiplied by 144 — 1932 ft per hour or 6.44 in. per second.
For % in. pipe, the interior area is 0.533, and the velocity is 6.44 multiplied by 0.864
and divided by 533 = 10.44 in. per second.
5 • If, in the elementary heating system of Question 3, a 1 in. pipe line is
used, what would be the friction head?
If the radiator is connected with the heater to provide for freedom of expansion, the heat-
ing circuit may be assumed to consist of a heater, 25 ft of pipe, 8 elbows, 1 radiator valve,
and 1 radiator. From Table 3 it appears that the heater and radiator are equivalent, in
friction, to 6 elbows; hence, the circuit may be placed equal to 25 ft of pipe and 14 elbows.
From the diagram of Fig. 4 it appears that the friction head for a 1 in. pipe and a^velocity
of 6.44 in. per second is about 25 milinches per foot. For 25 ft of pipe, the friction head
will be 625 milinches.
It appears from Table 3 that the friction head in one elbow is -r— , or in this case 0.54
multiplied by 0.54 and divided by 64.4 = 0.0045 ft or 54 milinches. Hence, for the 14
elbows the friction is 756 milinches. For the entire circuit, the friction head is the sum
of the 625 milinches of the pipe plus the 756 milinches of the elbows, or 13S1 milinches
which equal 1.381 in.
6 • If the elementary heating system of Question 3 is installed with a 1 in.
pipe line, how will it function?
It is found from the answer to Question 3 that the pressure head is 954 milinches and
from the answer to Question 5 that the friction head is 13S1 milinches when the water is
flowing with such velocity that the specified 14,000 Btu will be delivered with a 20 F
temperature drop through the radiators. Since the pressure head is smaller than the
friction head, the system will not function as planned for the water will flow through the
353
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
system more slowly and remain in the radiator longer. The temperature drop through
the radiator will be more than 20 F, and the difference in the weight of the water in the
return and flow risers will be greater than that intended. The final result will be that the
pressure head will become equal to the friction head at a value somewhere between
954 and 1381 milinches. Since the average water temperature in the radiator will be
less than 190 F, the radiator should be larger than the size given in Question 4.
7 • Should a hot water heating system be designed to embody small pipes or
large pipes?
As pipe sizes in gravity circulation heating are reduced, the friction head is increased
and it is necessary to increase the temperature drop through radiators; this lowers the
average temperature of the water in tne radiators and necessitates an increase in the
size of the radiators, so whereas the cost of the pipe in a system is reduced, the cost of the
radiators is increased. For each installation there is a definite pipe size which entails
maximum economy.
As pipe sizes in forced circulation systems are reduced, friction heads are increased so a
circulating pump of greater size or capacity is required. Thus, by decreasing the size of
the piping, both the first cost of the circulating pump and the cost of its operation are
increased. There is a definite pipe size for every installation which is most economical.
For each installation of both types of systems there is a definite pipe size entailing maxi-
mum economy which can be determined by a series of comparative calculations.
8 • What should be the size of the radiators for the elementary heating system
of Question 3 in which the water enters the radiator with a temperature of
200 F and leaves with a temperature of 180 F? The average temperature of the
water in the radiator is, approximately, 190 F.
If test results are available for the particular radiators to be used, and for the tempera-
tures named, the size of the radiators should be selected from them. If no such test
results are to be had, but if test results are available for the type of radiator to be used
when it is supplied with 215 F steam and placed in a 70 F room, the required size may be
determined by the following ratio: The required size is to the corresponding steam
radiator size as (215 - 70)1-3 is to (190 - TO)1-3. This ratio works out to 1.28. Hence,
the radiators should be 28 per cent larger under the conditions prescribed than are cor-
responding radiators under standard conditions. It is immaterial whether a radiator is
filled with steam or with water, as long as the average temperature of its outer surface
is the same in both cases.
354
Chapter 18
PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
Pipe Material, Types of Pipe Used, Dimensions of Pipe Com-
mercially Available, Expansion and Flexibility of Pipe, Pipe
Threads and Hangers, Types of Fittings, Welding as Applied
to Erection of Piping, Valves, Corrosion of Piping
IMPORTANT considerations in the selection and installation of pipe
and fittings for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning work are
dealt with in this chapter.
PIPE MATERIALS
Use of corrosion-resistant materials for pipe, including special alloy
steels and irons, wrought-iron, copper and brass, has increased con-
siderably during the past few years. The recent development of copper,
brass, and bronze fittings which can be assembled by soldering or sweating
permits the use of thin-wall pipe and thereby has reduced the initial cost
of such installation. The following brief discussion indicates the variety
of pipe materials and the types of pipe available.
Wrought-Steel Pipe. Because of its low price, the great bulk of wrought
pipe used for heating and ventilating work at the present time is of
wrought steel. The material used for steel pipe is a mild steel made by
the acid-bessemer, the open-hearth, or the electric-furnace process.
Ordinary wrought-steel pipe is made either by shaping sheets of metal
into cylindrical form and welding the edges together, or by forming or
drawing from a solid billet. The former is known as welded pipe, the
latter as seamless pipe.
Many types of welded pipe are available, although the smaller sizes
most frequently used in heating and ventilating work are made by the
lap-weld or butt-weld process. While the lap-weld process produces^
better weld than the butt type, lap-weld pipe is seldom manufactured in
nominal pipe sizes less than 2 in. Seamless pipe can be obtained in the
small sizes at a somewhat higher cost.
Seamless steel pipe is frequently used for high pressure work or where
pipe is desired for close coiling, cold bending, or other forming operation.
Its advantages are its somewhat greater strength which permits use of a
thinner wall and, in the small sizes, its freedom from the occasional
tendency of welded pipe to split at the weld when bent.
Wrought-iron Pipe. Wrought-iron pipe is considered to be more corro-
sion-resisting than ordinary steel pipe and therefore its somewhat higher
355
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
first cost can be justified on the basis of longer life expectancy. Wrought-
iron pipe may be identified by the spiral line marked into each length,
either knurled into the metal or painted on it in red or other bright color!
Otherwise, there is little difference in the appearance of wrought iron and
steel pipe, although microscopic examination of polished and etched
specimens will readily disclose the difference.
Cast Ferrous Pipe. There are now available several types of cast
ferrous-metal pipe made of a good grade of cast iron with or without
additions of nickel, chromium, or other alloy. This pipe is available in
sizes from 1J^ in. to 6 in., and in standard lengths of 5 or 6 ft with external
and internal diameters closely approximating those of extra-strong
wrought pipe. Cast ferrous pipe may be obtained coupled, beveled for
welding, or with ends plain or grooved for the several types of couplings.
It is easily cut and threaded as well as welded. The fact that it is readily
welded enables the manufacturers to supply the pipe in any lengths
practicable for handling.
Alloy Metal Pipe. Steel pipe bearing a small alloy of copper or other
alloying element and iron pipe bearing a small alloy of copper and moly-
bdenum have been claimed to possess more resistance to corrosion than
plain steel pipe and they are advertised and sold under various trade
names.
Copper Pipe and Fittings. Owing to its inherent resistance to cor-
rosion, copper and brass pipe have always been used in heating, venti-
lating, and water supply installations, but the cost with standard dimen-
sions for threaded connections has been high. The recent introduction
of fittings which permit erection by soldering or sweating allows the use
of pipe with thinner walls than are possible with threaded connections,
thereby reducing the cost of installations.
The initial cost of brass and copper pipe installations generally runs
higher than the corresponding job with steel pipe and screwed connections
in spite of the use of thin-wall pipe, but the corrosive nature of the fluid
conveyed or the inaccessibility of some of the piping may warrant use of
a more expensive material than plain steel. The advantages of corrosion-
resisting pipe and fittings should be weighed against the correspondingly
higher initial cost.
COMMERCIAL PIPE DIMENSIONS
The IPS dimensions of commercial pipe universally used at the present
time conform to the recommendations made by a Committee of the
A.S.MJS. in 1886. Pipe up to 12 in. in diameter is made in certain
definite sizes designated by nominal internal diameter which is somewhat
different from the actual internal diameter, depending on the wall thick-
ness required. There are three weights of wrought iron and steel pipe
commonly used, known as standard-weight, extra-strong, and double extra-
strong. Because of the necessity of maintaining the same external dia-
meter in all three weights for the same nominal size, the added wall
thickness is obtained by decreasing the internal diameter. The term
full-weight, when applied to sizes below 8 in., means that the pipe is up to
the nominal weight per foot. When applied to sizes between 8 and 12 in.,
inclusive, it often indicates that the pipe has the heaviest of several wall
356
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
thicknesses listed. In sizes 14 in. and upward, pipe is designated by it-
outside diameter (O.D.) and the wall thickness is specified.
While the demands for pipe for the heating and ventilating industry an
reasonably well served by the standard-weight and cxirn-stron* pipe
demands for pipe for higher pressures and temperature* in industn
resulted in the use of a multiplicity of wall thicknesses for all sizes. Evei
in heating installations, the erection of piping by welding was deemed tr
TABLE 1. DIMENSIONS OF WELDED AND SEAMLESS STCIIL PIPE
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZE
j OUTSIDE
' Dun. ;
i WALL Tiiic^rr.>«i> Fm ^ii^iir N" - :~,L ;•
! Schedule! Schedule Schedule Schedule Schedule Scneduk ScboJui? s'chi-du.*' S.-L.'-i /.e Srk«iul
10 21) 30 40 60 J?0 i 1W i:u 140 WJ
I
*1
$
2
2%
3
3%
4
5
6
8
10
12
14 O.D.
16 O. D.
18 O. D.
20 O.D.
24 O.D.
30 O.D.
0.405
0.540
0.675
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.75
12.75
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
24.0
30.0
0.06S*
0.095*
,
O.OS8*
0.091*
.. . 0.119*
0.126*
1
0.109*
0.113*
0 133*
0.147*
. . . 0.154*
0.179*
(US
0.21
0.25'
0.25i
0.28
0.34
0.37
0.43
0.140*
0.191*
i
10.145*
0.154*
0.200*
0.218*
0.203*
rt ?1rt*
0.276*
0.300*
0.318*
0.337*
0.375*
-
16.226*
J0.237*
10 258*
0.437
0.500
0.53
0.62
0.71
0.90
1.12
1.31
1.40
1.56
1.75
1.93
2.31
10.280* ..„„
0.432*
0.562
67250"
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.312
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.312
0.312
0.312
0.375
0.375
0.500
0.277*
0.307*
0.330*
0.375
0.375
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.625
0.322*
0.365*
0.406
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.593
0.687
0.406
0.500*
0.562
0.593
0.656
0.718
0.812
0.937
0.500*
0.593
0.687
0.750
0.843
0.937
1.031
1.218
0.593
0.718
0.843
0.937
1.031
1.156
1.250
1.500
0.718
0.843
1.000
1.062
1.218
1.343
1.500
1.750
6.812
1.000
1.125
1.250
1.437
1.562
1.750
2.062
I
All dimensions are given in inches.
The decimal thicknesses listed for the respective pipe sizes represent their nominal or average wa
dimensions and include an allowance for mill tolerance of 12.5 per cent under nominal thicknesses.
Thicknesses marked with asterisk in Schedules 30 and 40 are identical with thicknesses for standarc
weight pipe in former lists; those in Schedules 60 and 80 are identical with thicknesses for extra-stron
pipe in former lists.
The Schedule Numbers indicate approximate values of the expression 1000 x P/S.
warrant the use of pipe lighter than standard weight. For these reasons
a Sectional Committee on Standardization of Wrought Iron and Wrougl
Steel Pipe and Tubing functioning under the procedure of the America-.
Standards Association was appointed to standardize the dimensions an
materials of pipe.
The proposed pipe standard recommended by that sectional committe
has set up several schedules of pipe including standard-weight and extra
strong thicknesses which are now included in Schedules 40 and 60, re
spectively. The schedules approved by the Sectional Committee ar
given in Tables 1 and 3 and the corresponding weights in Tables 2 and ^
Standard-weight pipe is generally furnished with threaded ends i
357
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
random lengths of 16 to 22 ft, although when ordered with plain ends,
5 per cent may be in lengths of 12 to 16 ft. Five per cent of the total
number of lengths ordered may be jointers which are two pieces coupled
together. Extra-strong pipe is generally furnished with plain ends in
random lengths of 12 to 22 ft, although 5 per cent may be in lengths of
6 to 12 ft.
In addition to IPS copper pipe, several varieties of copper tubing are in
use with either flared or compression couplings or soldered joints. Dimen-
sions of copper water tubing intended for plumbing, underground water
service, fuel-oil lines, gas lines, etc., have been standardized by the U. S.
Government and the American Society for Testing Materials. There are
three standard wall-thickness schedules of copper water tubing classified
in accordance with their principal uses as follows:
Class K — Designed for underground services and general plumbing service.
Class L — Designed for general plumbing purposes.
Class M — Designed for use with soldered fittings only.
In general, Type K is used where corrosion conditions are severe, and
TABLE 2. NOMINAL WEIGHTS OF WELDED AND SEAMLESS STEEL PIPE
NOMINAL
SCHED.
SCHED.
SCEE
3
DTJLE
0
4
ULE
)
SCHED.
SCEXD.
SCHED.
SCHED.
SCHED.
SCHED
PIPE
SIZE
INCHES
10
PLAIN
ENDS
20
PLAIN
ENDS
Plain
End*
Threads
and
Coup-
lings
Plain
Ends
Threads
and
Coup-
lings
60
PLAIN
ENDS
80
.PLAIN
ENDS
100
PLAIN
ENDS
120
PLAIN
ENDS
140
PLAIN
ENDS
160
PLAIN
ENDS
Lg
0.25*
0.25*
0.32*
\/
0.43*
0.43*
0.54*
j|
0.57*
0.86*
0.57*
0.86*
0.74*
1.09*
"l~3
1 4
1%
1.14*
1.68*
2.28*
1.14*
1.69*
2.29*
1.48*
2.18*
3.00*
1.9
2.8
3.7
&
2.72*
2.74*
3.64*
4 8
2
3.66*
3.68*
5.03*
7 4
m
&A
5.80*
7.58*
9.11*
5.82*
7.62*
9.21*
7.67*
10.3*
12.5*
10.0
14.3
10.8*
10.9*
15.0*
19.0
22.6
5
14.7*
14.9*
20.8*
27.1
33.0
6
•
19.0*
19.2*
28.6*
36 4
45.3
8
10
12
22.4
28.1
33.4
24.7*
34.3*
43.8*
25.0*
35.0*
45.0*
28.6*
40.5*
53.6
28.8*
41.2*
55.0
35.7
54.8*
73,2
43.4*
64.4
88.6
50.9
77.0
108 0
60.7
89.2
126.0
67.8
105.0
140.0
74.7
116.0
161.0
14 0. D.
36.8
45.7
54.6
63.3
85,0
107.0
131.0
147.0
171.0
190.0
16 0. D.
18 0. D.
42,1
47.4
52.3
59.0
62.6
82.0
82.8
105.0
108.0
133.0
137.0
171.0
165.0
208.0
193.0
239.0
224.0
275.0
241.0
W 0
200.D.
52.8
78.6
105.0
123.0
167.0
209.0
251.0
297.0
342.0
T74.0
24 0. D.
63.5
94.7
141.0
171.0
231.0
297.0
361.0
416.0
484.0
536.0
300.D.
99.0
158.0
197.0
Weights are given in pounds per linear foot and are for pipe with plain ends except for sizes which ar
commercially available with threads and couplings for which both weights are listed.
*The weights marked with asterisk in Schedules 30 and 40 are identical with weights for standard-weight pipe i
former lists; those in Schedules 60 and 80 are identical with weights for extra-strong pipe in former lists.
The Schedule Numbers indicate approximate values of the expression 1000 x P/S.
35S
CHAPTER 18. PIPE. FITTINGS, WELDING
Types L and M where such conditions may be considered normal as, for
instance, in heating work. Types K and L are available in both hard and
soft tempers; Type M is available only in hard temper. Where flexibility
is essential as in hidden replacement work or where as few joints as possible
are desired as in fuel-oil lines, the soft temper is commonly used. New or
exposed work generally employs copper pipe of a hard temper. All three
classes are extensively used with soldered fittings.
Standard dimensions, weights, and diameter and wall thickness
tolerances for these classes of copper tubing are given in Table 5. Copper
pipe is also available with dimensions of steel pipe.
Refrigeration lines used in connection with air conditioning equipment
also employ copper tubing extensively. For refrigeration use where
tubing absolutely free from scale and dirt is required, bright annealed
copper tubing that has been deoxidized is used. This tubing is available
in a variety of sizes and wall thicknesses.
EXPANSION AND FLEXIBILITY
The increase in temperature of a pipe from room temperature to an
operating steam or water temperature 100 F or more above room tem-
TABLE 3. DIMENSIONS OF WELDED WROUGHT-IRON PIPE
NOMINAL
PIPE
SIZE
OUTSIDE
DIAMETER
NOMINAL WALL THICKNESSES JOB SCHEDULE NUMBERS
Schedule
10
Schedule
20
Schedule
30
Schedule Schedule
40 60
Schedule
80
}|
ZA
1A
H
1J4
1H
2
2H
3H
±
5
6
8
10
12
14 O. D.
16 O. D.
18 O. D.
20 O. D.
0.405
0.540
0.675
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.75
12.75
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
0.070*
0.090*
0.093*
0.111*
0.115*
0.136*
0.143*
0.148*
0.158*
0.208*
0.221*
0.231*
0.242*
0.263*
0.286*
0.329*
0.372*
0.414
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.562
0.510*
0.574
0.625
0.687
0.750
0.098*
0.122*
0.129*
0.151*
0.157*
0.183*
0.195*
0.204*
0.223*
0.282*
0.306*
0.325*
0.344*
0.383*
0.441*
0.510*
0.606
0.702
0.750
67250
0.250
0.250
67312
0.312
0.312
0.375
67283*
0.313*
0.336*
0.375
0.375
0.437
0.500
All dimensions are given in inches.
The decimal thicknesses listed for the respective pipe sizes represent their nominal or average wall
dimensions and include an allowance for mill tolerance of 12,5 per cent under the nominal thickness.
Thicknesses marked with an asterisk in Schedules 30 and 40 are identical with thicknesses for standard-
weight pipe in former lists; those in Schedules 60* and SO are identical with thicknesses for extra-strong
pipe in former lists.
The Schedule Numbers indicate approximate values of the expression 1000 x P S
359
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
perature results in an increase in length of the pipe for which provision
must be made. The amount of linear expansion (or contraction in the
case of refrigeration lines) per unit length of material per degree change in
temperature is termed the coefficient of linear expansion of that material,
or commonly, the coefficient of expansion. This coefficient varies with
the material.
The linear expansion of cast iron, steel, wrought iron, and copper pipe,
TABLE 4. NOMINAL WEIGHTS OF WELDED WROUGHT-IRON PIPE
NOMINAL
PIPE
SCHBD.
10
SCHZD,
20
SCHl
SDTILB
30
SCHE
4
DTJLE
3
SCHEDULE
60
SCHEDULE
80
SIZE
(INCHES)
Plain
Ends
Plain
Ends
Plain
Ends
Threads
and
Couplings
Plain
Ends
Threads
and
Couplings
Plain
Ends
Plain
Ends
g
0.25*
0.43*
0.57*
0.25*
0.43*
0.57*
0.32*
0.54*
0.74*
1 4
IK
v
3H
&A
0.86*
1.14*
1.68*
2.28*
2.72*
3.66*
5.80*
7.58*
9.11*
0.86*
1.14*
1.69*
2.29*
2.74*
3.68*
5.82*
7.62*
9.21*
1.09*
1.48*
2.18*
3.00*
3.64*
5.03*
7.67*
10.3*
12.5*
5
6
8
10
12
14 0. D.
3676
575
"2477*
34.3*
43.8*
53.6
25~.o*~
35.0*
45.0*
10.8*
14.7*
19.0*
28.6*
40.5*
53.6
62.2
10.9*
14.9*
19.2*
28.8*
41.2*
55.0
~54~~8*
73.2
87.6
15.0*
20.8*
28.6*
43.4*
54.4
88.6
104.0
16 O. D.
18 O. D.
41.3
46.5
51.4
57.9
61.4
80.5
81.2
103.0
111.0
136.0
20 O. D.
77.0
103.0
115.0
Weights are given in pounds per linear foot and are for pipe with plain ends except for sizes which are
commercially available with threads and couplings for which both weights are listed.
*Weights marked with an asterisk in Schedules 30 and 40 are identical with weights for standard-weight
pipe in former lists; those in Schedules 60 and 80 are identical with weights for extra-strong pipe in former
lists.
The Schedule Numbers indicate approximate values of the expression 1000 x P/S.
the materials most frequently used in heating and ventilating work, can
be determined from Table 6.
The elongation values in Table 6 were computed from the following
formula :
(D
where
Lt — length at temperature t degrees Fahrenheit, feet.
£0 = length at 32 F, feet.
/ = final temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
a and b are constants as given on the next page.
360
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
METAL
Cast-iron
0 005441
i 0 001747
Steel
0 006212
I o ftftifi<£*
Wrought-Iron
0 006503
; o 001 6°°
Copper
0 009278
* o 001°44
The three methods by which the elongation due to thermal expansion
may be taken care of are :
1. Expansion joints.
2. Swivel joints.
3. Inherent flexibility of the pipe itself utilized through pipe bends, right-angle turns,
or offsets in the line.
TABLE 5. STANDARD DIMENSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND DIAMETER AND WALL THICKNESS
TOLERANCES FOR COPPER WATER TUBES*
(AU Tokrances Plus and Afinus)
ACTUAL
VARIATION IN
WALL THICKNESS, IN.
WuifflEtT PER FT
NOMINAL
OUTSIDE
DIAM-
MEAN OUTSIDE
DIAMETER, IN.
Claas£
Class I
Class If
LB
SIZE, IN.
ETER,
Per-
Per-
! P«-
IN.
Annealed
Hard
Nominal
missible
Varia-
Nominal
missible
Varia-
Nominal
missible
Varia-
Class
JE
Class
L
Class
Drawn
tion
tion
] tion
?•£
0.500
0.0025
0.001
0.049
0.004
0.035
0.0035
0.0250.0025
0.269
0.198) 0.144
%
0.62S
0.0025
0.001
0.049
0.004
0.040
0.0035
0.028
0.0025
0.344
0.285
0.203
%
0.875
0.003
0.001
0.065
0.0045
0.045
0.004
0.032
0.003
0.641
0.455
0.328
1.125
0.0035
0.0015
0.065
0.0045
0.050
0.004
0.035
0.0035
0.839
0.655
0.464
llA
1.375
0.004
0.0015
0.065
0.0045
0.055
0.0045
0.042
0.0035
1.04
0.884
0.681
V/2
1.625
0.0045
0.002
0.072
0.005
0.060
0.0045
0.049
0.004
1.36
1.14
0.94
2
2.125
0.005
0.002
0.083
0.005
0.070
0.005
0.058
0.0045
2.06
1.75
1.46
VA
2.625
0.005
0.002
0.095
0.005
0.080
0.005
0.065
0.0045
2.92
2.48
2.03
3
3.125
0.005
0.002
0.109
0.005
0.0900.005
0.072
0.0045
4.00
3.33
2.68
3Ji
3.625
0.005
0.002
0.120
0.005
0.100
0.005
0.083
0.005
5,12
4.29
3.58
4
4.125
0.005
0.002
0.134
0.006
0.110
0.005
0.095
0,005
6.51
5.38
4.66
5
5.125
0.005
0.002
0.160
0.006
0.125
0.006
0.109
0.005
9.67
7.61
6.65
6
6.125
0.005
0.002
0.192
0.006
0.140
0.006
0.1220.005
13.87
10.20
8.91
*From Standard Specifications for Copper Water Tube of the American Society for Testing Materials,
A.S.T.M. Designation B88-33.
Expansion joints of the slip-sleeve, diaphragm, or corrugated types
made of copper, rubber, or other gasket material are all used for taking
up expansion, but generally only for low pressures or where the inherent
flexibility of the pipe cannot readily be used as in underground steam or
hot water distribution lines.
Swivel joints are used extensively in low-pressure steam and hot water
heating systems and in hot water supply lines. The swivel joints absorb
the expansive movement of the pipe by the turning of threaded joints.
In many cases the straight pipe in the offset of a swivel joint is sufficiently
flexible to take up the expansion without developing enough thrust to
produce swiveling in the threaded joint. This is preferable since con-
361
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
tjnued turning in the threaded joint may in time result in a leak, par-
ticularly when the pressure is high. The amount of elongation which a
swivel joint can take up is controlled by the length of the swing piece
employed and by the lateral displacement which is permissible in the
long pipe runs.
^ Probably the most economical method of providing for expansion of
piping in along run is to take advantage of the directional changes which
must necessarily occur in the piping and proportion the offsets so that
sufficient flexibility is secured. Ninety-degree bends with long, straight
tangents in either a horizontal or a vertical plane are an excellent means
for securing adequate flexibility with larger sizes of pipe. When flexi-
bility cannot be obtained in this manner, it is necessary to make use of
some type of expansion bend. The exact calculation of the size of ex-
pansion bends required to take up a given amount of thermal expansion
-L
U bend with u bend with
4 fittings 2 fittings
FIG. 1. MEASUREMENT OF L ON VARIOUS PIPE BENDS
is relatively complicated1. The following approximate method, however,
has been found to give reasonably good results and is deemed to be
sufficiently accurate for most heating work.
Fig. 1 shows several types of expansion bends commonly used for
taking up thermal expansion. The amount of pipe, L, required in each of
these bends may be computed from the following formula:
L = 6.16 Jz>A (2)
where
L — length of pipe, feet.
D « outside diameter of the pipe used, inches.
A = the amount of expansion to be taken up, inches.
This formula, based on the use of mild-steel pipe with wall thicknesses
not heavier than extra-strong, assumes a maximum safe value of fiber
stress of 16,000 Ib per square inch. When square type bends are used, the
width of the bend should not exceed about two times the height. It is
further assumed that the corners are made with screwed or flanged elbows
or with arcs of circles having radii five to six times the pipe diameter. •
All risers must be anchored and safeguarded so that the difference in
iPiping Handbook, by Walker and Crocker, and A Manual for the Design of Piping for Flexibility by
the Use of Graphs, by E. A. Wert, S. Smith, and E. T. Cope, published by The Detroit Edison Company.
362
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
length when hot from the length when cold shall not disarrange the
normal and orderly provisions for drainage of the branches.
It is especially necessary with light-weight radiators so to anchor the
piping and so to give it freedom for expansion that no strain therefrom
shall be allowed to distort the radiators. When expansion strains from
the pipes are permitted to reach these light metal heaters they usually
emit sounds of distress which are exceedingly troublesome.
TABLE 6. THERMAL EXPANSION OF PIPE IN INCHES PER 100 FT»
(For superheated steam and other fluids refer to temperature column}
SATURATED STEAM
ELONGATION IN INCHES PEB '
100 FT FROM —20 F UP
SATURATED
STEAK
ELQXGATIOH IK INCHZS FIB 100
FT FBOJI -20 F UP
Vacuum
Inches
of Eg.
Pressure
Founds
per
Square
Inch
Gage
Tern-
perature
Degrees
Fahren-
heit
Cast-
iron
Pipe
Steel
Pipe
Wrought
Iron
Pipe
Copper i
Pipe |
Pressure
Pounds
per
Square
Inch
Gage
Tem-
perature
Dorees
Fahren-
heit
Cist-
Iron
Pipe
Steel
Pipe
T*
-20
0
0
0
0
66i.3
500
3.847
4.296
4.477
6.110
0
0.127
0.145
0.152
0.204
795.3
520
4.020
4.4S7
4.677
6.352
20
0.255
0.293
0.306
0.442
945.3
540
4.190
4.670
4.866
6.614
40
0.390
0.430
0.465
0.655
1115.3
560
4.365
4.860
5.057
6.850
29.39
60
0.518
0.593
0.620
0.888
1308.3
580
4.541
5.051
5.268
7.123
28.89
80
0.649
0.725
0.780
1.100
1525.3
600
4.725
5.247
5.455
7.388
27.99
100
0.787
0.898
0.939
1.338
1768.3
620
4.896
5.437
5.660
7.636
26.48
120
0.926
1.055
.110
1.570
2041.3
640
5.082
5.627
5.850
7.893
24.04
140
1.051
1.209
.265
1.794
2346.3
660
5.260
5.831
6.067
8.153
20.27
160
1.200
1.368
.427
2.008
2705
680
5.442
6.020
6.260
8.400
14.63
180
1.345
1.528
.597
2.255
3080
700
5.629
6.229
6.481
8.676
6.45
.__
200
1.495
1.691
.778
2.500J
720
5.808
6.425
6.673
8.912
220
1.634
1.852
.936
2.720
740
6.006
6.635
6.899
9.203
10.3
240
1.780
2.020
2.110
2.960
760
6.200
6.833
7.100
9.460
20.7
260
1.931
2.183
2.279
3.189
780
6.389
7.046
7.314
9.736
34.5
280
2.085
2.350
2.465
3.422
800
6.587
7.250
7,508
9.992
52.3
300
2.233
2.519
2.630
3.665
820
6.779
7.464
7.757
10.272
74.9
320
2.395
2.690
2.800
3.900
840
6.970
7.662
7.952
10.512
103.3
340
2.543
2.862
2.988
4.145
860
7.176
7.888
8.195
10.814
138.3
360
2.700
3.029
3.175
4.380
880
7.375
8.098
8.400
11.175
180.9
380
2.859
3.211
3.350
4.628
900
7.579
8.313
8.639
11.360
232.4
400
3.008
3.375
3.521
4.870
920
7.795
8.545
8.867
11.625
293.7
420
3.182
3.566
3.720
5.118
940
7.989
8.755
9.089
11.911
366.1
440
3.345
3.740
3.900
5.358
960
8.200
8.975
9.300
12.180
451.3
460
3.511
3.929
4.096
5.612
980
8.406
9.196
9.547
12.473
550.3
480
3.683
4.100
4.280
5.855
1000
8.617
9.421
9.776
12.747
aFrom Piping Handbook, by Walker and Crocker. This table gives the expansion from - 20 F to the
temperature in question. To obtain the amount of expansion between any two temperatures take the
difference between the figures in the table for those temperatures. For example, if a steel pipe is installed
at a temperature of 60 F and is to operate at 300 F, the expansion would be 2.519 - 0.593 - 1.926 in.
PIPE THREADS
All threaded pipe for heating and ventilating installations uses the
American Standard taper pipe thread which is made with a taper of 1 in
16 measured on the diameter of the pipe so as to secure a tight joint.
Threads of fittings are tapped to the same taper. The number of threads
per inch varies with the different pipe sizes. All threaded pipe should be
made up with a thread paste suitable for the service under which the
pipe is to be used.
363
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HANGERS AND SUPPORTS
Heating system piping requires careful and substantial support. Where
changes in temperature of the line are not large, such simple methods of
support may be utilized as hanging the line by means of rods or perforated
strip from the building structure, or supporting it by brackets or on piers.
When fluids are conveyed at temperatures of ,150 F or above, however,
hangers or supporting equipment must be fabricated and assembled to
permit free expansion or contraction of the piping. This can be accom-
plished by the use of long rod hangers, spring hangers, chains, hangers or
supports fitted with rollers, machined blocks, elliptical or circular rings of
larger diameter than the pipe giving contact only at the bottom, or trolley
hangers. In all cases, allowance should be made for rod clearance to
permit swinging without setting up severe bending action in the rods.
For pipes of small size, perforated metal strip is often used. For
horizontal mains, the rod or strip usually is attached to the joists or steel
work of the floor above. For long runs of vertical pipe subject to con-
siderable thermal expansion, either the hangers should be designed to
prevent excessive load on the bottom support when expansion takes
place, or the bottom support should be designed to withstand the entire
load.
TYPES OF FITTINGS
Fittings for joining the separate lengths of pipe together are made in a
variety of forms, and are either screwed or flanged, the former being
generally used for the smaller sizes of pipe up to and including 3}^ in.,
and the latter for the larger sizes, 4 in. and above. Screwed fittings of
large size as well as flanged fittings of small size are also made and are
used for certain classes of work at the proper pressure.
The material used for fittings is generally cast iron, but in addition to
this malleable iron, steel and steel alloys are also used, as well as various
grades of brass or bronze. The material to be used depends on the
character of the service and the pressure.
As in the case of pipe, there are several weights of fittings manufactured.
Recognized American Standards for the various weights are as follows:
Cast-iron pipe flanges and flanged fittings for 25 Ib (sizes 4 in. and larger), 125 Ib, and
250 Ib maximum saturated steam pressure.
Malleable iron screwed fittings for 150 Ib maximum saturated steam pressure.
Cast-iron screwed fittings for 125 and 250 Ib maximum saturated steam pressure.
Steel flanged fittings for 150 and 300 Ib maximum steam service pressure.
The allowable cold water working pressures for these standards vary from 43 Ib for
the 25 Ib standard to 500 Ib for the 300 Ib steel standard.
Screwed fittings include: nipples or short pieces of pipe of varying
lengths ; couplings, usually of wrought iron only ; elbows for turning angles
of either 45 deg or 90 deg; return bends, which may be of either the close
or open pattern, and may be cast with either a back or side outlet; tees;
crosses; laterals or Y branches; and a variety of plugs, bushings, caps,
lock-nuts, flanges and reducing fittings. Reducing fittings as well as
bushings, both of which are used in changing from one pipe size to another,
364
CHAPTER 18. PIPE. FITTINGS, WELDING
may have the smaller connection tapped eccentrically to permit free drain-
age of the water of condensation in steam lines or free escape of air in
water lines.
Fittings for copper tubing are available in the soldered, flared, or com-
pression types. Illustrations of each of these types is shown in Fig. 2.
Fittings for copper pipe of IPS dimensions are available in screwed or
soldered types of connection.
The compression type fitting is generally limited to smaller size tubing
while the flared and soldered types are used in large and small sizes.
While no effort has been made to standardize dimensions of flared tube
fittings, manufacturers have quite generally used S.A.E. standard
dimensions. Flared tube fittings are widely used in refrigeration work and
the use of S.A.E. dimensions and a 45 deg flare renders most fittings
SOLDER-TYPE FITTING
REFRIGERATOR TYPE FLARED-TUBING FITTINGS
SAE COMPRESSION TU&NG FITTINGS
FUVRED-TUBING FITTINGS
FIG. 2. COPPER OR BRASS TUBING FITTINGS
interchangeable, although for refrigeration use, thread fits and tolerances
on thread gages must be maintained within close limits.
Ammonia pipe fittings made of cast iron are extensively used in handling
refrigerants in larger installations. Until recently, no standard dimensions
were adhered to in the manufacture of ammonia flanged fittings or com-
panion flanges with the result that fittings of different manufacturers
were not interchangeable. A subcommittee of A.S.A Sectional Com-
mittee B16 has prepared proposed American Standard dimensions for
ammonia flanged fittings and companion flanges for maximum service
pressure of 300 Ib per sq in. which will be available soon,
Thread Connections
Threads used for fittings are the same American Standard taper pipe
threads as those used for pipe, and unless otherwise ordered, right-hand
365
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
threads are used. To facilitate drainage, some elbows have the thread
tapped at an angle to provide a pitch of the connecting pipe of J^ in. to
the foot. These elbows are known to the trade as pitched elbows and are
commercially available. Malleable iron fittings, like brass fittings, are
cast with a round instead of a flat band or bead, or with no bead at all.
Fittings are designated as male or female, depending on whether the
threads are on the outside or inside, respectively.
Flanged fittings are generally used in the best practice for connecting
all piping above 4 in. in diameter. While screwed fittings may be used
for the larger sizes and are satisfactory under the proper working con-
ditions, it will be found difficult either to make or to break the joints in
these large sizes.
A number of different flange facings in common use are plain face,
raised face, tongue and groove, and male and female. Cast-iron fittings
for 125 Ib pressure and below are normally furnished with a plain face,
while the 250 Ib cast-iron fittings are supplied with a J^-inch raised face.
The standard facing for steel flanged fittings for 150 and 300 Ib is a
J^-inch raised face although these fittings are obtainable with a variety of
facings. The gasket surface of the raised face may be finished smooth
or may be machined with concentric or spiral grooves often referred to as
serrated face or phonograph finish, respectively.
The dimensions of elbows, tees and crosses for 125 Ib cast-iron screwed
fittings are given in Table 7, whereas the dimensions for 125 Ib cast-iron
flanged fittings are given in Tables 8 and 9.
For low temperature service not to exceed about 220 F, a number of
paper or vegetable fiber gasket materials will prove satisfactory; for plain
raised face flanges, rubber or rubber inserted gaskets are commonly
employed. Asbestos composition gaskets are probably the most widely
used, particularly where the temperature exceeds 250 F. Jacketed
asbestos and metallic gaskets may be used for any pressure and tem-
perature conditions, but preferably only with a relatively narrow recessed
facing.
WELDING
Erection of piping in heating and ventilating installations by means of
fusion welding has been commonly accepted in the past few years as a
competitive method to the screwed and flanged joint. Since the question
of economy of welding as against the use of screwed and flanged fittings
is dependent on the individual job, the use of welding is generally recom-
mended on the basis of a greatly reduced cost of maintenance and repair,
of less weight resulting from the use of a lighter-weight pipe, and of
increased economy in pipe insulation, hangers, and supports rather than
on the basis of any economy that might be effected in actual erection by
welding.
Fusion welding, commonly used in erection of piping, is defined as the
process of joining metal parts in the molten, or molten and vapor states,
without the application of mechanical pressure or blows. Fusion welding
embraces gas welding and electric arc welding, both of which are com-
monly used to produce acceptable welds.
366
CHAPTER 18. PIPE. FITTINGS, WELDING
Welding application requires the same basic knowledge of design as do
the other types of assembly, but in addition, requires a generous know-
ledge of the sciences involved, particularly as to welding qualities of
metal, their reaction to extremely high temperatures, and the ability to
determine and use only the best quality welding rods. This requirement
applies equally to employer and employee with the employer accepting
TABLE 7. TENTATIVE AMERICAN STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF ELBOWS, 45 DEG ELBOWS,
TEES, AND CROSSES (STRAIGHT SIZES) FOR 125 LB CAST-IRON SCREWED FITTINGS
ELBOW
TEE
CROSS
45* ELBOW
A
C
B
E
F
G \ H
I.VBIDl DlAlOCTXR
NOMINAL
POTB
SIZE
UXNTXB
TO END,
ELBOWS,
TUBS AND
CBOSSES
CKNTXR
TO END,
45 DIG
ELBOWS
LXNGTH
or THRJAD
MlN.
WIDTH
or BAND,
MIK.
or FITTING
MXTAL
THICKNESS,
MIN.
OUTSIDl
DlAlOBTXB
OF BAND.
MIN.
Min.
Mai.
X
0.81
0.73
0.32
0.38
0.540
0.584
0.110
0.93
0.95
0.80
0.36
0.44
0.675
0.719
0.120
1.12
/"£
1.12
0.88
0.43
0.50
0.840
0.897
0.130
1.34
%
1.31
0.98
0.50
0.56
1.050
1.107
0.155
1.63
l
1.50
1.12
0.58
0.62
1.315
1.385
0.170
1.95
IJi
1.75
1.29
0.67
0.69
1.660
1.730
0.185
2.39
IJ^
1.94
1.43
0.70
0.75
1.900
1.970
0.200
2.68
2
2.25
1.68
0.75
0.84
2.375
2.445
0.220
3.28
2J4
2.70
1.95
0.92
0.94
2.875
2.975
0.240
3.86
3
3.08
2.17
0.98
1.00
3.500
3.600
0.260
4.62
3H
3.42
2.39
1.03
1.06
4.000
4.100
0.280
5.20
4
3.79
2.61
1.08
1.12
4.500
4.600
0.310
5.79
5
4.50
3.05
1.18
1.18
5.563
5.663
0.380
7.05
6
5.13
3.46
1.28
1.28
6.625
6.725
0.430
8.28
8
6.56
4.28
1.47
1.47
8.625
8.725
0,550
10.63
10
8.08
5.16
1.68
1.68
10.750
10.850
0.690
13.12
12
9.50
5.97
1.88
1.88
12.750
12.850
0.800
15.47
14 O.D.
10.40
....
2.00
2.00
14.000
14.100
0.880
16.94
16 O.D.
11.82
2.20
2.20
16.000
16.100
1.000
19.30
All dimensions given in inches.
all of the responsibility. Thus the employer should select his welding
mechanics with good judgment, provide them with first-class equipment
and tools, arrange for their training and use of acceptable workmanship
standards, and at regular intervals subject their work to prescribed tests.
Industry will not accept the employment of mechanics of undetermined
ability nor on the basis of past experience. Neither does industry accept
the statement that a weld is only as good as the workman who makes it.
The control Codes now in process of adoption will be the law governing
367
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the use of the welding process. These Codes prohibit individual practices
contrary to their specified procedure and rules of control, and this is
predicated upon the sound requirement that the employer must assume
full responsibility for the deposited weld.
It is advisable that this management responsibility be included in all
welding specifications and that authoritative standards^ of workmanship
also be specified. The standards of workmanship for this industry are as
set forth in the Standard Manual on Pipe Welding of the Heating, Piping
and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association.
A complete line of manufactured steel welding fittings is now available
TABLE 8. AMERICAN STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF TEES AND CROSSES (STRAIGHT SIZES)
FOR 125 LB CAST-IRON FLANGED FITTINGS
A
LJL
TEE
SIDE OUTLET
CROSS
A
AA
METAL
NOMINAL
CENTBB TO FACE
TEES AND
CROSSES b-c
FACT TO FACT
TEES AND
CBOSSESb-C
OF
FLANGE
FLANGE,
Mm.
THICKNESS
OP BODT,
Mm
1
|H
7
4Ji
X16
Jf 6
1}I
4 4
8
5 8
$t
K
2
4}^
9
6
Ji
2%
5
10
7
IJ^g
K
3
5/"£
11
7J^
?€
Ji
3J£
6
12
8 i/
72
ij^g
Ji
4
6J-£
13
9
1iKe
j^
5
7J^
15
10
1%6
J^
6
8
16
11
1
Me
8
9
18
13J^
lj^
5^g
10
11
22
16
IJfe
?i
12
12
24
19
1J€
13Ke
14 O.D.
14
28
21
15^
%
16 O.D.
15
30
23^
1/16
1
18 O.D.
16J^
33
25
IJf 6
20 O.D.
18
36
27 J^
lij^g
1J^
24 O.D.
22
44
32
IJi
IJi
30 O.D.
25
50
38%
2Ji
IJfe
36 O.D.
28
56
46
2^i
42 O.D.
31
62
53
2%
11%6
48 O.D.
34
68
59K
2%
2
All dimensions given in inches.
•Size of all fittings listed indicates nominal inside diameter of port.
!>Tees, side outlet tees, and crosses, 16 in. and smaller, reducing on the outlet, have the same dimensions
center to face, and face to face as straight size fittings corresponding to the size of the larger opening.
Sizes 18 in. and larger, reducing on the outlet, are made in two lengths, depending on the size of the outlet.
cTees and crosses, reducing on run only, carry same dimensions center to face and face to face as a
straight size fitting of the larger opening.
368
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
with plain ends machine beveled for welding and with radii similar to
short and long radius flanged fittings. Some typical types of these fittings
are shown in Fig. 3. They are made in pipe sizes % to 24 in., standard
and extra heavy, in steel, wrought iron, brass, copper, and special alloys.
Socket welding fittings of forged steel are also commercially available.
These fittings have a machined recess into which the pipe slips. A fillet
weld between the pipe and socket edge provides a pressure-tight joint. A
proposed American Standard containing dimensions of steel welding-neck
flanges for pressures up to 1500 Ib per sq in. has been developed in A.S.A
TABLE 9. AMERICAN STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF ELBOWS FOR
125 LB CAST-IRON FLANGED FITTINGS
90 DEG. LONG RADIUS 45 OEG.
REDUCING SIDE OUTLET
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZE a
CENTER TO FACE
ELBOW b-o-d
CENTER TO FACE
LONG RADIUS
ELBOW b-o-d
CENTER TO FACE
45 DEG
ELBOW c
DIAMKTEB
or
FLANGE
THICKNESS
or FLANGI,
Mw.
MXTAL
or BOOT,
MIN.
4
5
6
8
10
12
14 O.D.
16 O.D,
15 O.D.
20 O.D.
24 O.D.
30 O.D.
36 O.D.
42 O.D.
48 O.D.
6
.8
8
9
11
12
14
15
18
22
25
28
31
34
9
10M
14
16
19
21
24
29
34
49
56
64
11
15
18
21
24
|a*
5 8
6
7
8\jf
7*
9
10
11
16
19
21
25
27 J£
32
46
53
All dimensions given in inches.
aSize of all fittings listed indicates nominal inside diameter of port.
bReducing elbows and side outlet elbows carry same dimensions center to face as straight size elbows
corresponding to the size of the larger opening.
cSpecial degree elbows, ranging from 1 to 45 deg, inclusive, have the same center to face dimensions
as given for 45 deg elbows and those over 45 deg and up to 90 deg, inclusive, shall have the same center to
face dimensions as given for 90 deg elbows. The angle designation of an elbow is its deflection from straight
line flow and is the angle between the flange faces.
dSide outlet elbows shall have all openings on intersection center-lines.
Sectional Committee B16. Tables 10 and 11 give these dimensions for
welding-neck flanges suitable for 150 and 300 Ib per sq in. gage pressure.
VALVES
Valves are made with both threaded and flanged ends for screwed and
bolted connections just as are pipe fittings.
The material used for valves of small size is generally brass or bronze
for low pressures and forged steel for high pressures, while in the larger
sizes either cast-iron, cast-steel or some of the steel alloys are employed.
a. TYPICAL SHORT RADIUS ELBOWS
b. TEE c. FORGED CAP
FIG. 3. TYPICAL WELDING FITTINGS
d. CONCENTRIC
REDUCER
e. END
CLOSURE
Practically all iron or steel valves intended for steam or water work are
bronze-mounted or trimmed.
Brass, bronze, and iron valves are generally designed for standard or
extra heavy service, the former being used up to 125 Ib and the latter up
to 250 Ib saturated steam working pressure, although most manufacturers
also make valves for medium pressure up to 175 Ib steam working pres-
sure. The more common types are gate valves or straightway valves,
globe valves, angle valves, check valves and automatic valves, such as
reducing and back-pressure valves.
Gate valves are the most frequently used of all valves since in their open
position the resistance to flow is a minimum. These valves may be
secured with either a rising or a non-rising stem, although in the smaller
sizes the rising stem is more commonly used. The rising stem valve is
desirable because the positions of the handle and stem indicate whether
370
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WELDING
the valve is open or closed, although space limitations may prevent its
use. The globe valve is less expensive to manufacture than the gate
valve, but its peculiar construction offers a high resistance to flow and
may prevent complete drainage of the pipe line. These objections are of
particular importance in heating work.
Check valves are automatic in operation and permit flow in only one
direction, depending for operation on the difference in pressure between
TABLE 10. PROPOSED DIMENSIONS OF STEEL WELDING NECK FLANGES FOR
MAXIMUM STEAM SERVICE PRESSURE OF 150 LB PER SQ IN,
(GAGE) AT A TEMPERATURE OF 500 F, AND 100 LB AT 750 F
NOMINAL
PIPE
SIZE
DLLMZTEE
OF
FLANGE
THICKNESS
OF
FLQ. Mm.
DlAMETEB
OF
HUB
Ho DULM.
BEGINNING
OF CHAMFER
LENGTH
THRU
HUB
DlAlL FOE
STANDARD
POT
DLVV, OF
BOLT
CIRCLE
Xo.
OF
BOLTS
Sizi
OF
BOLTS
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
14 O. D,
16 O. D.
18 O. D.
20 0. D.
24 0. D.
9
10
11
16
19
21
25
27H
32
1.05
1.38
1.61
2.07
2.47
3.07
3.55
4.03
5.05
6.07
7.98
10.02
12.00
13.25
15.25
17,25
19.25
23.25
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
8
8
12
12
12
16
16
20
20
All dimensions given in inches.
A raised face of ^ in. ia included in thickness of flange minimum,
It is recommended that the taper of the hub should not exceed 6 deg for a reasonable distance back
of the chamfer in order to reduce the heat transfer while welding.
the two sides of the valve. The two principal kinds of check valves are
the swing check in which a flapper is hinged to swing back and forth, and
the lift check in which a dead weight disc moves vertically from its seat.
Valves commonly used for controlling steam or water supply to radi-
ators constitute a special class since they are manufactured to meet
heating system requirements. These valves are generally of the angle
type and are usually made of brass. Graduations on the heads or lever
371
handles are often supplied to indicate the relative opening of the valve in
any position. Standard roughing-in dimensions for angle-type valves
are given in Table 12.
Automatic control of steam supply to individual radiators can be
TABLE 11. PROPOSED DIMENSIONS OF STEEL WELDING NECK FLANGES FOR
MAXIMUM STEAM SERVICE PRESSURE OF 300 LB PER SQ IN.
(GAGE) AT A TEMPERATURE OF 750 F
NOMINAL
PEPK
DlAJt
OP
FLANGE
THICK-
NESS
OF
FLANGE
MET.
DlAM.
OP
HUB
HUB
DIAM.
BEGINNING
OF
CHAMFER
E
LENGTH
THBU
HUB
DIAM.
FOR
STANDARD
PIPE
DIAM,
FOR
EXTRA
STRONG
PIPE
DlAM.
OF
BOLT
CIRCLE
No.
OF
BOLTS
SIZE
OF
BOLTS
4
5
6
8
10
12
140.D.
16 0. D.
18 0. D.
200.D.
240.D.
9
10
11
15
23
28
30^
36
in e
if
I
2H
27%
2.38
2.88
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.56
6.63
8.63
10.75
12.75
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
24.00
2.07
2.47
3.07
3.55
4.03
5.05
6.07
7.98
10.02
12.00
13.25
15.25
17.25
19.25
23.25
1.94
2.32
2.90
3.36
3.83
4.81
5.76
7.63
9.75
11.75
8
8
8
8
8
8
12
12
16
16
20
20
24
24
24
*For sizes below 2 in. use dimensions of 600 Ib flanges.
All dimensions given in inches.
A raised face of % in. is included in thickness of flange minimum.
It is recommended that the taper of the hub should not exceed 6 deg for a reasonable distance back
of the chamfer in order to reduce the heat transfer while welding.
effected by use of direct-acting radiator valves having a thermostatic
element at the valve, or near to it. The direct-acting valve is usually an
angle-type valve containing a thermostatic element which permits the
flow of steam in accordance with room temperature requirements. These
valves usually are capable of adjustment to permit variation in room
temperature to suit individual taste.
Ordinary steam valves may be used for hot water service by drilling a
iiJ-m. hole through the web forming the seat to insure sufficient circulation
to prevent freezing when the valve is closed. Valves made particularly
372
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS. WELDING
for use in hot water heating systems are of less complex design, one type
consisting of a simple butterfly valve, and another of a quick opening type
in which a part in the valve mechanism matches up with an opening
in the valve body.
In one-pipe steam-heating systems, automatic air valves are required
at the radiators. Two common types of air valves available are the
vacuum type and the straight-pressure type. Vacuum valves permit the
expulsion of air from the radiators when the steam pressure rises and, in
addition, act as checks to prevent the return of air into the radiator when
TABLE 12. STANDARD ROUGHING-IN DIMENSIONS ANGLE TYPE VALVES
SIZE
OF
VALVE
DIMENSION A
STEAM AND
EOT WATER ANGLE VALVES
AND UNION ELBOWS
EFFECTIVE JANUARY 1, 1926
DIMENSION A
EFFECTIVE JANCABT 1, 1926
DIMENSION A
RETURN LINE VACUUM
VALVES EFFECTIVI
JANUABT 1, 1925
1 4
m
3
f.
—
2 2
Tolerance
±Ji
1
—
All dimensions given in inches.
Connecting ends shall be threaded and gaged as to threading according to the American (Taper) Pipe
Thread Standard, A-S.A. No. B2— 1919.
The standardization of the Roughing-in Dimensions of Angle Steam and Hot Water, and Modulating
Radiator Valves was made possible by the cooperation of the Manufacturers Standardization Society of
the Valves and Fittings Industry.
a vacuum is formed by the condensation of steam after the supply pressure
has dropped. Ordinary air valves permit the expulsion of air from the
radiator when steam is supplied under pressure, but when the pressure
dies down and a vacuum tends to be formed the air is drawn back into
the radiator.
A system operating continuously or intermittently and supplied with
vacuum valves will generally heat more quickly than one provided with
non-vacuum air valves; thus, it will effect considerable economy of fuel
because the idle period during which no heat is delivered is shortened.
In those cases, where a system is equipped with vacuum air valves and
which has been cold for several days, the system will probably have an
373
internal pressure within the radiator closely approaching atmospheric.
At such times, the vacuum valve will not vent the system any more
rapidly than the ordinary type. Automatic air valves are provided with a
float to close them in case the radiator becomes flooded with water because
it does not drain properly.
CORROSION2
Corrosion is sometimes encountered in heating work on the outside of
buried pipes or the inside of steam heating systems; it is seldom ex-
perienced in hot water heating systems unless the water is frequently
renewed. Piping buried in the ground is quite successfully protected by
coatings of the asphaltic type which are usually applied hot and often
reinforced with fabric wrappings. Galvanizing by the hot-dip process and
painting with specially prepared mixtures also afford some protection.
Internal corrosion in steam heating systems occurs principally in the
condensate return pipes and is nearly always caused by oxygen or carbon
dioxide, or both, in solution in the condensate. Oxygen may enter the
heating system with the steam, owing to its presence in the boiler-feed
water, *or it may enter as air through small leaks, particularly in systems
which operate at sub-atmospheric pressures. When a steam heating
system is operated intermittently, air rushes in during each shutdown
period and oxygen is absorbed by the condensate which clings to the
interior surfaces of the pipes and radiators. The rate of corrosion depends
upon the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide present in solution, upon
the operating temperature, and upon the length of time that the pipe
surfaces are in contact with gas-laden condensate.
Another possible cause of corrosion is a flow of electric current some-
times resulting from faulty electrical circuits which should be corrected.
Electrolytic corrosion also may occur because of the presence of two dis-
similar metals, such as brass and iron, but the condensate in practically
all steam heating systems is such a weak electrolyte that this cause of
corrosion is very infrequent.
If trouble is experienced from corrosion, oxygen should be eliminated
from the feed water by proper deaeration with commercial apparatus.
The elimination of the oxygen due to air leakage is more difficult because
of the multitude of small leaks which exist around valve stems and in
pipe joints. In vacuum systems, however, an attempt should be made
to minimize such leakage.
Carbon dioxide in varying amounts is contained in steam produced
from the majority of water supplies. It is formed from the breaking down
of carbonates and bicarbonates which are present in nearly all natural
waters. It can be partly removed by chemical treatment and deaeration,
but there is no simple method whereby it can be entirely eliminated.
These gases cause corrosion only when in solution in the condensate;
when they are mixed with dry steam their corrosive effect is negligible.
«New Light on Heating System Corrosion, by J. H. Walker (Heating and Ventilating, May, 1933). Cor-
rosion Studies in Steam Heating Systems, by R. R. Seeber, F. A. Rohrman and G. E. Smedberg, (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 253). Corrosion Studies in Steam Heating Systems, by R. R. Seeber,
F. A. Rohrman and G. E. Smedberg, (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 42, 1936, p. 263). Corrosion Studies
m Steam Heating Systems, by R. R. Seeber and Margaret R. HoUey (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION,
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, June, 1937, p. 387).
374
CHAPTER 18. PIPE, FITTINGS, WEIJDINO
The amount of gas in solution depends upon the partial pressure of that
gas in the atmosphere above the surface of the solution, in accordance
with the well known physical law of Henry and Dalton*. The exact
application of this law, however, assumes equilibrium conditions which
do not always exist under the flow conditions prevailing in a heating
system.
Distinction should be made between corrosion in heating systems proper
and in the condensate discharge lines from other apparatus using steam,
such as water heaters, kitchen equipment, and sterilizers. Experience
has shown that in heating systems the partial pressures of the gases do
not reach such magnitudes as to cause harmful amounts of gas to become
dissolved in the condensate when steam supplies are of reasonable purity.
In other kinds of steam-using apparatus which are not ordinarily well
vented, the gases tend to accumulate in the steam space and to become
dissolved in the condensate in appreciable concentrations. Consequently,
corrosion is frequently observed in the condensate discharge lines from
such apparatus, but this does not necessarily indicate that equally serious
corrosion is taking place in the heating system supplied with steam from
the same source.
When corrosive conditions are believed to exist, their seriousness should
be determined by actual measurement, rather than by inference from
isolated instances of pipe failures. The National District Heating Associa-
tion has perfected a corrosion tester for measuring the inherent corrosive-
ness of existing conditions. This corrosion tester consists of a frame sup-
porting three coils of wire which are carefully weighed. After the tester
has been inserted in the pipe line for a definite length of time, the loss of
weight of the coils, referred to an established scale, indicates the relative
corrosiveness of the condensate. Accompanying such corrosion measure-
ments, a careful chemical analysis should be made of the condensate, and
the findings will serve as a basis for an intelligent study of the problem.
Corrosion, if found to exist, can be lessened or overcome by several
means. If the steam supply is found to be definitely contaminated,
proper chemical treatment of the water, followed by deaeration, is an
obvious remedy. The leaks in the piping system, particularly in vacuum
systems, should be stopped so far as is practicable.
Some success has been reported with the use of inhibitors, chief among
which are oil, and sodium silicate. Oil may be fed into the main steam-
supply pipe by means of a sight-feed lubricator. The type of oil known as
600-W is usually recommended. In the present state of knowledge on
this point, the quantity to be fed can best be determined by trial. The
use of sodium silicate, fed in a similar manner, is reported to be successful
but it has not been widely used.
In view of the fact that corrosion is most frequently found in the
return lines from special equipment, which constitute a relatively small
part of the total piping in a building, a simple solution of the corrosion
problem may be to use non-corroding materials in those certain portions
of the piping system, since the higher cost will usually be an unappreciable
portion of the total. Brass and copper are undoubtedly less subject to
8Some Fundamental Considerations of Corrosion in Steam and Condensate Lines, by R. E. Hall and
A. R. Mumford (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 3S, 1932. p. 121).
375
this type of corrosion than the ferrous metals, and considerable attention
is now being given to corrosion-resistant linings for ferrous pipe. Cast-
iron pipe, sometimes alloyed with other metals, also deserves con-
sideration.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the meaning of IPS brass pipe?
It means that the brass pipe has the same external diameter as steel pipe in the same
nominal pipe size and that the wall thickness is sufficient to allow cutting of threads for
use with standard size threaded fittings.
2 • Why is thin-walled copper pipe made up with sweated joints?
If the pipe were threaded it would be necessary to use at least standard-weight wall
thickness on account of the metal removed in threading. Flared ends with coupling nuts
may be used, but this construction is expensive and hard to keep tight.
3 • How are pipes designated in diameters of 12 in. and less?
By weight and nominal size, referring to the approximate inside diameter.
4 • How are pipe sizes designated in diameters of 14 in. and more?
By wall thickness and outside diameter.
5 • Why are expansion joints required in steam pipes?
To care for the change in length of the line brought about by a change in temperature.
6 • What devices are used for taking up expansion?
Expansion joints, swivel joints, and the inherent flexibility of the pipe itself.
7 • Where are swivel joints principally used?
In branch connections to radiators, and in the risers of multi-story buildings where they
are installed between the floor joists.
8 • Name three grades of American Standard screwed pipe fittings.
125-lb cast-iron, 150-lb malleable iron, and 250-lb cast-iron.
9 • In what sizes are American Standard cast-iron flanges and flanged fittings
for 25-lh saturated steam pressure made?
In nominal sizes from 4 in. to 72 in., inclusive.
10 • What fittings are generally used for threaded connections in low pressure
heating systems?
Cast-iron.
376
Chapter 19
GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
Design Procedure, Estimating Heating Requirements, Leader
Pipe Sizes, Proportioning Wall Stacks , Register Selections ,
Recircuiating Ducts and Grilles, Furnace Return Connection*
Furnace Capacity, Examples, Booster Fans
WARM air heating systems of the gravity type are described in this
chapter1, and those of the mechanical type are described in Chapter
20. In the gravity type, the motive head producing flow depends upon
the difference in weight between the heated air leaving the top of the
casing and the cooled air entering the bottom of the casing, while in the
mechanical type a fan may supply all or part of the motive head. Booster
fans are often used in conjunction with gravity-designed systems to
increase air circulation.
In general, a warm-air furnace heating plant consists of a fuel-burning
furnace or heater, enclosed in a casing of sheet metal or brick, which is
placed in the basement of the building. The heated air, taken from the
top or sides near the top of the furnace casing, is distributed to the
various rooms of the building through sheet metal warm-air pipes. The
warm-air pipes in the basement are known as leaders, and the vertical
warm-air pipes which are run in the inside partitions of the building are
called stacks. The heated air is finally discharged into the rooms through
registers which are set in register boxes placed either in the floor or in
the side wall, usually at or near the baseboard.
The air supply to the furnace may be taken (1) entirely from inside
the building through one or more recirculating ducts, (2) entirely from
outside the building, in which case no air is recirculated, or (3) through a
combination of the inside and the outside air supply systems.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The design of a furnace heating system involves the determination
of the following items:
1. Heat loss in Btu from each room in the building.
2. Area and diameter in inches of warm-air pipes in basement (known as leaders).
3. Area and dimensions in inches of vertical pipes (known as wall stacks).
4. Free and gross area and dimensions in inches of warm-air registers.
5. Area and dimensions of recirculating or outside air ducts, in inches.
6. Free* and gross area and dimensions in inches of recirculating registers.
JA11 figures and much of the engineering data which follow are from University of Illinois, En&ncenng
Experiment Station Bulletins Nos. HI, 188, 189 and 246; Warm Air Furnaces and Heating Systems, by
A. C. Willard, A. P. Kratz, V. S. Day, and S. Konzo.
377
7. Size of furnace necessary to supply the warm air required to overcome the heat
loss from the building. This size should include square inches of leader pipe area which
the furnace must supply. It is also desirable to call for a minimum bottom fire-pot
diameter in inches, which is the nominal grate diameter.
8. Area and dimensions in inches of chimney and smoke pipe. If an unlined chimney
is to be used, that fact should be made clear.
The heat loss calculations should be made in accordance with the
procedure outlined in Chapter 7, taking into consideration the trans-
mission losses as well as the infiltration losses.
LEADER PIPE SIZES
In a gravity circulating warm-air furnace system the size of the leader
to a given room depends upon the temperature of the warm air entering
the room at the register. A reasonable air temperature at the registers
must, therefore, be chosen before the system cam be designed. The
National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association has ap-
proved an air temperature of 175 F at the registers as satisfactory for
design purposes. At this temperature, the heat-carrying capacity (heat
available above 70 F) per square inch of leader pipe per hour for first,
second or third floors is shown by Fig. 1 at 175 F to be 105, 170 and 208
Btu, respectively. For average calculations, the values 111, 166 and 200
will simplify the work and may be satisfactorily substituted for these
heat-carrying capacities. If H represents the total heat to be supplied any
room, the resulting equations are:
TT
Leader areas for first floor, square inches = TJT = approximately 0.009-H" (1)
H
Leader areas for second floor, square inches = jr« = approximately 0.006-3" (2)
TT
Leader areas for third floor, square inches = r^: = approximately 0.005H (3)
zoo
In designing for a lower warm-air register temperature, say 160 F, the
factors 111, 166 and 200 become 80, 140 and 166 (Fig. 1 at 160 F), and
the resulting equations are: '
TT
Leader areas for first floor, square inches = -gr- = approximately 0.012H (4)
TT
Leader areas for second floor, square inches = jrg = approximately O.OOTfl" (5)
rr
Leader areas for third floor, square inches = r^r = approximately 0.006H (6)
These equations are applicable to straight leaders from 6 to 8 ft in
length. Longer leaders must be thoroughly covered or the vertical stacks
must be increased in area as discussed under wall stacks. If some pro-
vision is not made for these longer leaders, the air temperature may be
much lower than anticipated and the room will not be properly heated.
The values shown^in Fig. 1 apply only to the case where the straight,
leader pipe is 8 ft in length and is connected to stacks whose cross-
sectional area is approximately 75 per cent of that of the leader pipe.
378
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
Any deviation from these conditions requires a modification of the con-
stants used in Equations 1, 2, and 3. The temperature drop in leaders of
various lengths at three different register temperatures is shown in Fig. 2,
and should be used to obtain new register temperatures, lower than 175 F,
on which to base selections from the curves of Fig. 1, and thereby new
constants for Equations 1, 2 and 3.
Leader sizes should in general be not less than those obtained by
Equations 1 to 3 nor should leaders less than 8 in. in diameter be used. It
is not considered good commercial practice to specify diameters except
•ADER PIPE PER HR
§ g §
o
0
A
• Circular-radiator furnace, rectangular d
• Steel, crescent-radiator furnace
A Crab- radiator furnace
X Electric auxiliary furnace 3*x 13* stack
® Circular-radiator furnace, round duct
uct
<S
0
s
s
®
<<
^
F REGISTER IN BTU PER SQ IN OF LI
i s i :
/
/
A
^
^
A
*!&
\s
o
^
<
~
s
s*
/
f
>^
<s
•
s
/.
r
^i
0
^
^*
/
s
Q
^
s<
\
-Kl
ff^
*^
***
WULA3LE ABOVE 70 FAl
k, go !
> S <
<
s
/
s*
^
JW
^o
Ls£
s^
•s
S
^
**
^>
)
\
4**
**^o
^^*
4
t^
i^,
<tf
s
i:
JO 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 21
EQUIVALENT REGISTER AIR TEMPERATURE IN OEQ F
FIG. 1. VALUE OF SQUARE INCH OF LEADER PIPE AREA FOR FIRST, SECOND,
AND THIRD FLOORS FOR SIMPLE SYSTEM HAVING LEADERS 8 FT IN LENGTH
in whole inches. The tops of all leaders should be at the same elevation as
they leave the furnace bonnet, and from this point there should be a
uniform up-grade of 1 in. per foot of run in all cases. Leaders over 12 ft
in length should be avoided if possible. In cases where such leaders are
required, the use of a larger size pipe, than is required by the application
of the equations, smooth transition fittings, and duct insulation are
recommended.
379
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROPORTIONING WALL STACKS
The wall stack for an upper floor should be made not less than 70 per
cent of the area of the leader. In cases where the leader is short and
straight as was the case for Fig. 1, such a practice is probably justified,
since the loss (Fig. 3) in capacity occasioned by the smaller stack is not
serious for stacks having areas in excess of 70 per cent of the leader area.
For leaders over 8 ft in length or for leaders which are not straight, the
ratio of stack area to leader area should be greater than 70 per cent in
8 12 16
LENGTH OF LEADER PIPE IN FT
FIG. 2. INFLUENCE OF LEADER PIPE LENGTH ON
TEMPERATURE Loss IN AIR FLOWING
THROUGH PIPE
order to offset the greater temperature losses (Fig. 2) in the longer leader.
In gravity circulating systems, this ratio of stack to leader area is' a very
important matter.
The curves in Figs. 4 and 5 indicate that for rooms having a heat
requirement exceeding approximately 9000 Btu per hr, exceedingly high
register temperatures are required for stacks whose width is less than
3}^ in. For such requirements either multiple stacks, or stacks having
larger cross-sectional area (placed in 6 in. studding spaces) will be
required.
380
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
REGISTER SELECTIONS
The registers used for discharging warm air into the rooms should have
a^free or net area not less than the area of the leader In the same run of
piping^ The free area should be at least 70 per cent of the gross area of
the register. No upper-floor register should be wider horizontally than
the wall stack, and it should be placed either in the baseboard or side wall,
if this can be done without the use of offsets. First-floor registers may be
of the baseboard or floor type, with the former location preferred. High
RELATIVE HEATING EFFECT AT REGISTER
O O 0 0 H-
s "s & is 8
W
ith constant heat input to
21,000 BTU per hr
heat
er,
P"
+**•
~*~
^
^
^
~^>
**
/\
i^-
s
%
S
All stacks IP 6" t boot
to t register, Leaders,
8-'0"tot of boot
/
f
V
f \S
^
\s
n
%
/
/
/
\
/
10 in. leader.
Single wall stac
Double wall sta
"k -is;
' /\
/
M
ck^
^
7
/
>
r>
^*
^
8 la leader
Single wall stac
Double wall st*
""•N
£
f
/
i
l^-
—
K —
ck
>
t
i
/
i
/
If
All stacks compared with the best
single wall stack in both 10 in.
and 8 in. leader tests
1
V
1
J
Ext
enor surface of all ducts is bright tin exc
omts where asbestos sealing strips are u
i
ept
at
sed
1
0.1
0.3 0.4 0.5 06 0.7
RATIO STACK AREA TO LEADER AREA
0.9
1.0
FIG. 3.
RELATIVE HEATING EFFECT OF STACKS AT CONSTANT HEAT
INPUT TO FURNACE
sidewall locations for warm air registers in gravity circulating systems are
not recommended on account of the tendency for stratification of the air
in the room, resulting in high temperatures at the ceiling.
RECffiCULATING DUCTS AND GRILLES
The ducts through which air is returned to the furnace should be
designed to minimize friction and turbulence. They should be of ample
area, in excess of the total area of warm-air pipes, and at all points where
381
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the air stream must change direction or shape, streamline fittings should
be employed. . Horizontal ducts should pitch at least J^ in. per foot
upward from the furnace.
The recirculating grilles (or registers) should have a free area at least
equal to the ducts to which they connect, and their free area should
never be less than 50 per cent of their gross area.
The location and number of return grilles will depend on the size, details
and exposure of the house. Small compactly built houses may frequently
be adequately served by a single return effectively placed in a central hall.
More often it is desirable to have two or more returns, provided, however,
that in two-story residences one return is placed to effectively receive the
cold air returning by way of the stairs.
120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
EQUIVALENT REGISTER AIR TEMPERATURE- (TREG-T|NLET+65 F) IN OEG F
FIG. 4. HEATING EFFECT AT REGISTERS FOR VARIOUS STACKS WITH 10-iN. LEADER
Where a divided system of two or more returns is used, the grilles
must be placed to serve the maximum area of cold wall or windows.
Thus in rooms having only 'small windows the grille should be brought
as close to the furnace as possible, but if the room has a bay window,
French doors, or other large sources of cooling or leakage of cold air, the
grille should be placed close by, so as to collect the cool air and prevent
drafts. When long ducts of this type are employed they must be made
oversize. This precaution is particularly important when long ducts and
short ducts are used in the same system. The long ducts must be over-
size, if they are to operate satisfactorily in parallel with short ducts.
Return ducts from upstairs rooms may be necessary in apartments
or other spaces which are closed off or badly exposed. Metal linings are
382
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
advisable in such ducts. It is important that these ducts be free from
unnecessary friction and turbulence, and that they be located to prevent
preheating of the air before it reaches the furnace.
Furnace Return Connection
Circulation of the air is accelerated if the return connection to the
furnace is through a round inclined pipe connected to two 45 deg elbows
rather than through a vertical pipe connected to two 90 deg elbows.
The top of the return shoe should enter the casing below the level of the
grate in the furnace. In order to accomplish this the shoe must be wide
as is indicated in Fig. 6, No. 1 arrangement.
Tests of six different systems of cold air returns, Fig. 6, made at the
University of Illinois2, resulted in the following conclusions:
Curve Description Area Ratio, stack)
No. of stacks Sqm totoaderar
1 S 8-*a 502 1.000
2 D 2fxlO- 23.75 0473
3 $ 3-X12- 36JO OJ17
4 D 3"XlCT 30.0 O598
5 S 3-xHT 300 0.598
6 S 3-X13- 390 0.777
7 D 3*xl3" 39.0 0.777
AM stacks IV 6" from boot <
to register t Uwderslope.
. 1 iiLperft Irrfet diameter,
8m. 8 in. leader ^
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120
130
140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 24
EQUIVALENT REGISTER AIR TEMP£RATUR£-(TREQ-TMJT-'*5 5 IN DEG F
FIG. 5. HEATING EFFECT AT REGISTERS FOR VARIOUS STACKS WITH S-IN. LEADER
1. In general, somewhat better room temperature conditions may be obtained by
returning the air from positions near the cold walls.
2. Friction and turbulence in elaborate return duct systems retard the flow of air
and may seriously reduce furnace efficiency, and lessen the advantages of such a design,
3. The cross-sectional duct area is not the only measure of effectiveness. FrictioE
and turbulence may operate to make the air flow out of all proportion to the various
duct areas.
FURNACE CAPACITY
The size of furnace should, of course, be such as will provide the
necessary air heating capacity, usually expressed in square inches o.
leader pipe area, and at the same time provide a grate of the proper are*
to burn the necessary fuel at a reasonable chimney draft. The total leade
pipe area required is obtained by finding the sum of the leader pipe area
as already designated.
^Investigation of Warm Air Furnaces and Heating Systems, Part IV, by A. C. "Willard, A. P. Kratz, an
V. S. Day (University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station BuUetin No. 189).
3S3
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The grate area will depend on several factors of which four are very
important. First of all, the air temperature at the register for which
the plant has been designed must be determined. Usually, this tempera-
ture is taken at 175 F. Second in importance is the combustion rate,
which must always correspond with the register air temperature, as is shown
by a set of typical furnace performance curves (Fig. 7) for a cast-iron,
circular radiator furnace with a 23 in. diameter grate and 50 in. diameter-
casing. The third factors efficiency, which is a function of the com-
bustion rate, and varies with it as shown by the efficiency curve of Fig. 7.
The fourth factor is the heat value per pound of fuel burned, which was
12,790 Btu. This is not shown on the curves since it was constant for all
combustion rates.
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4 No. 5 No. 6
FIG. 6. ARRANGEMENT OF COLD AIR RETURNS FOR Six INSTALLATIONS
It may be noted from Fig. 7 that for this particular furnace a register
temperature of 175 F was accompanied by a combustion rate of approxi-
mately 7.5 Ib per sq ft per hr, a capacity at the bonnet of 152,000 Btu
per hr and a furnace efficiency of 58 per cent. Under these conditions
the capacity at the bonnet per square foot of grate was equivalent to a
value of 52,800 Btu per hr and per square inch of grate was equivalent
to 367 Btu per hr. If it is desired to use these curves to select a furnace to
deliver air at 175 F register temperature in a house where the total heat
loss is H Btu per hour and the loss between the furnace and the registers
is 0.25 H Btu per hour, the area of the grate in square inches will be
= 0.0034 tf.
If, on the other hand, it is desired to select a furnace to deliver air at
160 F register temperature, the combustion rate is 5.5 Ib and the efficiency
384
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
of the furnace is 62 per cent. Under this condition the capacity at the
furnace bonnet per square foot of grate is 43,200 Btu per hr and per
square inch of grate is 300 Btu per hr, the required area of the grate in
square inches in this case will be n = 0.0042 H. It should be
oOQ
noted that a larger grate area is required if the furnace is to deliver air
at a lower register temperature.
The typical performance curves shown in Fig. 7 are not applicable to
220,000 •
2 4 6 8 10 12
COMBUSTION RATE IN LB PER SQ FT OF GRATE PER HR
FIG. 7. TYPICAL PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR A WARM-AIR FURNACE AND INSTALLATION
IN A THREE-STORY TEN LEADER PLANT, OPERATING ON RECIRCULATED AIR
all furnaces and hence for ordinary design purposes the values recom-
mended in the Standard Code8 should be used. The equation for a
furnace having a ratio of heating surface to grate area of 20 to 1 is equal to :
0.866
144
(7)
'Standard Code Regulating the Installation of Gravity Warm Air Heating Systems in Residences-
This code has been sponsored by the National Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association* the
National Association of Sheet Metal Contractors, and the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AMD VENTILATING
ENGINEERS. It is recommended that the installation of all gravity warm air heating systems in residences
be governed by the provisions of this code, the ninth edition of which may be obtained from the National
Warm Air Heating and Air Conditioning Association, 60 W. Broad St., Columbus, Ohio.
385
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
I |
FIG. 8. BASEMENT PLAN, RESEARCH RESIDENCE
FIG. 9. FIRST-FLOOR PLAN, RESEARCH RESIDENCE
386
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
where
G = grate area, square inch.
p = combustion rate, pound coal per square foot of grate per hour.
/ = heating value of the coal, Btu per pound.
Ei = efficiency at bonnet, ratio of heat delivered at bonnet to heat developed in
furnace.
Ez = efficiency of duct transmission, ratio of heat delivered at register to heat
delivered at bonnet.
0.866 = factor of safety to allow for contingencies under service conditions such as
accumulations of soot and ashes, ineffective firing methods, etc.
H = total heat loss from structure.
An addition of 2 per cent of the furnace capacity is proposed for each
unit that ^ that ratio of heating surface to grate area exceeds 20. This
addition is based on tests4 conducted at the University of Illinois on
seven types of furnaces having varying ratios of heating surface to grate
area. This correction does not, however, apply to values of the ratio less
than 15 nor greater than 30.
By transposing the terms in Equation 7 and adding the correction term
for ratios of heating surface to grate area other than 20 to 1, the following
equation is obtained :
G , 144 XH
pXfXEtXEiX 0.866 [1 + 0.02 (£-20)] w
in which R — ratio of heating surface to grate area.
In the case of the Standard Code5 the numerical values used in Equa-
tion 8 were based on those determined from the tests conducted on the
different types of furnaces.
~ 144 XH
7.5 X 12,790 X 0.55 X 0.75 X 0.866 [I + 0.02 (K-20)]
(9)
0.004205 tl + Q " (10)
As used in these calculations, H = Btu heat loss from the entire house
per hour = summation of all room losses HI + Hi + etc. + the Btu
necessary to heat the outside air, if any, at intake. This outside air loss in
Btu per hour will be approximately 1.27 times the cubic feet of air
admitted through the intake per hour on a zero day. For systems which
recirculate all the air this value will be zero. For systems which have a
outside air intake, controlled by damper, this value might well be approxi-
mated, since this loss will probably be reduced to a minimum on a zero
day. Assume for such cases that the building loss is increased by 25 per
cent, and that there is the usual 25 per cent loss between furnace and
registers.
TYPICAL DESIGN
The application of the preceding data to an actual example. may be of
assistance to the designer. Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11 represent the plans of
*University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 246, by A. C. Willard, A. P. Kratz,
and S. Konzo, Chapter X, pp. 126-146.
*Loc. Cit. Note 3.
387
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FIG. 10. SECOND-FLOOR PLAN, RESEARCH RESIDENCE
FIG. 11. THIRD-FLOOR PLAN, RESEARCH RESIDENCE
388
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
the Warm Air Research Residence of the National Warm Air Heating
and Air Conditioning Association erected at the University of Illinois6.
Leaders, Stacks and Registers. (Direct Method)
Lining Room, 1st floor:
17,250 -5- 111 = 155 sq in. leader area. See summary, Table I ; also example under
Standard Code7, Art. 3, Basis of Working Rules for Pipes.
Leader diameter — 14 in.
Register size « 155 sq in. net area. Gross area » net area -r 0.7 ** 14 in. X 16 in.
Owner1 $ Room, 2nd floor:
15,030 -s- 167 = 90 sq in. leader area. See summary Table 1; also example under
Standard Code7, Art. 3, Basis of Working Rules for Pipes.
Leader diameter = 11.4, say 12 in.
Stack area - 0.7 X 90 = 63 sq in. - say 5 in. X 12 in.
Register area = 90 sq in. net area. Gross area = net area •*• 0.7 = 12 X 12
or 12 in. X 14 in.
In like manner the leaders, stacks and registers are calculated for each
room in the house.
Leaders, Stacks and Registers. (Code 7 Method. See Art* 3. Sec. 1, 2, 3)
Living Room (Glass « 90, Net wall - 405, Cubic contents « 2405)
Register, same as Direct Method.
Owner's Room (Glass - 68, Net wall - 394, Cubic contents - 2275)
w
Stack and Register, same as Direct Method.
Assuming all air recirculated, the minimum furnace for the plant
will be:
Grate area = 0.0042 X 132,370 - 556 sq in.
Use 27 in. diameter grate. (Equation 10).
If provision should be made for certain outside air circulation, then
increase the building heat loss by, say 25 per cent and obtain by Equation
10 a 30 in. grate.
Experiments at the University of Illinois8 have shown that the capacity
of a furnace may be increased nearly three times by an adequate fan,
with a constant register or delivery temperature maintained, provided
that the rate of fuel consumption can be increased to provide the necessary
heat. In other words, the capacity of a forced circulation system is limited
by the ability of the chimney to produce a sufficient draft, and the ability
of the fan to deliver an adequate amount of air.
8Plans used with permission. Bathroom on third floor not heated.
*Loc. Cit. Note 3.
8University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 120, p. 129.
389
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF DATA APPLIED TO WARM AIR RESEARCH RESIDENCE
From
Chapter 7
Rooms
Estimating
Heat Losses
Leader
Area
Stack Area
Sq In.
Leader
Diameter
Stack
Size
Register
Size
Btu
Sq In.
0.7 XLA
Inches
Net
Gross
Heat Losses
E
First Floor
- 0.009#
Living
17250
155
14
14 y ifi
Dining.
6810
61
9
•*•* /"s. AU
8 X12
Breakfast
2300
21
S
8 X 10
Kitchen
9210
83
11 or 12
12 X 14
Sun
25710
230
Two 12
Two 12 X 14
Hall and stair
12570
113
12
12 X 14
Second Floor
= 0.006H
Owner's
15030
90
63
11 or 12
5X12
12 X 14
S. W. Bed
9800
59
41
9
3^X12
8X12
Bath
2450
15
10
8
3X10
8 X 10
N. Bed
14800
89
62
11 or 12
5 X12
12 X 14
Third Floor
= 0.005H
E. Bed. _
8220
41
29
8
3 X10
8 X 10
W. Bed
8220
41
29
8
3 X10
8X10
BOOSTER FANS
Booster fans often may be arranged to operate when gas or oil burners
are running^and to stop automatically when the burners shut down. The
booster equipment is most effective in increasing output at low operating
temperatures. According to tests, efficiencies may be advanced from 60
per cent for gravity to 70 per cent with boosters at low operating tem-
peratures, but at high operating temperatures gravity and booster
efficiencies are almost identical9.
•University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station 'Bulletin No. 141, p. 79, and No. 246.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What may prohibit the use of a gravity warm air system in a large house
haying several exposed wings?
In a gravity warm air system, excessive vertical distances above the furnace cause little
trouble in the design of the wall stacks, but excessive horizontal distances from the
furnace should be carefully considered in the design of the leaders. To work effectively,
a gravity warm air system should be balanced and leaders over 12 ft in length should be
avoided if possible. Long leaders, if used, must be of ample size, well pitched, and well
insulated. Large houses having exposed wings may require leaders much longer than
12 ft; infiltration may create severe back-drafts in the exposed wings; and the basement
ceiling height may not be sufficient to allow the leaders to have a pitch of more than one
inch per foot. These conditions may make the exposed wings very difficult to heat with
a gravity system because of its low air head differentials.
2 • A first story dining room has a calculated heat loss of 12,000 Btu per hour.
a. What size leader pipe should be used for 175 F register air temperature?
h. What size register?
390
CHAPTER 19. GRAVITY WARM AIR FURNACE
12 000
a. Leader area = ~~— - 108.1 sq in. Use leader with diameter of 12 In.
108
b. Register gross area = -g-= = 154 sq In. Use 12 in. by 14 in. register.
3 • A third-story bedroom has a calculated heat loss of 12,000 Btu per hour.
a. What size leader pipe should be used for a ITS F register air temperature?
b. What size stack?
c. What size register?
12 000
a. Leader area = •••-^— -— = 60 sq In. Use leader with diameter of 9 in.
b. Stack area = 0.7 X 60 = 42 sq In. Use stack 3>i In. by 12 In.
60
c. Register gross area = jr-=- = 85.7 sq In. Use register 8 IB. by 12 In.
4 * The calculated heat loss of a house is 130,000 Btu per hour. Find the grate
area required for the furnace under the following conditions:
Heating value of coal = 12,790 Btu per pound.
Furnace efficiency = 55 per cent.
Combustion rate = 7,5 Ib per sq ft per hr.
Ratio of heating surface to grate area of furnace = 2® to 1.
Register temperature = 175 F.
Loss between furnace and registers = 25 per cent.
See Equations 9 and 10:
Grate area = 0.004205 X 130,000 = 547 sq In.
Grate diameter = 26.3 in.
Use grate with diameter of 26 In.
5 • If in Question 4 the conditions were the same except that the ratio of
heating surface to grate area of furnace was 24 to 1, what size grate would be
required for the furnace?
0.004205 X 130,000 547 __ .
Gratearea - 1 + 0.02 (24-20) - TB8 - NO * m'
Grate diameter = 25.4 in.
Select grate with diameter of 25 In.
6 • Name the items involved in the design of a furnace heating system.
a. Heat loss from each room, Btu.
b. Area and dimensions of warm-air pipes in basement, Inches.
c. Area and dimensions of vertical pipes, Inches.
d. Free and gross area and dimensions of warm-air registers, Inches.
c. Area and dimensions of recirculating or outside air ducts, inches.
/. Free and gross area and dimensions of recirculating registers, inches.
g. Size of furnace necessary to supply the warm air to overcome the heat loss.
h. Area and dimension of chimney and smoke pipe, inches.
7 • Discuss the design features of recirculathig ducts.
a. Their area should be equal to or greater than that of the supply ducts.
b. They should be streamlined, and have a minimum number of turns.
c. All runs should be as short as possible.
d. Account should be taken of all cold walls and window areas in determining sizes and
positions of return air inlets.
391
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
t. The return line^ should be pitched downward toward the furnace. It should be
designed to minimize friction.
/. The top of the shoe or boot should never be above the grate level.
8 • Discuss the use of a booster fan. What effect has a booster fan at low
operating temperatures? At high ones?
A booster fan is useful in accelerating the air flow past the surface of a low temperature
furnace, where only a small weight differential in the air is created, and in unbalancing
a gravity system so flow is established. The first use involves the entire plant, and
increases efficiency about 10 per cent with low temperature operation; the second
involves only the leaders in which air flow is accelerated. At high operating tempera-
tures the difference in weight between warm outgoing air and cool incoming air is great
enough to make a booster unnecessary with ordinary gravity systems.
9 • Is it desirable to use high side wall locations for warm air registers in gravity
circulating systems?
High side wall locations are not recommended on account of the tendency for stratifica-
tion of the air in the room resulting in high temperatures at the ceiling.
392
Chapter 20
MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE
SYSTEMS
Furnaces, Fans and Motors, Sound Control, Air Washers and
Filters, Air Distribution Design, Automatic Controls, Design
of Heating System, Selecting the Furnace, Selecting the Fan,
Heavy Duty Fan Furnaces, Humidifications Cooling Methods,
Cooling System Design
]% yT ECHANICAL warm air or fan furnace heating systems1, which are a
1VJL special type of central fan systems, are particularly adapted to
residences, small office buildings, stores, banks, schools, and churches.
Circulation of ,air is effected by motor-driven fans instead of by the
difference in weight between the heated air leaving the top of the^ casing
and the cooled air entering its bottom, as in gravity systems described in
Chapter 19. The advantages of mechanical systems, as compared with
gravity systems are :
1. The furnace can be installed in a corner of the basement, leaving more basement
room available for other purposes.
2. Basement distribution piping can be made smaller and can be so installed as to
give full head room in all parts of the average basement, or be completely concealed
from view except in the furnace room.
3. Circulation of air is positive, and in a properly designed system can be balanced in
such a way as to give a greater uniformity of temperature distribution.
4. Humidity control is more readily attained.
5. The air may be cleaned by air washers or filters, or both.
6. The fan and duct equipment may be utilized for a complete cooling and dehumidi-
fying system for summer, using either ice, mechanical refrigeration, or low temperature
water for cooling and dehumidifying, or adsorbers for dehumidifying.
7. The use of the fan increases the volume of air which can be handled, thereby
increasing the rate of heat extraction from a given amount of heating surface and
insuring sufficient air volume to obtain proper distribution in a large room.
Much of the equipment used in central fan systems is the subject matter
of other chapters. It is the purpose of this chapter to discuss the co-
ordinated design and to deal in detail only with problems not covered
elsewhere which refer particularly to the whole problem of fan warm air
furnace heating and air conditioning.
*See University of Illinois, Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 266by A. P. Kratz and S. Konzo
for details of tests conducted in Warm Air Research Residence.
393
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FURNACES
Furnaces for mechanical warm air systems may be made of cast-iron,
steel, or alloy. Cast-iron furnaces are usually made in sections and must
be assembled and cemented or bolted together on the job. Steel furnaces
are made with welded or riveted seams. The proper design of the furnace
depends largely on the kind of fuel to be burned. Accordingly, various
manufacturers are making special units for coal, oil and gas. Each type
of fuel requires a distinct type of furnace for highest efficiency and econ-
omy, substantially as follows:
1. Coal Burning:
a. Bituminous — Large combustion space with easily accessible secondary radiator
or flue travel.
b. Anthracite or coke — Large fire box capacity and liberal secondary heating
surfaces.
2. Oil Burning:
a. Liberal combustion space.
b. Long fire travel and extensive heating surface.
3. Gas Burning:
a. Extensive heating surface.
b. Close contact between flame and heating surface.
A combustion rate of from 5 to 8 Ib of coal per square foot of grate per
hour is recommended for residential heaters. A higher combustion rate is
permissible with larger furnaces for buildings other than residences,
depending upon the ratio of grate surface to heating surface, firing period,
and available draft.
Where oil fuel is used, care must be exercised in selecting the proper size
and type of burner for the particular size and type of furnace used. It is
recommended that the system be designed for blow-through installations,
so that the furnace shall be under external pressure in order to minimize
the possibility of leakage of the products of combustion into the air
circulating system.
In residential furnaces for coal burning, the ratio of heating surface to
grate area will average about 20 to 1 ; in commercial sizes it may run as
high as 50 to 1, depending on fuel and draft. Furnaces may be installed
singly, each furnace with its own fan, or in batteries of any number of
furnaces, using one or more fans.
Furnace Casings
Casings are usually constructed of galvanized iron, 26-gage or heavier,
but they may also be constructed of brick. Galvanized iron casings should
be lined with black iron liners, extending from the grate level to the top of
the furnace and spaced from 1 in. to 1 % in. from the outer casing. Casings
for commercial or heavy duty furnaces, if built of galvanized iron, should
be insulated with fireproof insulating material at least 2 in. thick. It is
generally believed that either brick or sheet metal casing should be
equipped with baffles to secure impingement of the air to be heated
against the heating surfaces. Brick furnace casings should be supplied
with access doors for inspection.
For furnace casings sized for gravity flow of air, where a fan is to be
394
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
used, many manufacturers recommend the use of special baffles to restrict
the free area within the casing and to force impingement of the air against
the heating surfaces. The method of making these baffles for furnaces
with^top horse-shoe radiators and for furnaces with back crescent radia-
tors is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Either square or round casings may be used. Where square casings are
FIG. 1. USUAL METHOD OF BAFFLING ROUND CASINGS FOR FAN FURNACE WORK
Liner. 1 in. from casing. B. Hole to vent baffle.
Baffle, closed top and bottom. D. Outer casing.
FIG. 2. METHOD OF BAFFLING SQUARE FURNACE CASING FOR FAN FURNACE WORK
A . Baffle, closed top and bottom,
casing. C. Outer casing. D.
B. Liner, I in. from
Hole to vent baffle.
used, the corners must be baffled to reduce the net free area and to force
impingement of air against the heating surfaces. Fig. 2 shows the usual
method of baffling square furnace casings for fan-furnace work.
The hood or bonnet of the casing above the furnace should be as high
as basement conditions will allow, to form a plenum chamber over the top
of the furnace. This tends to equalize the pressure and temperature of the
air leaving the bonnet through the various openings. It is generally con-
sidered advisable to take off the warm air pipes from the side of the bonnet
near the top, as this method of take-off allows the use of a higher bonnet
395
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and thus provides a larger plenum chamber. Fig. 3 illustrates a complete
residence fan furnace installation showing location of fan, furnace, filters,
plenum chamber and method of take-off of warm air pipe.
FANS AND MOTORS
Centrifugal type fans are most commonly used, and these may be
equipped with either backward or forward curved blades. Low tip speed
is desirable for the elimination of air noise, especially where forward
curved blades are used. Motors may be mounted on the fan shaft or
outside of the fan with belt connection. Multi-speed motors or pulleys
are desirable to provide a factor of safety and to allow for increased air
circulation. For additional information on fans and motors, see Chapters
27 and 38.
SOUND CONTROL
Special attention should be given to the problem of noise elimination.
The fan housing should not be directly connected with metal, either to the
furnace casing or to the return air piping. It is common practice to use
canvas strips in making these connections. Motors and their mountings
must be carefully selected for quiet operation. Electrical conduit and
water piping must not be fastened to, nor make contact with fan housing.
The installation of a fan directly under a cold air grille is not recommended
on account of the noise objection. See also Chapter 30.
AIR WASHERS AND FILTERS
Washers for residence systems may be provided in separate housings
to be installed on the inlet or outlet side of the fan, or they may be
integral with the fan construction. They operate at water pressures of
from 10 to 30 Ib and use two or more spray nozzles for washing and
humidification. The sprays should be adjusted to completely cover the
air passages.
Washers are usually controlled by solenoid valves wired in parallel with
the fan motor. The water supply may, in turn, be controlled by a
humidity-controlling device located in one of the living rooms, so that the
washer will operate at all times when the fan is in operation, unless the
relative humidity should rise beyond a desirable percentage. Washers
used in connection with commercial or heavy duty plants should be a
regulation type of commercial washer.
There are many satisfactory types of filters on the market. These
include dry filters, viscous filters, oil filters and other types, some of which
must be cleaned, some of which must be cleaned and recharged with oil,
and some of which are inexpensive and may be discarded when they
become dirty, and replaced with new ones.
The resistance of a filter must be considered in the design of the system
since the resistance rises rapidly as the filter becomes dirty, thus im-
pairing the heating efficiency of the furnace, in fact, endangering the life
of the furnace itself. Manufacturers' ratings of filters must be carefully
regarded, and ample filter area must be provided. Filters must be
replaced or cleaned when dirty. See also Chapter 26.
396
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
Affi DISTRIBUTION
The conditions of comfort obtained in a room are greatly influenced
by the type of register used and the locations of the supply registers and
return grilles. In general it has been found that changes in the type, air
velocity, and location of the supply register affect the room conditions
much more than the changes in the location of the return grilles. Due to
the economic considerations involved, it is common practice to locate the
supply openings on the inside walls of a residence and the return openings
nearest the greatest outside exposure. Many designers prefer, however,
to locate the supply registers so that the warm air from the registers
blankets a cold wall, and mixes with the cold air dropping off from the
RETURN AIR DUCTS
^SUPPLY DUCTS TO ROOMS
RECIRCULATING CAMPER
ORECT EXPANSION COOUNG COIL-
CONDENSING V\WTER INLET,
i MACHWE CONDENSING WVTER OUTLET
FOR SPRINKLING OR WSTE
FIG. 3. COMPLETE RESIDENCE FAN FURNACE INSTALLATION FOR
WINTER HEATING AND SUMMER COOLING
exposed walls. This may be accomplished either by the use of a supply
register located on the exposed wall with warm air blowing into the room,
or by the use of a supply register placed close to an outside wall in such a
position that the warm air sweeps the cold wall surface. The ducts
leading to supply registers which are located on the exposed walls should
be adequately insulated to reduce the heat loss from the ducts.
Register and Grille Openings
Supply registers located in the floor are effective, but as they require
frequent attention to keep them clean they should be avoided where
another effective register location can be found. Tests conducted in the
Warm Air Research Residence2 have indicated that excellent results are
obtainable with the use of a deflecting-diffuser type of baseboard register
which throws the air downward toward the floor and diffuses the air at the
same time. Unless registers located in the baseboard are well proportioned
»Loc. at. Note 1.
397
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
4
nd designed to harmonize with the trim, they may be unsightly. Better
ir distribution for cooling is obtained when high side wall registers are
sed, and this same location is satisfactory for heating when the openings
re installed at least 7 ft above the floor line, providing the air velocity
hirough the registers is greater than 600 fpm. Registers which are
>cated in side walls above the baseboard or in the ceiling should be of an
ffective air-diffusing type. All registers should be equipped with
ampers, and should be sealed against leakage around the borders or
largins.
Velocities through registers may be reduced by the use ^of registers
irger than the connecting pipes. Some suggestions for equalizing veloci-
ies over the face area of the register by means of diffusers are illustrated
i Fig. 4. Merely to use a larger register may not result in materially
educed velocities unless diffusers are used.
tampers
Suitable dampers are essential to any trunk or individual duct system,
s it is virtually impossible to so lay out a system that it will be absolutely
i balance without the use of dampers. Special care must be used in the
FIG. 4.
DIFFUSERS IN TRANSITION FITTINGS TO EQUALIZE VELOCITIES
THROUGH REGISTER FACES
esign of any system to avoid turbulence and to minimize resistance.
harp elbows, angles, and offsets should be avoided. See Figs. 1 and 2,
Chapter 29.
Three types of dampers are commonly used in trunk and individual
uct systems. Volume dampers are used to completely cut off or reduce
le flow through pipes. (See A and B, Fig. 5.) Splitter dampers are used
-here a branch is taken off from a main trunk. (See C, Fig. 5.) Squeeze
zmpers are used for adjusting the volume of air flow and resistance
irough a given duct. (See D, Fig. 5.) It is essential that a damper be
rovided for each main or duct branch. A positive locking device should
e used with each type of damper.
nets
The ducts may be either round or rectangular. Rectangular ducts
lould be as nearly square as possible; the width should not be greater
lan four times the breadth. The radii of elbows should be not less than
tie and one-half times the pipe diameter for round pipes, or the equiva-
:nt round pipe size in the case of rectangular ducts.
398
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL. WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
Air stratification, high bonnet temperatures, excessive flue gas tem-
peratures, and heat overrun or lag in the system can be largely elimi-
nated through proper care in the planning and installation of the control
system.3 The essential requirements of the control are:
1. To keep the fire burning when using solid fuel regardless of the weather.
2. To avoid excessive bonnet temperatures with resultant radiant heat losses into the
basement.
3. To avoid the overheating of certain rooms through gravity action during off
periods of blower operation.
4. To have a sufficient supply of heat available at all times to avoid lag when the
room thermostat calls for heat.
5. To prevent cold air delivery when heat supply is insufficient.
6. To avoid heat loss through the chimney by keeping stack temperatures low.
A
Volume
B
Volume
D
Squeeze
FIG. 5. THREE TYPES OF DAMPERS COMMONLY USED FOR TRUNK AND INDIVIDUAL
DUCT SYSTEMS
7. To provide quick response to the thermostat, with protection against overrun.
8. To provide for humidity control.
9. To provide a means of summer control of cooling.
10. To protect against fire hazards.
The following controls are desirable:
1. A thermostat located at a point where maximum fluctuation in temperature can be
expected, in order to secure frequent operation of fans, drafts, and burners. This^ location
would be near an outside wall but not upon it, in a sun room, or in a room with some
unusual exposure. The thermostat, of course, should not be located where it will be
affected by direct radiant heat from the sun or from a fireplace, or by direct heat from
any warm air duct or register,
2. A furnacestat located in the bonnet to permit blower operation only between the
temperatures of 100 F and 150 F. In certain extreme cases it may be necessary, or
weather conditions may make it advisable, to adjust the high limit to a higher tempera-
ture than that given. Another location sometimes used for the furnacestat is in the main
duct near the frame opening from the bonnet.
*Automatic Controls for Forced-Air Heating Systems, by S. Konzo and A. F. Hubbard (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40, 1934, p. 37).
399
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3. A protective limit control located in the bonnet to shut down the system inde-
>endently of the thermostat if the bonnet temperature exceeds 225 F.
4. On oil and gas burner installations, a control is usually included which will shut
lown the system if the fire goes out or if there is a failure of the ignition system.
5. A htimidisfat to regulate the moisture supplied to the rooms.
6. On automatic stoker installations, a control is usually included which will start
:he operation regardless of thermostat settings whenever the bonnet temperature
ndicates that the fire is dying.
METHOD OF DESIGNING FORCED-AIR HEATING SYSTEMS
1. Determine heat loss from each room in Btu per hour. (See Chapter 7).
2. Locate warm air registers and return registers on plans of house, beginning with
.he upper story rooms.
3. Sketch in duct layout to connect all registers and grilles with the central unit.
4. Determine equivalent length of duct for each register, allowing 10 diameters of
traight pipe as equivalent to each 90 deg elbow having an inner radius not less than the
liameter of the round pipe or the depth of the rectangular pipe.
5. Select a value for temperature of the air at the furnace bonnet. It is customary
o use some value lying between 150 to 165 F. Use lower value if larger number of air
circulations is desired. It is recommended that the number of air recirculations should
>e in excess of 5 per hour.
6. Determine approximate value of temperature reduction in each duct caused by
teat loss from the ducts. A value of from 0.3 to 0.6 F per foot of duct has been obtained
rom tests conducted in the Research Residence installation for uninsulated duct lengths
ip to approximately 60 ft.
7. Subtract this^ temperature reduction from the assumed bonnet air temperature
o obtain an approximate value of the register air temperature for each register.
8. Determine the required air volume for each room from the following equation,
ir from the values listed in Table 1 :
TT
(1)
60 X 0.24 X d (fr - 65)
uhere
Q = required air volume, cubic feet per minute.
H — heat loss of room, Btu per hour.
d — density of air at register temperature, pounds per cubic foot.
tt — register temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
0.24 = specific heat of air.
65 — return air temperature.
For any given register temperature the solution of this equation simplifies to the
blowing form:
Q = H X Factor (2)
i which the values of the Factor may be obtained from Table 1.
9. Determine register size from the air volume delivered to each room by the
blowing formula:
Free area of register, square feet = -p- (3)
Gross area of register, square feet = ree Area (4)
)here
Q = required air volume, cubic feet per minute.
7 = velocity at register face, feet per minute.
R = ratio of free area to gross area of register.
400
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
TABLE 1. FACTORS CORRESPONDING TO REGISTER TEMPERATURE FOR EQUATION 2
FACTOH
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
0.02210
0.01S40
0.015S5
0.01397
0.01253
0.01140
0.01049
Allowable register velocities to be used in Equation 3 are approximately as follows:
Baseboard, non-deflecting type, maximum = 300 fpm.
Baseboard, deflecting toward floor, maximum = 500 fpm.
Baseboard, deflecting and diffusing » up to 800 fpm.
High sidewall = not less than 600 fpm.
10. Duct systems for forced-air installations may consist of either trunk systems or
individual duct systems.
Trunk Systems. Determine duct sizes and friction losses as outlined in Chapter 20,
except that for residence applications the velocities in the main duct and in the various
parts of the system should approximate the values recommended in Table 2.
Individual Duct Systems. An individual duct system is one having separate ducts
extending from the heating unit to each register. In designing such a system select first
the duct having the greatest equivalent length. Select a reasonable velocity using Table
2 as a guide. From friction chart on page 566 determine unit friction loss per 100 ft of
run, and from this the total friction loss in the duct selected. If this total friction loss
exceeds a reasonable value a lower velocity should be used.
The remaining ducts are proportioned so that the total pressure in each duct is the
same as that calculated for the longest duct. The added resistance necessary in the
shorter ducts is accomplished by increasing the velocity in these ducts. No duct should
be less than 6 in. in diameter, nor should the velocity in any duct exceed approximately
1200 fpm. The final adjustment in a duct system may be made by employing dampers.
Instead of proportioning the ducts as outlined in the preceding paragraph it is more
usual in practice to proportion all the ducts so that they have the same velocity as that
used in the longest duct and to balance the system by employing dampers in the shorter
ducts.
Return duct systems are designed making use of the same principles as those used in
the design of supply duct systems. In this case^he design may be based on the volume
of air corresponding to the density of air existing in the return ducts, or in order to provide
a factor for air leakage, it may be based on the same volume as used for the supply ducts.
TABLE 2. RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES THROUGH DUCTS AND REGISTERS
DESCRIPTION
LOW VXLOOTT
STOTMC
CmO
MEDIUM VILOCITT
SYSTEM
(mi)
HIGH VBLOcrrr
STSTBM
(IPM)
Main ducts
500
750
1000
Branch ducts.-
Wall stacks.
Baseboard registers (max.)
450
350
300
600
500
350
750
600
400
Wall registers above 5 ft (min.)
500
550
600
401
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
11. Determine f fictional resistance in:
a. Supply side of system as outlined in item 10.
b. Return side of system as outlined in item 10.
c. Furnace units, casing or hood, which is usually considered as equivalent to 0.03
to 0.10 in. of water.
d. Accessories such as washers or air filters, from manufacturer's data.
e. Inlet and outlet registers and grilles, from manufacturer's data.
/. Other accessory equipment such as cooling coils, from manufacturer's data.
Choose a fan which, according to its manufacturer's rating, is capable of delivering a
volume of air, expressed in cubic feet per minute, against a frictional resistance, expressed
in inches of water, computed by adding together the items listed in the preceding discus-
sion. In practice it is recommended that liberal allowances should be made so that the
fan will be capable of delivering air against pressures that may not have been foreseen
during the design of the duct system.
12. Select a furnace capable of delivering heat at the register outlets equal to the
total heat loss of the structure to be heated.
The following formula may be used for coal burning furnaces:
s* _ £?
fXpXEiXEz[l+ 0.02 (R - 20)] (5}
where
G = required grate area, square feet.
H — total heat loss from building, Btu per hour.
/ = calorific value of coal, Btu per pound.
p = combustion rate in pounds of fuel per Square foot of grate per hour.
Ei = furnace efficiency based on heat available at bonnet.
E2 = efficiency of transmission based on ratio of heat delivered at register to heat
available at bonnet.
R = ratio of heating surface to grate area.
In practice it is customary to use the following constants:
/ = 12,000 (for specific values, see Table 1, Chapter 9).
P = 7.5 Ib.
Ei = 0.65 lower efficiency must be used with highly volatile solid fuel.
E2 - 0.85.
The foregoing procedure for determining the size of the furnace to be used applies
to continuously heated buildings.
13. Although intermittently heated buildings usually have their heat losses computed
according to the standard rules for determining such losses, these rules do not take into
account the heat which will be absorbed by the cold material of the building after the air
is raised in temperature. This heat absorption must be added to the normal heat loss of
the building to determine the load which the heating plant must carry through the
warming-up process. It is customary to increase the normal heat loss figure by from 50
to 150 per cent depending upon the heat capacity of the construction material, the higher
percentage applying to materials of high heat capacity such as concrete and brick. Fan
furnace systems are well adapted for heating intermittently heated buildings as these
systems do not require the warming of intermediate piping, radiators, or convectors, the
generation of steam, or the heating of hot water.
14. Follow the same methods for an oil furnace as for coal where a conversion unit is
to be used, making sure that the ratio of heating surface to grate area exceeds 20 to 1.
If it does not, a size larger furnace should be selected. Use the manufacturers' Btu
ratings of furnaces designed for exclusive use with oil, and select a burner with liberal
excess capacity.
402
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
15. The selection of the proper size jjas furnace for a constantly heitei building can
be easily made by using the following American. Gas Association formula:
* - A w,
0.9
where
H — total heat loss from building, Btu per hour.
R = official A. G. A. output rating of the furnace, Btu per hour.
In the case of converted warm air furnaces a slightly different procedure ;s necessary*
as the Btu input to the conversion burner must be selected rather than the furnace out-
put. The proper sizing may be done by means of the following formula:
/ » 1.59 // 7;
where
I = Btu per hour input.
The factor 1.59 is the multiplier necessary to care for a 10 per cent heat loss in the
distributing ducts and an efficiency of 70 per cent in the conversion burner.
16. Specify location and type of all dampers in both supply air and return air sides
of system. Specify controls including location of all thermostats. Arrange for proper
control of humidifying equipment.
HEAVY DUTY FAN FURNACES
Fan furnaces for large commercial and industrial buildings are available
in sizes ranging from 400,000 to 3,000,000 Btu per hour per unit. Heavy
duty heaters may be arranged in combinations of one or more units m a
battery, A few possible arrangements are shown in Figs. 6 to 9 in-
clusive.
Most manufacturers of heavy duty furnaces rate their furnaces in Btu
per hour and also in the number of square feet of heating surface. Con-
servative practice indicates that at no time in the heating-up period
should the furnace surface be required to emit more than an average of
3500 Btu per square foot. A higher rate of heat emission tends to increase
the heat loss up the chimney, and raise fuel consumption, to shorten the
life of the furnace, and to overheat the air. The ratio of heating surface
to grate area on furnaces for this type of work should never be less than
30 to 1 and as indicated previously may run as high as 50 to 1.
Control of temperature Is secured through (1) controlling the quantity
of heated air entering the room, (2) using mixing dampers, or (3) regu-
lating the fuel supply.
The design of heavy duty fan furnace heating systems is in many
respects similar to that of the central fan heating systems described in
Chapter 21. Ducts are designed by the method outlined in Chapter 29.
HUMIDinCATION
Mechanical warm air systems offer a means of proportioning and
distributing moisture-bearing air; consequently, during the winter months
humidifiers may be employed to deliver water vapor to the fan-driven air
stream in proper amounts to produce a more humid atmosphere, with
increased comfort for people and increased life for household furnishings.
Temperatures and relative humidities should be governed within the
403
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
limits of the generally accepted standards. See Chapters 3 and 23 for
more detailed information on this point.
In earlier types of furnaces, water evaporating pans were usually placed
in the^cool portions of the air stream, but modern types usually locate
them in air which has been heated by contact with the heating surfaces.
To change water into vapor capable of being carried in an air stream as
part of the mixture, about 1000 Btu per pound are required. Without
the addition of this heat, termed the latent heat of evaporation, water
injected into the air will be carried along in the form of tiny globules until
it falls out of the stream or is deposited upon some surface.
Furthermore, when dry air is in contact with water for a sufficient
length of time without the presence of a sizable body of water or a source
other than air from which this latent heat of evaporation can be taken,
such heat is supplied from the air. There is, therefore, a trend in present
practice toward heating the water in addition to heating the air. Equip-
ment for doing this may make use of sprays, or it may take the form of
water circulating coils placed within the combustion chamber and con-
nected by pipes to the humidifier pans where a constant water level is
maintained by some separate float device. (See Chapter 2o.)
Residence Requirements
The principles underlying humidity requirements and limitations for
residences are summarized in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 2304, as
follows:
_ 1. Optimum comfort is the most tangible criterion for determining the air conditions
within a residence.
2. An effective temperature of 65 de^5 represents the optimum comfort for the
majority of people. Under the conditions in the average residence a dry-bulb tempera-
ture of 69.5 F with relative humidity of 40 per cent is the most practical for the attain-
ment of 65-deg effective temperature.
3. Evaporation requirements to maintain a relative humidity of 40 per cent in zero
weather depend on the amount of air inleakage to the average residence, and vary from
practically nothing to 24 gal of water per 24 hours.
^ 4. Relative humidity of 40 per cent indoors cannot be maintained in rigorous climates
without excessive condensation on the windows unless tight-fitting storm sash or the
equivalent is installed.
5.^ The problems of humidity requirements and limitations cannot be separated from
considerations of good building construction, and the latter should receive serious atten-
tion in the installation of humidifying apparatus.
The following conclusions were drawn from the experimental results
reported in the aforementioned bulletin :
1 . None of the types of gravity warm air furnace water j^ans tested proved adequate to
evaporate sufficient water to maintain 40 per cent relative humidity in the Research
Residence except only in moderately cold weather.
2. The water pans used in the radiator shields tested did not prove adequate to main-
tain 40 per cent relative humidity in a residence similar to the Research Residence when
the outdoor temperature approximated zero degrees Fahrenheit.
*See Humidification for Residences, by A. P. Kratz (University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 230).
666 deg is the optimum -winter effective temperature recommended by the A.S.H.V.E. Committee on
Ventilation Standards.
405
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
COOLING METHODS
A slight cooling effect may be obtained under certain conditions by the
use of basement air. A more positive cooling effect may be obtained
through air washers where the temperature of the water is sufficiently
low (55 F or lower), and where a sufficient volume of water can be pro-
vided. Unless the temperature of the leaving water is below the dew
point temperature of the indoor air at the time the washer is started, both
the relative and absolute humidities will be somewhat increased.
Coils of copper finned tubing through which cold water is pumped are
available for cooling. They require less space than air washers and have
the advantage that no moisture is added to the air when the temperature
of the water rises above the dew point. Ample coil surface is necessary
with this type of cooling.
It is thoroughly feasible to use ice or mechanical refrigeration in con-
nection with the fan and duct system for the heating installation, and to
cool the building by this method, provided the building is reasonably well
constructed and insulated. Windows and doors should be tight, and
awnings should be supplied on the sunny side of the building. See also
Chapters 22 and 24.
Results at Research Residence
The following conclusions may be drawn from the studies thus far
completed in the Research Residence, subject to the limitations of the
conditions under which the tests were run6.
1. An uninsulated building- of ordinary residential type may require the equivalent
of three tons of ice in 24 hr on days when the maximum outdoor temperature reaches
100 F if an effective temperature of approximately 72 deg is maintained indoors.
2. The use of awnings at all windows in east, southland west exposures may result
in savings of from 20 to 30 per cent in the required cooling load.
3. The cooling load per degree difference in temperature is not constant but increases
as the outdoor temperature increases.
4. The heat lag of the building complicates the estimation of the cooling load under
any specified conditions and makes such estimates, based on the usual methods of
computation, of doubtful value.
5. The seasonal cooling requirements are extremely variable from year to year, and
the ratio between the degree-hours of any two seasons occurring within a 10 year period
may be as high as 7.5 to 1. Hence an average value of the degree-hours cooling per season
is comparatively meaningless.
6. The duct system m a forced-air heating installation can be successfully converted
to a system for^ con veying cool air for the purpose of cooling the structure. No con-
densation of moisture was observed when the duct temperatures were not less than 65 F.
^7. Cooling by means of water at a temperature of 60 F is not satisfactory unless
an indoor temperature of less than 80 F is maintained.
8. In the selection of cooling coils, the frictional resistance of the coil to flow of air
must be given careful consideration.
9. Cooling the structure by introducing large quantities of air from outdoors at
night^ tended to reduce the amount of cooling required on the following day and was a
practical means of providing more comfortable conditions in those homes where cooling
systems were not available.
«Study of Summer Cooling in the Research Residence at the University of Illinois, by A. P. Kratz and
S. Konzo (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 95); Study of Summer Cooling in the Research
Residence for the Summer of 1933. by A. P. Kratz and S. Konzo (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40,
1934, p. 167).
406
CHAPTER 20. MECHANICAL WARM AIR FURNACE SYSTEMS
METHOD OF DESIGNING COOLING SYSTEM
The general procedure for the design of a cooling system in a forced-air
installation is as follows:
1. Calculate heat gain for each room or space to be conditioned. 'See Chapters 5
and 8). Allowance for addition of outside air must be included in this calculation.
2. Select a temperature of air leaving supply inlets. In Research Residence tests7
a value of from 65 to 70 F was found satisfactory.
3. Determine indoor conditions to be maintained. In Research Residence SO F dry
bulb and 45 per cent relative humidity was found satisfactory.
4. Determine the quantity of air to be introduced into each room. (See Chapter 22).
5. Estimate heat loss in duct system between cooling unit and supply registers.
6. Calculate the heat to be removed by the cooling unit, in the form of sensible heat
and latent heat.
7. Determine size of ducts in duct system and size of registers, as explained in this
chapter under the heading of Method of Designing Forced-Air Heating Systems.
8. Determine pressure loss in duct system and select fan as also explained in the
same section.
9. Select cooling unit from manufacturer's data. Specify temperature and pressure
of available cooling water, voltage and characteristics of electrical supply, and method
of control of apparatus.
10. Select cooling coils from manufacturer's data to take care of latent heat load and
to give required drop in air temperature with the weight of air flowing. See Chapter 22
on section Surface Type Dehumidifier.
11. If system is to be used for both winter heating and summer cooling, duct sizes
must be checked to insure that velocities and friction losses are reasonable for both
conditions of operation. Adjustable dampers will be necessary to make changes in air
distribution for the two seasons. Provision must also be made for changing fan speeds
for summer and winter operation.
'Loc. Cit. Note 6.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • A residence furnace, having a ratio of heating surface to grate area equal to
20 to 1, is to be selected to heat a house which has a computed load of 225,000
Btu per hour. If coal having a calorific value of 12,000 Btu per pound is to he
burned, if the furnace will burn 7.5 Ib of coal per square foot of grate per hour,
and if the furnace efficiency is 65 per cent, determine the square feet of grate
area necessary in the furnace to be selected.
Substituting in Equation 5:
99fJ QQQ
G - 12.000 X T& X 0.65 X 0.85 = 4'53 «» ft of &** area'
A furnace having at least 4.5 sq ft of grate area should therefore be selected.
2 • Why should secondary surface be designed for easy cleaning?
If the combustion is not perfect, soot is formed immediately above the fire and is apt
to form a deposit on the secondary surface from which it should be removed. If the
secondary surface is so designed that there are horizontal passages, fine gray ash will
settle out in these to form an insulation between the hot gases of combustion and the
metal of the furnace; consequently, these should be readily cleaned. If the passages are
vertical they are largely self-cleaning of ashT but provision should be made for easy and
thorough cleaning of the collection chamber below them.
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3 • Why is baffling inside the casing necessary on fan systems?
Because the movement of air is independent of its temperature, air must be guided by
baffles of one form or another to bring it in contact with the hot surfaces so it will not
pass through the casing unheated. On the other hand, if the air is held against a hot
surface too long it might become overheated, for the average register temperature on a
fan system should not exceed 120 F.
4 • What practical points should he observed in designing a fan system in order
to eliminate noise?
a. Use a large fan so it can be run at slow speed.
b. Set the fan and motor on a solid foundation.
c. Insulate the fan and motor from the foundation with rubber, cork, or other springy
material according to the principles given in Chapter 30, provided, of course, that such
insulation is of value.
d. See that the air velocity is not too high in the ducts. Properly designed splitters in
the elbows will avoid high velocities at the turns in cases where the velocity through the
ducts themselves is not too high.
e. Use canvas connections between the ducts and any running equipment.
/, Be sure the ducts have a relatively smooth interior and are rigid.
5 • Why do furnaces designed to burn bituminous coal, oil, or gas require
larger combustion spaces than those designed for anthracite?
Anthracite burns largely as fixed carbon whereas gas and oil burn as gases, and as much
as 50 per cent of bituminous coal burns as a gas. Ample space must be provided for the
intimate mixture of these gases with the oxygen of the air to secure proper combustion.
6 • A furnace has the following dimensions : Grate diameter, 24 in. ; casing
diameter for gravity air flow, 56 in.; combustion chamber diameter, 30 in.
What is the unobstructed area required for passage of air across the heating
surface when a motor-driven blower, operating at an outlet velocity of 1200 fpm,
delivers 1600 cfm into the casing near its bottom?
For residence applications using small blowers, an air outlet velocity of about one third
of the blower outlet velocity is considered good practice.
Air-pass velocity = — 5— = 400 fpm.
o
* 1600
Air-pass area = — j— = 4 sq ft = 576 sq in.
7 • In Question 6 what would be the gap between the chamber and the baffle
•when the chamber is centered in the casing?
Area of combustion chamber (30-in. diam) . 706.9 sq in.
Area of air pass 576.0 sq in.
Total area 1282.9 sq in.
The diameter of a circle with an area of 1282.9 sq in. is 40.4 in. One half of the difference
between the diameters is the amount of gap.
r • 40.4 - 30.0 K0. • * i EIX-
Gap — <r - 5.2 in. = approximately 5J4 in.
408
Chapter 21
CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND
HUMIDIFYING
Types of Systems, Blow-Through, Draw-Through, Heating
Units, Design, Temperatures, Weight of Air to be Circulated,
Temperature Loss in Ducts, Heat Supplied Heating Units
and Washer, Grate Area, Boiler Selection, Weight of Con-
densate, Static Pressure, Fans and Control
A FAN system of heating depends upon fans and blowers to distribute
air through ducts from one centrally located plant. This chapter
considers heating and humidifying systems of this type whereas similar
systems arranged for cooling and dehumidifying are discussed in Chapter
22. A special type of central fan system, the mechanical warm air or fan
furnace system, which is especially adapted to residences, churches, halls,
and other small buildings, is covered in Chapter 20.
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
In the indirect type of central fan heating and air conditioning systems,
steam is usually the medium by which heat is transferred from the boiler,
or other source of heat, to the heating units. If the system is intended
solely for heating, the air is passed over one or more stacks or batteries of
heating units and then conveyed to the spaces for which it is intended
through a system of ducts. In some cases, a predetermined amount of
outside air is introduced for ventilating purposes, whereas in others the
moisture content is controlled by passing the air through a washer or
humidifier. If the apparatus is designed to control simultaneously the
temperature, humidity, air motion, and distribution, it is known as an air
conditioning system.
In the split system, the heating is accomplished by means of radiators or
convectors, and the ventilating or air conditioning by means of the central
fan apparatus. In the combined system, the entire operation of heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning is handled by the central fan system.
A common arrangement of the central fan system of heating is illus-
trated by Fig. 1 and consists of a fan, a heating unit (heater) enclosed by a
sheet metal casing connected with the suction side of the fan, a sheet
metal casing connected to the heating unit casing run to the outside of the
building and provided with an adjustable opening inside the building for
recirculation of the air when desired, and a duct system attached to the
fan outlet to convey and distribute the air to various parts of the building
to be warmed by the apparatus. The fan is ordinarily motor-driven ; there
are, however, many cases when a direct-connected steam engine may be
used to advantage. In this event the exhaust from the engine can be con-
409
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
nected to one or more sections of the heater, depending upon the con-
densation rate of the engine. The recirculation duct connected with the
opening in the suction duct should be extended to a point as near the
floor as possible.
When ventilation is not a requirement or is considered relatively unim-
portant, as in shop and factory heating, and the number of persons vitiat-
ing the air is small compared with the cubical contents of the building, or
the process does not generate obnoxious gas or vapors, the air may be
recirculated, sufficient outside air for ventilation being supplied by infiltra-
RoHing Shutter- ^p~~
/Steam
Control Valve II Control Valve
Recirculated Air J f
XXX "-1
Pulley
Outside Wall
By-pass Damper
FIG. 1. ARRANGEMENT OF A CENTRAL FAN HEATING SYSTEM
(DRAW-THROUGH)
Canvas
Connection
Heater
Foundation
r
Supply Duct
By-pass Damper
FIG. 2. ARRANGEMENT FOR HEATING UNIT (BLOW-THROUGH)
tion. The amount of heat to be supplied the heating unit in this case is the
same as would be required for a direct radiation installation.
When ventilation is a requirement to be met, an arrangement similar to
that shown by Fig. 1 may be employed. Since the amount of air necessary
for heating is generally in excess of the amount required for ventilation,
considerable fuel economy may be effected by recirculating a portion of
the air. In this case only sufficient outside air is drawn into the system to
meet the ventilation requirement and the remainder of the air, required
for heating, is recirculated. This may be readily effected by an arrange-
ment^of ducts and dampers on the suction side of the fan as previously
mentioned. If the outside air introduced is to be washed or conditioned
the washer or humidifier and tempering coil may be added between the
inlet for the recirculated air and the fresh air intake.
410
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
Blow-Through, Draw-Through
When the heating unit is located on the suction side of the fan, the
system is known as draw-through. (See Fig. 1.) When the heating unit
is located in the discharge from the fan, the system is known as blow-
through. (See Fig. 2.) The draw-through combination is used for factory
and toilet room installations because a more compact arrangement of
the apparatus usually is possible. In addition, air leakage will be inward.
The blow-through combination is used principally in schools and public
buildings, and for all booster coil arrangements where different tempera-
tures and independent temperature regulation are required for different
heated spaces. In public building installations, the fan frequently blows
the heated air into a plenum chamber from which the air ducts radiate to
the various rooms of the building; this arrangement is sometimes called
the plenum system.
HEATING UNITS
The heating units for central fan systems using steam as the heating
medium may be classified as (1) tempering coils, (2) preheater coils, (3)
reheater coils, (4) booster coils, and (5) water heaters, either open or
closed. Tempering coils are used with ventilating and air conditioning
systems for raising the temperature of the outside cold air to above freez-
ing, or 32 F. They are not required for heating systems where all of the
air is recirculated, since the temperature of the recirculated air will be
above freezing. Preheater coils are used with air conditioning systems to
raise the temperature of the air from that leaving the tempering coils to
such a temperature that in passing through the water sprays of the washer
(without water heater) the air will become partially saturated (adia-
batically) having a moisture content corresponding to the required dew-
point temperature. Preheater coils therefore supply heat as necessary to
control the dew-point temperature. The reheater coils are used to raise the
temperature of the air leaving the tempering coils (in the case of a heating
or ventilating system) or the air leaving the washer (in the case of an air
conditioning system) to that necessary to maintain the desired tempera-
ture in the rooms or spaces to be heated or conditioned, except where
booster coils are used, in which case the reheater coils raise the air tem-
perature to approximately room temperature, or slightly higher. Booster
coils are installed in the duct branches to control the temperature of the
air entering the rooms or spaces for which it is intended. Water heaters are
used on an air conditioning system to control the dew-point temperature.
They are used mainly for industrial work, seldom for comfort conditioning.
They are not used where preheater coils are employed. The open type
supplies steam directly to the spray water, while the closed type utilizes a
heat interchanger by which the steam imparts its heat to the spray water.
Where water heaters are required for comfort conditioning, the closed
type is used.
The heating units for central fan systems in use at the present time con-
sist either of pipe coils, finned tubes of steel, copper, brass or other metal,
cast-iron sections with extended surfaces, or the cellular type. Steam is
passed through these heating units and the air to be heated is passed over
their exterior surfaces.
411
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In selecting a heating unit for any particular service, the choice should
be based on the desired requirements as follows :
1. Final temperature desired.
2. Loss in pressure (or friction) of air passing over the heating unit.
3. Air velocity over the heating unit.
4. Free area or face area of heating unit.
5. Ratio of heating surface to net free (or face) area.
6. Air volume required.
7. Number of rows of pipes, tubes, or sections.
8. Amount of heating surface.
9. Steam pressure drop through the heating unit.
10. Weight of heating unit.
Final Temperature Desired. The choice of a heating unit is largely
influenced by the final temperature desired, when the entering air tem-
perature and steam pressure available at the heating unit are specified.
These data are obtainable from manufacturers' catalogs.
Loss in Air Pressure (or Friction). The allowable friction through the
heating unit is one of the first factors to be determined in the selection of
the apparatus. The velocities of air through various types of heating
units will not necessarily be the same, but for any particular job the
velocity through the heating unit should be a secondary consideration and
the allowable friction or air pressure loss should be fixed approximately
before proceeding with the selection of the heating unit. The loss in air
pressure (or friction) through the heating unit should not exceed a pre-
determined maximum allowable amount for economical operation and for
moderate size and first cost of installation.
In public building work, the maximum allowable friction through both
tempering coils and reheater coils should never exceed ^ in. of water and
it is advisable that the friction be kept considerably lower than this figure
if possible. A tempering coil friction ranging from 0.10 to 0.20 in. of water
is considered satisfactory. The air pressure loss for reheaters ordinarily
ranges from 0.20 to 0.40 in. of water. In factory work, the maximum
friction through the heater should never exceed 0.8 in. or 1 in. of water
and it is advisable to figure the heaters at lower frictions if possible.
Velocity through Heating Unit. This velocity has generally been given
in manufacturers' tables as being measured at 70 F and in most cases
refers to the velocity through the net free area of the heating unit, or
through the net space between the pipes, tubes or sections. Although
most manufacturers give suitable velocities measured at 70 F, certain
manufacturers show velocities measured at 65 F and othe'rs indicate
velocities measured at the average air temperature through the heating
unit. Many new heating units, however, specify net face areas with cor-
responding velocities instead of velocities through net free areas. In
either case, manufacturers publish the corresponding friction or air-
pressure loss in tables. The velocity through the net free area of the
heating unit averages about 1000 fpm and that through the net face area
about 500 fpm.
The volume of air to be heated in any particular case is determined after
consideration of the ventilation requirements, heat losses, and quantity of
air required for proper circulation, as explained in Chapters 3 and 7.
412
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
The number of rows of pipes, tubes, or sections or the amount of heating
surface to be used may be selected from manufacturers' catalogs after the
quantity of air handled and the heat load are known. Savings in oper-
ating expense or cost of installation should result from a proper selection
of heater ^and by-pass areas. For example, instead of having the entire
air quantity go through a one-row heating unit, it may be advantageous
to use a^ two-row heating unit and a properly sized by-pass. Thus, when
no heating is being done, a suitable by-pass damper may be opened to
place a lighter load on the fan.
The steam pressure drop through the heating unit is also tabulated in
manufacturers' data tables. The sizing of steam supply and return
piping, allowing for drops through heating units, is explained in Chapter
16.
Weight of Heating Unit. In the design of a heating system, the weight
limitations of heating units are determined by the location of the units.
Obviously, if there is no loading limitation imposed, any type of heating
unit may be selected. On the other hand if the heating unit is to be hung
from the ceiling, it may be desirable to use the lightest unit which will
accomplish the work required.
DESIGNING THE SYSTEM
The general procedure for the design of central fan systems is as
follows:
1. Calculate the heat loss for each room or space to be heated.
2. Determine volume of outside air to be introduced.
3. Assume or calculate temperature of air leaving registers or supply outlets.
4. Calculate weight of air to be circulated.
5. Estimate temperature loss in duct system.
6. Calculate heat to be supplied the heating units and washer.
7. Select heating units and washer from manufacturers1 data and performance curves.
8. Calculate total heat to be supplied.
9. Calculate grate area and select boiler.
10. Design duct system.
11. Calculate total static pressure of system*
12. Select fan, motor, and drive.
The heat losses (H) should be calculated in accordance with the pro-
cedure outlined in Chapter 7. If a positive pressure is maintained by the
central fan system in the room or space to be ventilated or conditioned,
there will ordinarily be very little infiltration of cold outside air through
the cracks and crevices of the space. Consequently, the volume of air
introduced into the space at the assumed or calculated outlet temperature
need only be sufficient to provide for the transmission losses, plus about
one-third of the infiltration losses. The exfiltration of heated or con-
ditioned air through the cracks and crevices of the space should be pro-
vided for by making the usual allowance for the infiltration losses in
arriving at the total heat loss of the space. The air required to make up
for this exfiltration of heated or conditioned air will be brought in at the
outside air intake and may be included as a part of the outside air neces-
413
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
sary for the ventilating requirements. The heat required to raise this air
to the conditions maintained in the room must be provided by the tem-
pering coils, preheater coils, and reheater coils. If a positive pressure is
not maintained in the room or space to be conditioned, the normal in-
filtration of outside cold air will take place in this room, and the outlet
temperature, together with the required air volume at this temperature,
must be sufficient to provide for both infiltration and transmission losses.
Volume of Outside Air
The volume of outside air required for ventilation or air conditioning
purposes may be determined from data in Chapter 3. In no case shall
less than 10 cfm per person be introduced.
The heat required to warm the outside air introduced for ventilation
purposes (H0) may be determined by means of the following formula:
H0 - 0.24 (t - *0) Mo (1)
where
0.24 = specific heat of air at constant pressure.
/ = room temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
to = outside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
M0 — weight of outside air to be introduced per hour, in pounds =» 60 doQ0.
Q0 = volume of outside air to be introduced, cubic feet per minute.
dQ » density of air at fo, pounds per cubic foot.
Example 1. A building in which the temperature to be maintained at 70 F requires
10,000 cfm. If the outside temperature is 20 F, how much heat will be required to warm
the air introduced for ventilation purposes to the room temperature?
Solution. 10,000 X 60 - 600,000 cfh; d0 = 0.08273 (Table 1, Chapter 1); M0 =
0.08273 X 600,000 = 49,656 Ib; * - 70 F; fe = 20 F; H0 = 0.24 X (70 - 20) X 49,656
= 595,872 Btu per hour.
Temperature of Air Leaving Registers
If the system is to function only as a heating system, that is, entirely as
a recirculating one, the temperature of the air leaving the register outlets
must be assumed. For public buildings, these temperatures may range
from 100 to 120 F, whereas for factories and industrial buildings the out-
let or register temperature may be as high as 140 F. In no case should the
outlet temperature exceed these values.
For ventilating or conditioning systems, the temperature of the air
leaving the supply outlets may be estimated by means of the following
formula:
TT
60 d Q X 0.24
where
(2)
ty = outlet temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
H = heat loss of room or space to be conditioned, Btu per hour.
Q = total volume of air to be introduced at the temperature t, cubic feet per minute.
d = density of air, pounds per cubic foot.
If the outlet temperature (ty) as determined from Equation 2 exceeds
120 F for public buildings, or 140 F for factories or industrial buildings,
414
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
these respective outlet temperatures should be used as factors in the
following equation to determine the volume of air to be introduced into
the room or space:
n ** H _ *3)
~o.24 ty - t
Example 2. The heat loss of a certain auditorium to be conditioned is LOt U JiJO Btu per
hour. The ventilating requirements are 1,500 cfm and the room temperature 70 F.
Determine the outlet temperature.
Solution. Substituting in Formula 2,
. _ 100,000 . « _ iqi - -
h ~ 60 X 0.07492 X 1500 X 0.24" ^ 'U ~ *
Inasmuch as this temperature is excessive, it will be necessary to assume an outlet
temperature, which will be taken as 120 F, and to calculate the amount of air to be
introduced into the room at this temperature to provide for the heat loss. Substituting
in Equation 3,
Weight of Air to be Circulated
The total weight of air (M) to be introduced into the room or space to
be heated or conditioned is given by the following formulae:
M - Jkf0 + MT W
M o = 60 doQ0 (6)
where
d = density of air at temperature t, pounds per cubic foot.
do = density of air at temperature k, pounds per cubic foot.
Q0 = volume of outside air at temperature k, cubic feet per minute.
M o = weight of outside air, pounds per hour.
Mr = weight of recirculated air, pounds per hour.
Example 3. Using the data of Example 2 and an outside temperature of 20 F, what
will be the values of M , Jkf0 and Jfr?
Solution, d = 0.07492; & - 0.08273; Q - 1850; Qo = 1500; H = 100,000.
M 100,000 _ o OQO lh
M " 0.24 X (120 - 70) ~ 8'3331b
Mo - 0.08273 X 60 X 1500 - 7,448 Ib
Mr = M - Mo - 8,333 - 7,448 - 885 Ib
Temperature Loss in Ducts
The allowances (4) to be made for temperature drop through the duct
system are as follows:
1 When the duct system is located in the enclosure to which the air is being delivered,
as in a factory, it may be assumed that there is no loss between the reheater coil and the
point or points of discharge into the enclosure.
415
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
2. For ducts in outside walls, basements, attics or other exposed places temperature
drops should be determined in accordance with the procedure as outlined in Chapter 39.
3. For ducts run underground an allowance shall be made based on the assumption
that the average ground temperature will be 55 F.
Heat Supplied Heating Units and Washer
The following cases may arise in practice :
A. The heating of the building is done entirely by means of a central fan system, all
of the air being drawn from the outside.
5. Similar to A, except that all of the air is recirculated.
C. A portion of the air is recirculated, and the remainder is drawn in from the outside.
D. Air at the same temperature is to be delivered to all the rooms. A constant relative
humidity is maintained in the building and all of the air circulated is drawn from outside
the building. (Not applicable to the heating of various rooms where individual control
of each room is desired.)
E. Outside air, return air, and by-pass air are used with the reheater located in by-
pass air chamber.
F. Arrangement of apparatus where individual control of the temperature for each
room is required in conjunction with air washer equipment to maintain a constant
relative humidity in the rooms. The air washer is provided with a water heater for the
spray water, capable of fully saturating the air. A section of preheater may be used for
this purpose in place of the water heaten With this arrangement and with a uniform
temperature of air entering the rooms, it is impossible to maintain the same room tem-
perature throughout the building because the weight of air to be delivered to each room
is determined and fixed by the ventilating requirements.
In analyzing these cases, the following symbols will be used:
H = heat loss of the room or building, Btu per hour.
HI — heat to be supplied to the reheater coil, Btu per hour.
jffa = heat supplied tempering coil, or tempering coil and preheater, Btu per hour.
Hi = heat supplied air washer by water heater, Btu per hour.
#4 - heat to be supplied booster coil, Btu per hour.
M = weight of air to be introduced into the room or building, pounds per hour.
M-r ~ weight of recirculated air, pounds per hour.
Ifb = weight of air by-passing washer, pounds per hour.
MQ = weight of air drawn in from outside, pounds per hour.
to « mean temperature of outside air, degrees Fahrenheit.
/ = mean air temperature to be maintained in the room or building, degrees
Fahrenheit.
ti = mean temperature of the air entering the reheater coil.
fa — mean temperature of the air leaving the reheater coil,
fe = temperature loss in the duct system.
ty - temperature of the air leaving the duct outlets,
(x = average temperature of air entering tempering coil.
^ = temperature of air entering washer.
0.24 = specific heat of air at constant pressure.
416
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
Rolling Shutter- j
1
Outside A»r '
Louvres "-*>f
: »st<
Control Valve
'X°*f
Ccrs
/2
troi Valve
Fan
-fcr Leavtrg Fan at tr
JVPulJey
T
Foundaton
jf Floor Une
1?
J
j >•
>
J
1 Air Fitter
j
Heatere
I
i
i
i
Outside Wall-J|
By-pass Damper
Fir.. 3. HEATING UNIT AND FAN ARRANGED FOR OUTSIDE AIR CIRCULATION (Case A)
Case A. (Fig. 3) All of the air circulated to be drawn from outside the building, in
which case /* = A>. ,~
H, = 0.24 fa - A>) ^o ('>
0.24 (i, -
(8)
Example 6 The heat loss H for a certain factory building is 700,000 Btu per hour.
The mean inside temperature t to be rnaintained is 65 F. ^e1^u^^t^^teum:
perature to is 0 F; fe = 0, ty = U and is assumed to be 140 F, The temperature
leaving the tempering coil is assumed to be 35 F. Required, Hi and H*. From Equation 4,
700,000
Hi = 0.24 X (35 - 0) X 38,889 - 326,667 Btu per hour.
Hi - 0.24 X (140 - 35) X 38,889 - 980,003 Btu per hour.
#-, + Hi = 326,667 + 980,003 - 1,306,670 Btu per hour.
,Steam
Valve
-Air Leaving Fan at ty
'Air Returned
from Heated Space
ELEVATION
FIG. 4. ARRANGEMENT FOR RECIRCULATION (Case B)
Case B. (Fig. 4) All of the air is to be recirculated, in which case *i - t
Mr = 38,889 lb
Hi = 0.24 fa - *i) Mr
Hi - 0.24 (140 - 65) X 38,889 = 700,000 Btu per hour.
This example illustrates the saving in fuel consumption by the recir-
culation of the air. The heat to be supplied the apparatus is ' f c ^ «
that required for a direct system of heating and is equal to the heat loss
S Ae Sing (Hi = fl), in the example 700,000 Btu per hour as
compared with 1,306,670 for Case A.
417
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Rolling Shutter-
xSteam
t Control Valve || _ Control Valve
"
•Air Leaving Fan at ty
By-pass Damper
FIG. 5. COMBINATION OF RECIRCULATED AIR AND OUTSIDE AIR (CaseC)
Case C. (Fig. 5) A portion of the air circulated is recirculated air and the remainder
as may be required for ventilating purposes, is drawn in from the outside. According to
Equations 4 and 5,
The temperature of the resulting mixture of outside and recirculated air entering the
tempering coil is:
(9)
Example 7. Assuming that a positive supply of outside air (do = 0.08633) is required
for ventilation at the rate of 90,000 cu ft per hour in the preceding example, then M*
- 0.08633 X 90,000 - 7776 Ib per hour are required, measured at 65 ™w ^ ^°
Mr = M - M0 = 38,889 - 7776 = 31,113 Ib
, _ 7776 X 0 + 31,113 X 65 _ ,0 _
* 3^889 - 52 F
Hi - 38,889 X 0.24 (140 - 52) = 821,336 Btu.
This amount of work may be accomplished with one or more banks of heating units,
that is, either a single reheater or a tempering coil and reheater.
The three preceding cases refer to installations in which conditioning
the air to maintain certain relative humidity requirements does not enter
into the problem, as for example, certain types of industrial installations.
In practically all modern public buildings, theaters, schools, and in many
industrial installations^the ventilating requirements include the provision
for washing and humidifying the air delivered to the various rooms of the
structure.
In the following cases it is assumed that in addition to maintaining a
mean room temperature /, the heating and ventilating apparatus is
required to maintain a constant relative humidity in the rooms.
418
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING AND HUMIDIFYING
^
j Control Valve
g
S6
M
m
«
Rolling Shutter-.
Outside Air
Louvres"^
Outside Air ^
#
fj Tempenng Coil
^
-4
— i
->
j
— —
Fan
4
,.
\ v ^ /
* ''
-"1
j
t *!
,x
£
j
X f •! \
^
L--
yj
^ ,_, $ Keheater
1
Water Heater^, / \
Spray Water / \
PLAN VIEW
/ \
1
h
FIG. 6. OUTSIDE AIR CIRCULATED; CONSTANT RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN ROOM (Case D)
Cafe D. (Fig. 6) The maximum relative humidity that may be maintained within the
building without the precipitation of moisture on single glazed sash when the outside
temperature is 30 F is approximately 35 per cent. If the inside temperature / is 70 F, 35
per cent relative humidity corresponds to a dew-point temperature of 41 F. (See
psychrometric chart.)
The installation shown in Fig. 6 contemplates the use of a tempering coil, an air
washer provided with a water heater, and a reheater. The tempering coil, one section in
depth, warms the incoming air to approximately 35 F to prevent freezing any of the spray
water. The air passing through the spray chamber is saturated and leaves at a tempera-
ture of /i - 41 F.
The heat to be supplied the reheater is:
H! = 0.24 (fc - 41)Af Btu per hour.
The heat to be supplied the tempering coil is:
£", - 0.24 (35 - fc) J/ Btu per hour.
The amount of heat, per pound of air circulated, to be supplied the humidifying washer
or humidifier is the difference between the heat content of the assumed dry air entering
the washer at a temperature of /w = 35 F and that of the leaving saturated air at fc =
41 F (Table 6, Chapter 1), or:
15.657 - 8.397 = 7.26 Btu per pound of dry air.
The amount of heat required for the washer is:
Hi = 7.26 M Btu per hour.
The total amount of heat required by the apparatus is, therefore:
fli -h fij + Hi Btu per hour.
If a washer having a humidifying efficiency of 67 per cent without water heater is em-
ployed it will be necessary to heat the outside air drawn into the apparatus by means of
the tempering and preheater coils to such a temperature that the air in passing through
419
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the water sprays will become partially saturated (adiabatically) haying a moisture con-
tent per pound of air equal to saturated air at 41 F. If the incoming air is warmed to
*w = 88 F (requiring a two-section-depth heating unit) it will be cooled in the washer to
64 F, with a temperature drop of 88 — 64 = 24 deg.
If the humidifying efficiency of the washer were 100 per cent, the air would become
adiabatically saturated at 52 F after a temperature drop of 88 - 52 - 36 F. The
efficiency of the washer is, however, only 67 per cent, so that the actual temperature drop
will be 0.67 X 36 deg or 24 deg, as used.
The heat to be supplied the reheater is in this case Hi = 0.24 (fe - 64) M Btu per
hour, and the heat to be supplied to the tempering coil and preheater is Ht = 0.24
(88 — to) M. The total heat required by the apparatus is H\ + HI, no heat being
supplied to the washer.
Automatic Valve
FIG. 7. OUTSIDE AIR CIRCULATED; CONSTANT TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE
HUMIDITY MAINTAINED IN EACH ROOM (Case E)
Case E. (Fig. 7) The temperature ty will ordinarily be different for each room.
With H and M fixed, 0.24 (ty - f)M - H, or
*y 0.24 M ^ *
In order to provide the proper temperature for each room, a booster coil
is generally installed in each supply duct near the outlet to control the out-
let temperature ty. The amount of steam supplied to these booster units
is usually controlled automatically by individual thermostats. The heat
required by the booster coils depends on the temperature range through
which the air is heated and the quantity of air, or
a = 0.24 (ty - h + tf)M (10)
Heat to be Supplied
The amount of heat to be supplied (fl1) is equal to the sum of the heat
requirements of the various heating units and the water heater of the
washer, if any, plus the allowance for piping tax. (See preceding Cases
A to JE.)
420
CHAPTER 21. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR HEATING ANP HUMIDIFYING
Grate Area, Boiler Selection
The required grate area may be determined by the following formula:
where
G = required grate area, square feet.
F = calorific value of fuel, Btu per pound.
C = combustion rate, pounds per square foot of grate per hour.
E — boiler and grate efficiency, per cent.
Example 8. Using the data in Example ti, and assuming coal having a calorific value
of 12,000 Btu per pound, a combustion rate of 7 Ib per square foot, and a performance
efficiency of 0,60, and neglecting the piping tax,
26sqft.
w ~ 12,000 X 0.60 X 7
Weight of Condensate
The normal weight of condensate to be handled from central fan sys-
tems may be estimated by means of the following formula:
w = 60 dQ X 0.24 X A* (12)
ftfi
where
W = weight of condensate, pounds per hour.
Q = total volume of air, cubic feet per minute.
AJ = temperature rise of air, degrees Fahrenheit.
hfg = latent heat of steam in the system, Btu per pound.
Ducts and Outlets, Air Filters, Air Washers
The design of the duct system should be based on data contained in
Chapter 29. Air washers and humidifiers are described in Chapter 25.
For information on air filters, see Chapter 26.
Static Pressure
The total static pressure against which the system must operate may
be found by summing up the static losses through the complete system
from the outside air intake to the discharge outlets or nozzles. _ This
means that the loss due to friction must be determined for each piece of
apparatus involved. Most of these values may be obtained from manu-
facturers' data tables. For a simple system, the following static pressure
drops may be assumed:
1. Outside air inlet, comprised of screen, louver and short duct, may have a loss of
0.2 in. of water.
2. A typical oil filter at rated capacity and velocity has a drop of 0.25 in. of water.
3. The loss of one row of a standard make tempering stack equals 0.09 in. water.
4. The loss of one row of a standard make preheater equals 0.10 in. water.
5. A standard humidifier at rated velocity may have a loss of about 0.35 in. water.
6. The loss through one row of a standard make reheater equals 0.12 in. water.
7. A fair assumption for duct losses on a simple system is 0.25 in. water.
8. The static pressure for a nozzle type outlet may be taken as 0.1 in. water.
421
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The sum of these values equals 0.2 + 0.25 + 0.09 + 0.10 + 0.35
+ 0.12 + 0.25 + 0.1 = 1.46 in. which is the static pressure against which
the system must operate.
Fans and Control
The selection of fans may be based on data contained in Chapter 27
and for motors in Chapter 38. Because centrifugal fans reach their
maximum efficiency when working against the resistance offered by the
average central fan heating system, they are well adapted to such systems
and are generally used. Information on temperature control for central
fan systems is given in Chapter 37.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Consider a. blast heating system, handling 10,000 cfm. The resistance to
air flow offered by one coil arrangement is 0.9 in. of water and by another coil
arrangement is 0.2 in. of water. The fan operates 4000 hours per year and the
combined efficiency of motor and fan is 60 per cent. Determine the annual
energy saving if the second coil is used.
Difference in system resistance = 0.9 — 0.2 = 0.7 in. of water.
Reduction in power input = 5355 X 0 60 = 1%83 hp>
Annual energy saving = 1.83 X 0.764 X 4000 = 5480 kwhr.
2 • What saving results from recirculating some of the room air and reducing
the amount of outside air?
Because outside air must be heated to room temperature, reducing the amount of outside
air produces a proportionate saving in heat or fuel.
3 • What items make up the total heating load in a central fan heating system?
1. The net heat loss from the conditioned space.
2. The heat required for evaporation of water for humidification.
3. The heat required to raise the temperature of outside air to room temperature.
4. Heat losses from pipes and ducts.
4 • A group of three drafting rooms, having a total volume of 27,000 cu ft, a
transmission loss of 110,100 Btu per hour, and an infiltration loss of 34,200 Btu per
hour on the basis of 0 F outdoors and 70 F room temperature, is to be heated by
a recirculating hot blast heating system with air entering the rooms at 116 F.
How many cubic feet per minute, measured at 70 F, will be required?
Substitute in Equation 3. H = 110,100 + 34,200 = 144,300 Btu per hour; ty = 116 F;
* - 7° F: Q ~ 60 X 0.07492 x (116 - 70) ° 290° *°
5 • In the preceding question, if the warm ah- loses 4 F between heater and
rooms, how many pounds of steam per hour at 1-lb gage will the heating
sections condense?
Substitute in Equation 12. Q = 2900 cfm, from solution of Question 4; A* = 116+4
- 70 = 50 F; hfg = 968 Btu, from steam table in Chapter 1.
w "60 dQ X 0.24 X A* 60 X 0.07492 X 2900 X 0.24 X 50 ,fl1
W = - 5£ -- - 968 -- 161'8 lb per
422
Chapter 22
CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOLING AND
DEHUMTOIFYING
Classification of Systems, Spray and Surface Type Dehumidi-
fiers, Designing the System, Zoning, Location of Apparatus,
Air Temperature Leaving Room Inlets, Calculations and
Selection of Apparatus, Quantity and Temperature of Air
Required, Heat Removed by Apparatus, Reheating Dehumidi-
fied Air, By-Pass System
CENTRAL systems, equipped for cooling and dehumidifying, are used
\^j principally in the air conditioning of theatres, restaurants, office
buildings, or other places where people gather, and in manufacturing
establishments where air conditions have an important influence on the
quality of product or rate of production. A central ^cooling and de-
humidifying plant is one in which the fans, dehumidifiers, and other
related apparatus are assembled in suitable apparatus rooms from which
supply and return ducts lead to the conditioned spaces. The design of
such systems is considered in this chapter, while in Chapter^! Central
Systems for Heating and Humidifying are described . Air conditioning for
industrial processes is considered in Chapter 33. A discussion of the
dehumidifying equipment only, will be found in Chapters 24 and 25.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
Dehumidification or cooling of air may be accomplished by several
methods, and by use of many heat transfer media. Most central
station comfort air conditioning systems employ cold water or the direct
expansion of a refrigerant in either spray type or surface type equipment
to accomplish the required cooling and dehumidification. Hence this
chapter will be concerned mainly with the design of such systems.
Two other methods of summer air conditioning are used to some extent.
In regions where the summer wet-bulb temperature is low (see Chapter 8,
Table 1) , evaporative cooling can be used. A spray type unit is employed,
with recirculation of the spray water and usually a supply of 100 per cent
outside air. The dry-bulb temperature of the air is reduced but the
relative humidity of the air is increased, as the air passes through the
sprays and its sensible heat is converted into latent heat. The wet-bulb
temperature remains constant, and for comfort conditioning it is ad-
visable to have the final dry-bulb temperature a few degrees higher than
the wet-bulb.
423
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Another method of summer air conditioning is that in which the air is
passed over a dehydrating agent, and then the dry-bulb temperature is
lowered to the proper level. This latter step is usually accomplished by
means of water, and the water temperature need not be as low as is
required for dehumidification by condensation.
For the common method of dehumidifying the air by cooling it below
the dew-point, either the air is conducted through a low temperature
I
X
X
X
•r
1
1
Oehumidifier
--^--
Dampers^
Uow temperature
water supply
FIG. 1. SIMPLE DEHUMIDIFYING APPARATUS
Outside^
FIG. 2. DEHUMIDIFYING EQUIPMENT WITH REHEATER
liquid spray, or it is directed over surface coils through which cold water
or evaporating refrigerant is circulated. The same principle governs the
operation of both spray and surface type dehumidifiers, viz. : The dew-
point temperature of the air leaving the dehumidifter should be such that
when the air is raised to room conditions it will have absorbed the latent heat
load of the rooms.
The arrangement of a simple summer air conditioning plant is shown in
Fig. 1. The plant may be designed to condition 100 per cent outside air,
100 per cent return air, or a mixture of outside and return air. If the
424
CHAPTER 22. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOLIHO AMD DEHUMIDXFTXNG
system is intended solely for summer conditioning, the apparatus will
consist essentially of a dehumidifier of spray or surface type, filters, fan
and motor, duct work for outside air, return air and conditioned air supply,
air inlets and outlets and suitable controls. For the spray unit or for
water coils a pump will be required, and some form of cooling equipment
must be installed unless a supply of sufficiently low temperature natural
water is available. In many cases a reheater will be necessary, as de-
scribed in the next paragraph. Frequently a central air conditioning
system is designed for year-round service. This means that properly
sized heaters and humidifiers, with their respective controls, must be
added. With few exceptions, systems designed to meet summer capacity
requirements ^ will have ample capacity for winter and intermediate
season conditioning.
In lowering the dew-point temperature to enable the air to carry off the
latent heat load, the dry-bulb temperature may be lowered excessively.
The air must then be reheated before being delivered to the rooms.
FIG. 3. SUMMER DEHUMIDIFYING EQUIPMENT WITH BY-PASS
Fig. 2 shows a central plant conditioner with a surface reheater added.
The reheater may be installed in the fan inlet chamber as shown, or in the
fan discharge duct, depending on apparatus space and other design
conditions. The use of surface coils, of improved air distribution systems
in the rooms, and of smaller refrigeration units with automatic control,
are all tending to make the use of reheaters less essential.
Another method for raising the dry-bulb temperature of the conditioned
air supplied to the rooms, is to by-pass some of the return air1 so that it
enters on the downstream side of the dehumidifier, as shown in Fig. 3.
.This method of reheating the air may be more economical in operation
than using a surface reheater where such a reheater cannot be supplied
with waste heat.
In some cases the main supply fan delivers the dehumidified air to
several other fans rather than to the conditioned space directly. These
booster fan units may be arranged to deliver a mixture of conditioned air
IPatents exist covering the use of the by-pass for cooling and dehumidifying systems.
425
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and return air as shown in Fig. 4, or they may be equipped with reheaters
and take in 100 per cent dehumidified air.
The systems illustrated in Figs. 1 to 4 may have either spray dehumidi-
fiers or surface coils, and the latter may use either cold water or direct
expansion refrigerant. In a few; cases both sprays and coils are used.
The coils may then be installed within the spray chamber, either in series
with the sprays or below them. In making the selection between spray
and surface dehumidifiers, certain advantages of each should be consider-
ed. The fact that a spray dehumidifier is^ usually designed to deliver
saturated or nearly saturated air, tends to simplify the control problem.
In this case the dry-bulb temperature is also the dew-point, and hence a
dew-point control can be arranged by using a simple duct thermostat.
Other advantages of the spray system are that it may be used for hu-
FIG. 4. CENTRAL DEHUMIDIFYING PLANT AND LOCAL RECIRCULATING FANS
midifying in winter or for evaporative cooling when the outside wet-bulb
temperature is low.
Surface coil dehumidifiers seldom deliver saturated air. A wet-bulb
depression of 2 to 5 F (or more) is usual, and with this higher dry-bulb
temperature (for a given dew-point), reheating may be unnecessary as
indicated in Table 1. Where the surface coil system can be used with
direct ^expansion of refrigerant, it is comparatively low in initial and
operating costs, but some localities have refrigeration codes which restrict -
the use of direct-expansion coils in the air stream. Therefore, local codes
should be consulted by the engineer before a system employing direct
expansion methods is designed. The performance of a surface type
dehumidifier is affected by air velocity, refrigerant velocity, temperature
and moisture content of the entering air, piping arrangement and coil
design, and these variations must be taken into account in the design of a
system which includes a surface-type unit.
426
CHAPTER 22. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING
TABLE 1. ROOM HEAT LOAD RATIOS FOR TYPICAL SUMMER COMFORT CONDITIONING
T.KTUCU
Mza y? liiAat S
ESTIPZ OS LOAI>
ROOJC HZAT LOAD RATIOS*
No. Oruparita Private
cr S<iurr£8 ' Office >vr
c»f Vapcr Rysidencz
or Crowded
i A-iditcriaa
at (*ap»rit.y )
' rj Crowded j
Rwtaurar.t
Ballroom
at
Capacity
SENSIBLE HEAT
i
,
OflA
TOTAL HEAT
TOTAL HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT
LATENT HEAT
1.00 0.90
1.00 1.11
; O.SO
i
1.25
A OA
0.70 (
i
1 1.43 !
OO A
.W
1.67
TOTAL HEAT
TOTAL HEAT
0 0.10
0.20
5fW^
.30 ,
300
2KA
LATENT HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT
10.00
n rw\
.00
4AA
.33
1 i
.OU
LATENT HEAT
LATENT HEAT
I 9.00
OA 1 1
.00
1
OR7
SENSIBLE HEAT
U. 11
1
i
Dry-bulb Temperature of Air at Room Inlets, to Maintain Typical Room
Conditions of 80 F Dry-bulb, 50 per cent Relative Humidity
Air entering saturated15
60.0
58.6
56.5
53.0
| 35.0
Air entering with 4 F
wet-bulb depression
66.5
65.4
64.1
61.8
f
j 56.0
Air entering with 8 F
wet-bulb depression
72.6 | 72.1
71.6
70.5
1
68.0
•The overall heat load ratio for the dehumidifier will be different from the heat load ratio for the room.
The extent of the difference will depend on the quantity and condition of the outside air used, upon the
magnitude of the duct losses, and upon whether or not reheat or by-pass are used.
bTypical air conditions leaving the central conditioner are: With spray dehumidifier, 0 to 2 F wet-bulb
depression. With surface-type dehumidifier, 1 to 6 F wet-bulb depression. With by-pass or reheat. 4 to
10 F wet-bulb depression.
DESIGNING THE SYSTEM
The general procedure for the design of a central system is as follows:
1. Calculate the sensible heat and latent heat gains for each room or space to be
conditioned. (See Chapters 6, 7 and 8).
2. Establish the temperature of air leaving the supply inlets.
3. Calculate the quantity of air to be circulated.
4. Estimate the temperature rise in the duct system.
5. Determine the volume of outside air to be introduced. (See Chapter 3).
6. Calculate the heat to be removed by cooling and dehumidifying apparatus, and
the type and arrangement of apparatus to be used.
7. Calculate the size of the reheating equipment, if any.
8. Select cooling and dehumidifying equipment, and refrigerating and reheating
equipment, from manufacturers* data and performance curves.
9. Design the air filtering and distribution system, the air outlets and inlets. (See
Chapters 26, 28 and 29).
10. Calculate the total static pressure of the system.
11. Select the fan, motor and drive. (See Chapters 27 and 38).
12. Select the pump and motor.
13. Design the control system. (See Chapter 37.)
427
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ZONING THE SYSTEM
The foregoing general outline of procedure will prove satisfactory for
the smaller and less complex installations. However, when dealing with
air conditioning systems for large buildings, after a proper analysis has
been made of the conditions to be maintained and the heat loads en-
countered, it is generally considered good practice to divide the complete
job into a number of suitably sized units. In some cases a unit per floor
or group of floors may complete the design satisfactorily, whereas in
others it may be advantageous to have separate units for^each of the
various outside exposures of the building. The heat loads on inside rooms
are apt to be less variable since the fluctuations of the outside weather
conditions are not directly involved. Where ^ the floor area is large in
relation to the outside wall exposure, it is obvious that special provision
must be made for the variable load to which the outside exposures are
subjected. Such conditions often result in the natural zoning or segre-
gation of rooms having similar exposures and internal heat loads. Varia-
tions in the hours of occupancy in different portions of a building also
frequently require careful zoning for successful operation.
LOCATION OF APPARATUS
Availability of space for apparatus and duct work is of primary im-
portance when selecting the type of system for a given design. In general,
for large installations, the refrigeration equipment, because of its size,
weight, and operating characteristics, is located in the basement along
with the boilers, fire pumps, and other equipment. The air conditioning
apparatus is generally located where clean outdoor air is readily available,
the designer bearing in mind that supply and return air ducts, steam con-
nections, water and drain connections, and electrical connections must be
made to the equipment proper,
AIR TEMPERATURE LEAVING ROOM INLETS
In comfort conditioning applications, air has been distributed from
properly designed inlets without producing drafts at temperatures varying
from approximately 5 to 30 F below the required room temperature.
Factors influencing the design and selection of air inlets are: ceiling
height, contour of ceiling, length of blow, and temperature and quantity
of air to be distributed. Most summer conditioning installations are
designed to supply the air to the conditioned space at from 8 to 18 F
below room temperature. Recently the use of specially designed nozzles
has indicated the possibility of reducing the air quantity necessary to
dissipate a given heat load by introducing the air into the room as much
as 30 F below room temperature. Directional flow inlets which spread
the air fanwise permit lower inlet temperatures than single direction
inlets. Comfort conditioning systems employing differentials greater
than 18 F require special consideration and design experience because
high pressure inlets or nozzles are usually used. Further, care must be
taken to allow a sufficient air quantity under all load conditions to insure
good distribution. If winter heating, as well as summer conditioning, is
to be accomplished by the same distributing system, the design of the
428
CHAPTER 22. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOUNG AND DEHUMIDIFYING
inlets will be influenced as discussed in Chapter 21 . Industrial systems in
which drafts are not objectionable usually employ a temperature dif-
ferential equal to the dew-point depression.
CALCULATIONS AND SELECTION OF APPARATUS
When the cooling loads in the rooms to be served have Ix^en calculated
as outlined in Chapter 8, they are combined to obtain the total room load.
However, all loads must be calculated in two parts: (I) the sensible^heat
or dry load, and (2) the latent heat or moisture load. For convenience
it is customary to state this division of loads by a ratio, as for instance the
ratio of sensible heat load to total load. Unfortunately there is as yet no
uniform practice in the statement of this ratio, and hence in Table 1 all
the common ways of stating the load ratio are given. It should be noted
that the heat load ratio for the dehumidifier is not exactly the same as the
heat load ratio of the room except in the case of 100 per cent recirculation
and zero reheat.
The heat load ratio of a room depends upon its occupancy as well as
upon the heat transmitted through its walls and windows. This is approxi-
mately indicated in Table 1. Since human occupants are one of the
greatest sources of latent heat or moisture load, this load is frequently a
minimum when there is a large room space per occupant and the occu-
pants are not doing physical work.
Examples of the solution of a typical problem of treating air to produce
room conditions of 80 F dry-bulb and 50 per cent relative humidity^are
also given in Table 1. In these examples it is assumed that as the air is
discharged into the room and diffuses with the room air, it is required to
absorb sensible and latent heat in the ratio indicated, and that its final
condition after absorbing this heat is the room condition of 80 F dry-bulb
and 50 per cent relative humidity. Table 1 deals with the room only,
and the heat load ratios for the dehumidifier and the temperatures
leaving the same will not be identical with those given for the room.
However, if the heat gains in the ductwork have been included as part of
the room load, the dry-bulb temperatures in Table 1 will be those at the
discharge of the central conditioning apparatus. To obtain the total heat
load on the dehumidifier, and its corresponding heat load ratio, the load
due to outside or ventilating air must of course be added. ^ The significance
of these statements is illustrated in the examples following.
Quantity and Temperature of Air Required
The quantity of air to be circulated is usually determined on the basis
of the sensible heat load, although in some cases the air quantity will be
determined by the latent heat load, or by the air distribution or venti-
lation requirements.
Example 1. A room is to be maintained at a dry-bulb temperature of 80 F and a
relative humidity of 55 per cent, (68.5 F wet-bulb, 62.5 F dew-point, 85.5 grains of
moisture per pound). The sensible heat gain in this room is 100,000 Btu per hour, and
the latent heat gain is 33,000 Btu per hour, or a heat load ratio, sensible to total, of
75 per cent. A temperature differential of 12 F between the room air and the conditioned
supply has been selected, i.e., the air is to be supplied at 68 F dry-bulb. Find the quan-
tity and condition of the air supply required.
429
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Solution. From a table of air properties, (Chapter 1, Table 6), it is found that the
sensible heat content of air at 80 F is 19.19 Btu per pound, and that of air at 68 F is
16.31 Btu per pound. Hence the sensible heat load which can be absorbed by 1 lb of
air is 19.19 — 16.31 = 2.88 Btu. Then the total air quantity required is 100,000/2.88 =
34,700 lb per hour. Expressed in terms of standard air at 0.075 lb per cubic foot, this is:
34,700/(60 x 0.075) = 7,720 cfm. Since a latent heat load of 33,000 Btu per hour must
be absorbed by 34,700 lb of air per hour, the latent heat to be absorbed per pound of air is:
33,000/34,700 = 0.952 Btu. The latent heat per pound of vapor is approximately
1060 Btu (from steam tables), and since 1 lb = 7,000 grains, the moisture to be added to
each pound of air is: (0.0952 x 7000) /1060 = 6.3 grains. Hence the dew-point tem-
perature of the conditioned air supply will correspond to 85.5 — 6.3 = 79.2 grains per
pound, and from the psychrometric chart or tables this is found to be 60.7 F dew-point. At
ajdry-bulb temperature of 68 F this corresponds to a wet-bulb temperature of approxi-
mately 63.3 F, or a relative humidity of 78 per cent. Summarizing, the required air
supply is: 7,720 cfm at 68 F dry-bulb and 63.3 F wet-bulb.
In the previous example and solution, no consideration was given to
the type of air conditioner to be used. The solution is dependent on room
conditions only, and the method is generally applicable regardless of the heat
load ratio or the size of the system. Of course if the air quantity or the
temperatures obtained in the solution are not practicable for the actual
installation, the original selection of a dry-bulb temperature of the inlet
air may be changed as required, providing the design of the distribution
system is modified accordingly. A higher dry-bulb temperature of the
air supply, i.e., a smaller temperature differential, will call for a larger
quantity of air and a larger wet-bulb depression at the supply inlets.
Heat Removed by Apparatus
The total cooling and dehumidifying load will depend on the total room
load, the duct losses, the outside air or ventilation load, and the amount
of reheat, if any. The necessity for reheat will in turn be determined by
the type of system, and by the dry-bulb temperature required at the
room supply inlets.
Example 2. To maintain a room at 80 F dry-bulb and 55 per cent relative humidity
requires a conditioned air supply of 7,720 cfm at 68 F dry-bulb and 63.3 F wet-bulb
temperature (see Example 1.). The air is to be conditioned in a central plant unit of the
type shown in Fig. 2. The conditioned air is to consist of 30 per cent outside air (2320
cfm) and 70 per cent recirculated air (5400 cfm). The outside air enters the conditioner
at 95 F dry-bulb and 75 F wet-bulb temperature, and the return air is assumed to enter
at 80 F dry-bulb and 68.5 F wet-bulb, (neglecting radiation and duct losses). Find the
total refrigeration load, and the air conditions entering and leaving the dehumidifier,
for both spray and surface type units.
Solution. The simplest method of solution is on the basis of wet-bulb temperatures
and total heats, calculating the return air and outside air loads separately. Before this
can be done, the air conditions at the exit of the dehumidifier must be determined. It is
known that the dew-point of the conditioned air must be 60.7 F. The dry-bulb tempera-
ture at the exit of the dehumidifier will then depend on whether sprays or coils are used,
and on the design of each. Assume in this case that the spray dehumidifier saturates the
air, and that the air discharged from the surface dehumidifier has a 3 F wet-bulb depres-
sion. (These are common assumptions, but other values may be obtained, depending
on the designs). Air conditions at the discharge of the dehumidifier are then: For the
spray dehumidifier, dry-bulb = wet-bulb ~ dew-point = 60.7 F. For the surface type
dehumidifier, dry-bulb = 65.5 F, wet-bulb = 62.5 F, dew-point = 60.7 F. The total
refrigeration load for each type of dehumidifier may be calculated as follows:
Spray Type Dehumidifier. 2320 cfm of outside air cooled from 75 F wet-bulb (38.46
Btu per pound, total heat content), to 60.7 F wet-bulb (26.86 Btu per pound, total heat
content.) Refrigeration load: 2320 X 0.075 X 60 X (38.46 - 26.86) = 121,000 Btu
per hour. 5400 cfm of return air, cooled from 68.5 F wet-bulb (32.71 Btu per pound),
430
CHAPTER 22. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING
rtC2;7 F£eE~£ulb (26-&G Btu I** Pounrli. Rrfrssf ration load: 5400 X 0.075 X 60 X
(32. / 1 - 2G.S6) = 142,000 Btu per hour. The, total refrigeration load for the dehumidi-
fier is therefore 263,000 Btu per hour or 21.9 commercial tons of refrigeration.
,nf?"tf??e Type Dehumidi^- 2320 cfrn of out*id« air cooled from 75 F wet-bulb
So^6vBnUrt5?r P°?nd). to 62.5 F wet-bulb (2S.12 Btu per pound). Refrigeration load:
2320 X O.OJo X 60 X (38.46 - 28.12) = 108,000 Btu peVhour. 5400 cfm of return
air, cooled from 68.5 F wet-bulb (32.71 Btu per pound) to C2.5 F wet-bulb T2S.12 Btu
per pound). Refrigeration load: 5400 X 0.075 X 60 X (32.71 - 2S.12) - 111,500 Btu
per hour. The total refrigeration load for the dehumidifier is therefore 219,500 Btu per
hour or 18.3 commercial tons of refrigeration.
A summary of the results with the two types of dehumidifiers is given in Table 2.
TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF SPRAY AND SURFACE TYPE Ds HUMIDIFIERS FOR EXAMPLE 2
. _ ; SPRAY TYPE ST-RFACE TYPE
AIR CONDITIONS OR LOAD , DEHVMIDIFILR DEHI -
Exit Air Conditions:
Dry-bulb temperature, deg F ...................................... \ 60.7 C5.5
Wet-bulb temperature, deg F ............................... 60.7 62.5
Dew-point temperature, deg F ........................... ,' f)0.7 fX).7
Total refrigeration load, tons ............................................. i 21.9 1S.3
Reheat necessary to raise dry-bulb temperature of exit i
air to 68 F, Btu per hour _________________ ........................ j 60,900 i 20,800
Air out
60 F dry-bulb
50 F
Atfm
95 F dry -bulb
Water out
""50V+30F-80F
FIG. 5. COUNTER-FLOW SURFACE COOLING DIAGRAM
The design and selection of both spray and surface dehumidifiers is
usually made largely on the basis of manufacturers' data, although there
are certain general precautions to be observed. Air velocities in spray
dehumidifiers are usually limited to 500 or 600 fpm, and the highest
temperature of the spray water should be 2 or 3 F below the required exit
dew-point. Surface units using cold water should be designed to obtain
as near true counterflow as possible as shown in Fig. 5. Face velocities
are usually from 400 to 600 fpm, and water velocities should be high
enough to obtain good heat transfer, but low enough to avoid excessive
pumping costs (preferred range is usually 1 to 3 fps). A close approxi-
mation of surface coil area can be made on the basis of the sensible heat
transfer, if the latent heat load is not more than 25 or 30 per cent of the
total. In this calculation the dry coil heat transfer coefficients are used,
and the computation is the same as that used in selecting an air heating
coil. If the coil loads, the entering air conditions, and the refrigerant and
air velocities are specified by the designer, then the refrigerant tem-
perature and the depth of coil to be used are dictated by the coil design,
and cannot be arbitrarily selected. Surface coil performance is greatly
affected by the refrigerant temperature, and if the refrigerant temperature
431
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
an be varied, as in a cold water system, the performance of the unit may
o a certain extent be varied with the weather and load changes.
REHEATING DEHUMIDIFIED AIR
Table 2 (Example 2) indicates that the amount of reheating necessary
o raise the dry-bulb temperature to the selected room inlet condition of
>8 F, is greater in the case of the spray type dehumidifier than with the
iUrface-type unit. The reheating process is a simple addition of sensible
leat, and the calculation for the spray-type unit is as follows:
Example S. Find the capacity of the reheater required in connection with the spray
lehumidifier in Example 2.
Solution. The heat to be supplied in Btu per hour by reheaters equals sensible heat to
aise air from 60.7 to 68 F = 0.24 X 7720 X 0.075 X 60 X (68 - 60.7) = 60,900.
iurface coils of this capacity must therefore be selected.
3y-Pass System
Example 4. The total sensible heat gain in a restaurant when the dry-bulb tempera-
ure is held at 80 F is 200,000 Btu per hour. The conditioned space shown in Fig. 6,
Return air 80 F (db) 65 F (wb)
Fresh air
95 F (db)
301 Ib per min
"55
c
c 977 Ib per min
**
SI
68F(db)n^l
1
\ I
68F(db) Conditioned
Dehumidifier
51.2 F (dp)
75 F (wb)
169 Ib per min
54.17F(dp)LU '
1 146 Ib per min
54.17 F (dp) enclosure
FIG. 6. DIAGRAM OF BY-PASS METHOD
tlso'has a moisture gain of 384,000 grains per hour, and an outside air ventilation require-
nent of 2250 cfm. Assume (as in Examples 1 and 2), a 12 F dry-bulb temperature
Differential between the entering air and the room temperature, which is the same as
issuming the dry-bulb temperature of the entering air to be 68 F. It is required to
naintain the room conditions at 80 F dry-bulb, 65 F wet-bulb, 56.5 F dew-point. Cal-
:ulate the air capacity of the system, the amount of return air to be by-passed, and the
lew-point temperatures at room inlet and dehumidifier outlet.
Solution. In this system, instead of passing all of the^air through the dehumidifier
'or cooling and dehumidifying, a portion of the return air is mixed with the conditioned
lir at the leaving end of the dehumidifier. The mixture is proportioned so that the
•esultant conditions are those required at the room inlets, (neglecting losses). -
As in Example 1, the sensible heat load which can be absorbed by one pound of air is
5.88 Btu, and the total air quantity required is then: 200,000/2.88 X 60 =» 1146 Ib per
ninute, or about 15,300 cfm.
From Table 6, Chapter 1, the grains per pound of saturated air at 56.5 F is 68.0.
The latent heat load is already expressed in terms of grains of moisture, hence the mois-
:ure to be added to each pound of air is: 384,000/1146 X 60 = 5.6. This gives the
•noisture content in the entering air which equals 68.0 — 5.6 = 62.4 grains per pound, cor-
•esponding to a dew-point at the room inlet, of 54.17 F.
The quantity of air to be dehumidified, the quantity to be by-passed, and the appa-
•atus dew-point temperature may be approximately calculated as follows:
Let
X - percentage of air to be by-passed.
Y = percentage of air to be passed through the dehumidifier.
/d = apparatus dew-point temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
432
CHAPTER 22. CENTRAL SYSTEMS FOR COOUNO AND DEHUMIDIFYING
The quantity X of SO F air mutt mix with the quantitv r of dehumidified air to
produce air with a resultant *iS F dry-bulb temperature. 'Also, A* quantity of air at
5b.5 F dew-point must be mixed with Y quint it v of dehumidified air to pve a resultant
dew-point temperature of the mixture of 51.17 "F. It is assumed that the air passing
through the dehurmdifier is saturated.
Solving simultaneous equations,
- Fto - 6S.OO
56.5JT + Fto f 54.17
23.5^ + 0 « 13;&3
Y __ 13.83 X 100 _ ^ . ,
-- ~ — ~ per c ' air by*
Y = 100 — X =41 per cent, air passed through dehumidifier.
The second step is to determine the apparatus dew-point temperature, Substitute X
in either Equation 1 or Equation 2, and solve for fa:
SO X 0.59 + to X 0.41 = 68
/>rt x*«»
^ ~ Q4i ~ 51.2 F, the apparatus dew point.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is meant by the term evaporative cooling?
Evaporative cooling, or adiabatic saturation of the air, is only effective when the air to
be cooled is very dry. It is accomplished by passing the air in an unsaturated condition
through a water spray which evaporates a part of the water at the expense of the sensible
heat. In this adiabatic transfer the total heat content of the air remains constant while
the dew point rises and the dry-bulb falls until the air is saturated.
2 • In central systems for cooling and dehumidifying what factors fix the
quantity of air required?
The weight or volume of air required depends wholly on the sensible heat gain in the
room conditioned and on the difference between the dry-bulb temperature of the air at
the room inlets and the dry-bulb temperature maintained in the room.
3 • In central systems for cooling and dehumidifying can the dry-bulh tem-
perature change he fixed arbitrarily?
No, because the change depends on factors at both the conditioner and the room. At
the conditioner, temperature of the available water supply may limit the dry-bulb
temperature of the leaving air. At the room, the dry-bulb temperature of the entering
air may be further limited by: 1. The duct and supply grille arrangement permitted
by architectural and structural requirements for the particular space, e.g., ceiling
height and obstructions on ceilings, such as beams. 2. The state of activity of the
occupants. 3. The velocity at the inlet grille, as limited by noise level requirements.
4. The direction of the jet relative to the occupants.
4 • What factors determine the dew-point of the air entering the space?
The maximum dew-point desired in the conditioned space, and the moisture gain in the
space per unit weight of air supplied.
5 • Why must the air leaving a dehumidifying type air washer often have
its dry -bulb temperature raised before delivery to the occupied zone of room?
The air leaves the dehumidifying air washer saturated at a relatively low temperature
which in most cases is lower than the allowable delivery dry-bulb temperature as fixed by
factors outlined under Question 3. Also, the air may possibly be carrying a small amount
of entrained water which might settle out in the ducts near the washer and cause cor-
rosion difficulties;
433
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
6 • What methods may be used to raise the dry-bulb temperature of the air
after it leaves the dehumidifying air washer and before it enters the room?
a Sensible heat may be added by a reheating method from a source outside the air
stream. This method passes all or part of the cold, dehumidified air over steam or hot
water coils at the central conditioner or in the ducts, or over electric grids or similar
devices. Any available source of sensible heat can be used.
b. A mixing method using sensible heat already in the air stream. In this method the
cold, dehumidified air is mixed with air at a higher dry-bulb temperature and the dry-
bulb temperature of the resulting mixture is higher^than that of the air whenjt left the
conditioner. The air at high dry-bulb temperature is obtained by not passing it through
the dehumidifying washer. The mixing may take place at a central conditioner or in the
rooms themselves.
c. Combinations of these methods.
7 • What are the advantages of using counter flow of air and water in surface
coolers?
Counter flow results in a higher mean temperature difference than does parallel flow for
the same range of air and water temperatures, which means that less cooling surface is
required. Counter flow permits higher initial water temperatures and also allows a
greater temperature rise for the water. These factors combine to reduce the cost of
circulating and refrigerating the cooling water.
434
i
Chapter 23
UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR
CONDITIONINa COOLING UNITS
Classification of Unitary Equipment and Related Systems ,
Unit Heaters, Heating Medium, Estimating Heat Looses, Air
Temperatures, Output of Heaters, Direction of Discharge,
Boiler Capacity, Quietness, Piping Connections, Unit Ventila-
tors, Split and Combined Systems* Vents, Cooling Unitss Air
Conditioning Units, Heating, Humidifying and Dehumidi-
fication, Filtering, Location of Units, Air Distribution, Resi-
dential Central System Units, Capacities, Costs, Accessories
to Unitary Equipment
N other chapters, complete descriptions have been given of heating*
_ cooling, ventilating, humidifying, and dehumidifying systems. These
descriptions have covered the detailed principles of each and have, in
general, described the assembled equipment included in the complete
systems. The success of such completely engineered, heating, cooling,
and air conditioning systems has inevitably led to the production of
smaller factory-assembled equipment employing a majority of the
principles of these complete systems. As a result, present day practice
involves the use of this unitary equipment in the majority of smaller
installations where capacity demands are within^the limits of such^units.
Thus, unit heaters, unit ventilators, cooling units and air conditioning
units have come to occupy a place of their own in the industry.
With the growth of this unitary industry. It becomes Increasingly
evident that there Is no sharp line' of demarcation^ on the basis of capacity,
between a unit and a central station system. Definitions contained in a
code, Standard Method of Rating and Testing Air Conditioning Equip-
ment1, have helped to clarify and identify the various types available.
A unit is a factory-made encased assembly of the functional elements
indicated by its name, such as air conditioning unit, room cooling unit,
humidifying unit, etc. Such units are shipped substantially complete or
built and shipped in sections so that the only field work necessary is the
assembling together of the sections, without resorting to any field fabri-
cation. A unit of this type may be complete in itself, employing its own
direct means of air distribution and sources of refrigeration or heating, in
which case, it thus represents a complete self-contained unit. Or it may
be coupled with separate means of air distribution such as duct work and
outlets, in which case, it will still be considered as a unit system, in dis-
Manufacturers Association
435
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
tinction to the generally accepted term of a field fabricated central station
system. The manufacturer of the unit is responsible for the output and
performance of the unit under rated conditions, whereas the contractor
installing the complete unitary system is normally held responsible for
the complete performance of the system.
Unit equipment justifies its existence due to the following features:
1. Lower cost per unit capacity. Standardized design and volume production makes
possible low cost factory assembly thereby eliminating individual design and handling
of every part for each installation.
2. Flexibility and mobility of equipment. Unitary equipment can be readily located
in existing buildings without the necessity of running large* ducts through floors and
many partitions. Such equipment can be shifted to meet changing requirements.
Tenants may obtain the advantages of conditioning when the entire building is not
equipped with a conditioning system. In industrial process work, the flexibility of
unitary equipment is also advantageous.
3. Lower installation costs. The fact that the equipment arrives on the job in an
assembled condition, coupled with the lesser problems of duct work and connecting
piping, materially reduces installation costs.
4. Small capacities. The small capacities available in unitary equipment have
brought the advantages of controlled air conditions to a number of small offices, stores,
shops, and individual rooms where specially designed and built central system equip-
ment would have been uneconomic.
SUB-DIVISION OF UNITARY EQUIPMENT
For descriptive purposes unitary equipment is sub-divided on a purely
functional basis. The following definitions are included in the previously
referred to code2.
1. A Heating Unit is a specific air treating combination consisting of means for air
circulation and heating within prescribed temperature limits.
2. A Cooling Unit is a specific air treating combination consisting of means for air
circulation and cooling within prescribed temperature limits.
3. A Humidifying Unit adds water vapor to and circulates air in a space to be
humidified.
4. A Dehumidifying Unit removes water from and circulates air in a space to be
dehumidified.
5. An Air Conditioning Unit is a specific air treating combination consisting of means
for ventilation, air circulation, air cleaning and heat transfer with control means for
maintaining temperature and humidity within prescribed limits.
6. A Cooling Air Conditioning Unit is a specific air treating combination consisting of
means for ventilation, air circulation, air cleaning and heat transfer with control means
for cooling and maintaining humidity within prescribed limits.
7. A Heating Air Conditioning Unit is a specific air treating combination consisting of
means for ventilation, air circulation, air cleaning and heat transfer with control means
for heating and maintaining humidity within prescribed limits.
8. A Self-Contained Air Conditioning or Cooling Unit is one in which a condensing
unit is combined in the same cabinet with the other functional elements.
9. A Free Delivery Type Unit takes in air and discharges it directly to the space to be
treated without external elements 'which impose air resistance.
10. A Pressure Type Unit is for use with one or more external elements which impose
air resistance.
»Loc. Cit. Note 1.
436
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS. VENTIIATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOUNO UNITS
There has grown up in the industry' definite branches, in which the
engineering and application of the equipment van* quite widely. Thus
common acceptance recognizes the following groups of the unitary equip-
ment defined above.
1. Unit Heaters consisting of an encased heating surface through \vhich air is forced
by means of a fan or blower, located either in or closely adjacent to the heated space,
and normally employed only for industrial and commercial applications.
2. Unit Ventilators which are similar in principle to unit heaters but are designed to
use outside air with or without provision for recirculation of the air. While unit heaters
are largely used for commercial and industrial applications, unit ventilators are intended
primarily for school, offices and semi-commercial applications.
3. Cooling Units which are similar to unit heaters except that a cooling medium is
used in place of a heating medium and provision is made to collect and remove the con-
densate. Cooling units are normally applied to the cooling of products for their pre-
servation or processing (commercial air conditioning; and air conditioning units are used
for cooling for comfort.
^4. Air Conditioning Units which consist of equipment to provide control of heating
with humidifying or cooling with dehumidif ying, coupled with air circulation : all com-
pactly housed in a single casing.
5. Miscellaneous Unit Equipment and Accessories such as filtering equipment, attic
fans, humidifying units and special controls.
UNIT HEATERS
A unit heater consists of the combination of a heating element and fan
or blower having a common enclosure and placed within or adjacent to
the space to be heated. Generally no ducts are attached to inlets or
outlets, although it is common practice with many unit heaters to equip
them with directional outlets or adjustable louvers.
While unit heaters are designed primarily to handle all recirculated air,
they may be installed to handle either partial or total outdoor air.
Compared with the older method of heating by means of radiation,
properly designed and applied unit heaters should:
1. Circulate air in the building at a rapid rate but without objectionable draft.
2. Reduce the temperature differential between the floor and ceiling.
3. Direct the heated air so that uniform temperature distribution be obtained
throughout the heated space.
4. Prevent or remove the cold stratum of air commonly found at the floor level.
5. Reduce the number of heating elements required and thereby decrease the cost
and extent of the piping necessary.
6. Maintain a closer control of room temperature either manually or by means of
simple thermostats.
7. Produce an economy in heating costs resulting from the sum total of the above
advantages.
TYPES OF UNITS
There are two major types of unit heaters, propeller fan type and
centrifugal housed fan type. The housed fan, high velocity (1500 to
2500 fpm) discharge units with outlets adjustable to deliver air in several
directions, are able to project their heating effect over distance of from
30 ft to as much as 200 ft from the unit. This makes possible the location
of these units at considerable distances from each other, thus reducing
437
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
RETURfT
FIG. 1. SUSPENDED UNIT HEATER,
PROPELLER TYPE FAN
IEATING ELEMENT
UPPLY
FIG. 2. FLOOR MOUNTED UNIT HEATER,
HOUSED TYPE FAN
LOUVRESv,
AIR
BY-PASS
FIG. 3. SUSPENDED TYPE UNIT HEATER, HOUSED TYPE FAN
438
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
greatly the piping and loss of floor space due to the heating equipment.
Propeller-type units, illustrated in Fig. 1, with outlet velocities of from
300 to 1000 fpm are usually placed from 30 up to 100 ft apart.
Two methods of application of unit heaters are commonly used. Floor
mounted units, shown in Fig. 2 are available either with or without the
air by-pass, and withdraw the cold air from the ftoor and discharge the
heated air above the working zone. Suspended type units are located in
an elevated position ^ withdrawing air from this higher level and dis-
charging the heated air down into the working zone. In closely occupied
spaces where direct air drafts into the working zone are not permitted,
the floor mounted unit will give more uniform temperature distribution.
On the other hand, if opportunity is provided to deliver the heated air
from suspended units down into the working zone, excellent temperature
distribution is possible. A suspended high-velocity type unit heater con-
nected to .an outside air intake with damper to 'control the volume of
ventilation is shown in Fig. 3.
A wide variety of structural designs is available. All employ some form
of convector, supplied with either steam or hot water, although occasionally
equipped for gas or electric heat. Air is always forced over these con-
vectors by a fan of either the propeller or centrifugal type. Heating sur-
faces may be in the form of steel pipe coils, non-ferrous tubes or pipes with
extended surfaces, cast iron, and pressed or built-up sections of the cart-
ridge or automotive type.
Affi TEMPERATURES3
For recirculating heaters with intakes at the floor level, the temperature
to be maintained in the room should be considered as the temperature of
the air entering the heater. Where outside air is introduced, the tem-
perature of the mixture must be calculated and used as the entering air
temperature to the heater. Where suspended heaters are used without
any intake boxes extending down to the floor level, a higher entering air
temperature should be used than that at which the room is to be main-
tained.
With suspended unit heaters taking air at some distance above the
floor, the temperature variation from floor to ceiling may reach as much
as 1 deg for each foot of elevation during the periods when the maximum
capacity of the heaters is required. Thus this allowance should be made
in calculating the capacity of suspended heaters. High velocity discharge
units (blower type) will maintain slightly lower temperature differences
than will low velocity units (propeller type). Unit heaters taking in
recirculated air at the floor level should maintain temperature differentials
of less than 0.5 deg per foot of elevation when the maximum capacity of
the heaters is required. This temperature difference per foot of elevation
is less than the corresponding variations for spaces heated by direct
radiation.
•Temperature Gradient Observations in a Large Heated Space, by G. L. Larson, D. W. Nelson, and
O. C. Cromer (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933. p. 243).
Tests of Three Heating Systems in an Industrial Type of Building, by G* L. Larson, D. \V. Nelson, and
John James (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 185).
439
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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440
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING. COOLING UNITS
OUTPUT OF HEATERS
It is standard practice to rate unit heaters in Btu per huur at a given
temperature of air entering the heater and at a given .-team prt^ure main-
tained in the coil. Steam at 2 Ib pressure and air entering at f »<) F are used
as the standard basis of rating1. The capacity of a heater increases as the
steam pressure increases, and decreases a^ the entering air temperature
increases. The heat capacity for any condition of steam pressure and
entering air temperature may be calculated approximately from any given
rating by the use of factors in Table 1. This table is accurate within 5
per cent.
Unit heaters are customarily rated as free delivery type units. If
outside air intakes, filters, or ducts on the discharge side are used with the
heater, proper consideration should be given to the reduction in air and
heat capacity that will result because of this added resistance.
The percentage of this reduction in capacity will depend upon the
characteristics of the heater and on the type, design, and speed of the
fans employed, so that no specific percentage of reduction can be assigned
for all heaters for a given added resistance. In general, however, disc
or propeller fan units will have a larger reduction in capacity than housed
fan units for a given added resistance, and a given heater will have a
larger reduction in capacity as the fan speed is lowered. When confronted
with this problem the ratings under the conditions expected should be
secured from the manufacturer.
DIRECTION OF DISCHARGE
Heaters may be distributed through the central portions of a room
discharging toward exposed surfaces, or may be spaced around the walls,
discharging along the walls and inward as well, especially when there are
considerable roof losses.
In general, it is better to direct the discharge from the unit heaters
in such fashion that rotational circulation of the entire room content is
set up by the system rather than to have the heaters discharge at random
and in counter-directions.
Various types and makes of unit heaters are illustrated in the Catalog
Section of this edition. Usually hot blasts of air in working zones are
objectionable, so heaters mounted on the floor should have their discharge
outlets above the head line and suspended heaters should be placed in
such manner and turned in such direction that the heated air stream will
not be objectionable in the working zone. In the interest of economy,
however, the elevation of the heater outlet and the direction of discharge
should be so arranged that the heated air shall be brought as close to
the head line as possible, yet not into the working zone. In general, the
higher the elevation of the unit, the greater the volume and velocity
required to bring the warm air down to the working zone, and conse-
quently, the lower the required temperature of the air leaving the unit.
<A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing and Rating Steam Unit Heaters (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTION'S,
Vol. 36, 1930, p. 165).
441
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
BOILER CAPACITY
The capacity of the boiler should be based on the rated capacity of the
heaters at the lowest entering air temperature that will occur, plus an
allowance for line losses. Ordinarily for recirculating heaters the lowest
entering temperature will occur at the beginning of the heating period
and is usually taken as 40 F, while for ventilators taking air from outdoors
the lowest entering temperature will be the extreme outdoor temperature
expected in the district. No greater allowance in boiler capacity beyond
the calculated heat demand need be added in order to supply unit heaters
than for any other type of system.
It is unwise to install a single unit heater as the sole load on any
boiler, particularly if the unit heater motor is started and stopped by
thermostatic control. The wide and sudden fluctuations of load that
occur under such conditions would require closer attendance to the boiler
than is usually possible in a small installation. Where oil or gas is used
to fire the boiler, it is possible by means of a pressurestat to control the
boiler, in response to this rapid fluctuation. In most cases, however, and
particularly where the boiler is coal-fired, it is advisable to use two or
more smaller heating units instead of one large unit.
Steam pressures below 5 Ib can be used with safety for recirculating
unit heaters when their coils are designed for the purpose and when
proper provision is made for returning the condensate. If ventilators are
to take in air that may be at a temperature below freezing, however, a
steam pressure of not less than 5 Ib should be maintained on the convector
or a corresponding differential in pressure between the supply and returns
be maintained by means of a vacuum.
QUIETNESS
Fan speed alone is not a measure of relative quietness of fans having
different designs and proportions. Quietness is a function of type,
diameter, blade form and other variables besides speed, and all these must
be considered. In^general for a given design, the higher the fan speed,
the greater the noise, and centrifugal fans are more quiet than disc or
propeller fans.
PIPING CONNECTIONS
Piping connections for unit heaters are similar to those for other types
of fan-blast heaters. Typical connections are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
One-pipe gravity and vapor systems are not recommended for unit heater
work. For two-pipe closed gravity return systems the return from each
unit should be fitted with a heavy-duty or blast trap, and an automatic
air valve should be connected into the return header of each unit. Pres-
sure-drop must be compensated for by elevation of the heater above the
water line of the boiler or of the receiver.
m In pump and receiver systems the air may be eliminated by individual
air valves on the heaters, or it may be carried into the returns the same as
for vacuum systems and the entire return system be free-vented to the
442
23. UNIT HEATERS. VENTIIATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
mosphere, provided all units, drip points, and radiation are properly
ipped to prevent steam entering the returns.
On vacuum or open vented systems the return from each unit should be
ted with a large capacity trap to discharge the water of condensation
id with a thermostatic air valve for eliminating the air, or with a heavy-
ity trap for handling both the condensation and the air, provided the
r finally can be eliminated at some other point in the return system.
For high pressure systems the same kind of traps may be used as with
icuum systems, except that they must be constructed for the pressure
sed. If the air is to be eliminated at the return header of the unit, a
igh pressure air valve can be used: otherwise the air may be passed with
le condensate through the high-pressure return trap, with some danger
f return pipe corrosion and the problem of its elimination at some other
oint in the system.
VACUUM BREAKER
AIR VENT VALVE
SUPPLY-*
THERMOSTATIC
TRAPS
FIG. 4. UNIT HEATER CONNECTIONS
WHERE CONDENSATION Is RETURNED
TO VACUUM PUMP OR TO AN OPEN
VENTED RECEIVER
FIG. 5. UNIT HEATER CONNECTIONS
WHERE CONDENSATION Is RETURNED
TO BOILER THROUGH WET RETURN
OTHER TYPES OF UNITS
All Electric
The foregoing discussion relates generally to units in which steam or hot
water is used as the heating medium. On rare occasions electrical
resistances are used as the heating element. These are applied only where
electric power is abundant and cheap and where other forms of fuel are
scarce and expensive. (See Chapter 40.)
Direct Fired
A recent development in gas burning equipment is the direct-fired
industrial unit heater. These heaters are of the warm-air type and are
equipped with fans which cause the air to pass over the heating surfaces
at a fairly high velocity and then direct the warm air in to the space to be
heated. As is the case with the steam-fed unit heaters, the gas-fired
appliances may be used for heating stores, shops, and warehouses. They
usually are suspended in the space to be heated and in most instances
443
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
leave the entire floor and wall area free for commercial use. Partial or
complete automatic control also may be secured on appliances of this
type. This type of heater is often used for temporary heat during
building construction or where the installation of a steam or hot water
plant is for some reason not justified. For permanent installations, it is
usually advisable to provide an exhaust duct from the gas-fired unit
heaters to remove products of combustion from the occupied space.
While this is not necessary in large open industrial plants, in smaller
closed rooms, it becomes essential.
Turbine Driven
Where high pressure steam is available it is sometimes used to drive a
steam turbine direct-connected to the unit heater. The exhaust from
this turbine, reduced in pressure, is then passed into the heating coil
where it is condensed and returned to the boiler.
INDUSTRIAL USES
In addition to their prime function of heating buildings, unit heaters
may be adapted to a number of industrial processes, such as drying
and curing, with which the use of heated air in rapid circulation with
uniform distribution is of particular advantage. They may be used for
moisture absorption, such as fog removal in dye-houses, or for the pre-
vention of condensation on ceilings or other cold surfaces of buildings in
which process moisture is given off. When such conditions are severe, it
is necessary that the heaters draw air from outside in enough volume to
provide a rapid air change and that they operate in conjunction with
ventilators or fans for exhausting the moisture-laden air. (See discussion
of condensation in Chapter 7.)
UNIT VENTILATORS 5
Unit ventilators while designed primarily for ventilation must incor-
porate controlled heating. A typical unit ventilator is illustrated in Fig.
6. They usually consist of a semi-decorative cabinet containing the
following necessary or optional parts:
1. Outside air inlet.
2. Inlet damper for closing the opening to the outside air inlet when the unit is not
in use.
3. Adhesive or dry type niters for cleaning the air (optional).
4. A heating element usually of special design and intended for low pressure steam.
5. Motor and fan assembly.
^6. Mixing chamber where warm and cold air streams are brought together. (No
mixing chamber is normally provided where sectional type convectors are used.)
7. Outdoor air inlet and recirculating air mixing damper (optional).
8. Discharge grille or diffuser.
9. Temperature control arrangement.
8A roof ventilator is sometimes termed a unit ventilator. For information on roof ventilators, see
Chapter 36.
444
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOUNO UNITS
The primary functions of a unit ventilator are:
1. To supply a given quantity of outdoor air for ventilation or to mix indoor and
outdoor air. (See A.S.H.V.E. Ventilation Sun-iiir.Ift, Chapter 45,',.
2. To warm the air to approximately the room temperature if the unit is intended for
ventilation only, or to a higher temperature if it is intended to take care of all or a part
of the heat transmission losses from the room.
3. To control the temperature of the air delivered so as to prexcnt both cold drafts
and overheating. (See Chapter 37).
4. To deliver air to the room in such a manner that proper distribution is obtained
without drafts.
5. To recirculate room air for the purpose of heatin? or promoting comfort when
ventilation is unnecessary. (Ordinances should be consulted i.
6. To perform all its functions without objectionable noise.
7. To clean the air properly.
HEATING/
ELEMENT
DAMPERS
FIG. 6. TYPICAL UNIT VENTILATOR SHOWING ONE OF MANY
ARRANGEMENTS OF DAMPERS AND HEATING COILS
SPLIT AND COMBINED SYSTEMS
In a split system the unit is used primarily for ventilation. Air is
delivered to the room at very near the room temperature, and enough
separate direct heaters are placed in the room to warm it to the desired
temperature, independently of the unit. Their principal advantage lies
in offsetting the cooling effect of window and wall surfaces long before
these can be heated to room temperature and in retaining heat for this
purpose after the ventilation is shut down.
Where the unit ventilator selected has a capacity more than sufficient
to warm the air needed to meet the ventilating requirements, a cor-
responding reduction may be made in the amount of direct heating surface
installed. The greater the amount of excess capacity of the unit, the more
efficient will be the temperature regulation of the room. ^The split
system permits the heating of the room during failure of electric current,
445
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
since the direct radiators will furnish heat, but it permits a carelc
operator to avoid operating the ventilating equipment.
A combined system employs the unit ventilator alone, its capacity beii
sufficient both for ventilation and for supplying the heat loss. Dire
heating surface is omitted altogether. It becomes necessary then that tl
fan be running whenever the room is to be heated but this also giv
assurance of ventilation, especially if automatic dampers are used in tl
air intake from out-of-doors and in the recirculating intake arranged so i
to give a certain quantity of air from the outside (commensurate wil
weather conditions) whenever the unit is operating and after the room
heated. The cost of installation of a combined system is usually less tha
that of a split system and there is less danger of overheating, but if tt
electric energy fails there will be practically no heating.
LOCATION OF UNIT
The location of the unit ventilator in a room is important. Whereve
possible it should be placed against an outside wall. It is difficult t
obtain proper air distribution if the unit is erected either on an inside wa
or in a corner of the room. Standard units discharge the air stream up
ward, but for special cases units may be installed to discharge air hori
zontally. Units may be set away from the wall or partially recessed int<
the wall to save space without materially affecting the results. The ai
inlet may enter the cabinet at the back at any point from top to bottom
VENTS6
The size and location of the vent outlet is important. In many case!
the sizes for public buildings are regulated by law, but the location of the
vents generally is left to the discretion of the engineer.
Best results have been obtained with a velocity through the venl
openings nearly equal to that at which the air is introduced into the room,
thus maintaining a slight pressure in the room. Calculated velocities ai
the vent openings of from 600 to 800 f pm produce the best diffusion results
from this system.
The cross-sectional area of the vent flue itself may be figured on the
basis of 15 sq in. of flue for each 100 cfm. Thus the vent flue area of a
flue for a room equipped with one 1200 cfm unit ventilating machine
would be 180 sq in. The area of vent flue opening from the room may be
figured on the basis of 25 sq in. per 100 cfm.
In school buildings provided with wardrobes or cloakrooms the vents
may be so located that the air shall pass through these spaces, heating and
ventilating them with air which otherwise would be passed to the outside
without being used to the best advantage. Many state codes for venti-
lation of public buildings make this arrangement mandatory.
There has been much controversy over the use of corridor ventilation
in school building practice, one group holding the view that when each
•Investigation of Air Outlets in Class Room Ventilation, by G. L. Larson, D. W. Nelson, and R. W.
Kubasta (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 463).
Air Supply to Classrooms in Relation to Vent Flue Openings, by F. C. Houghten, Carl Gutberlet, and
M. F. Lichtenfels (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 279).
446
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS. AIR CONDITIONING. COOLING UNITS
classroom has a separate vent flue there is a minimum fire risk and less
likelihood of cross-contamination, while others emphasize the economy
features of the corridor discharge and minimize the fire, contamination,
and other hazards.
CAPACITIES
Unit ventilators are available in air capacities ranging from 450scfm to
5000 cfm and with corresponding heat capacities (above that required for
ventilation purposes based upon an outside temperature of zero and an
inside temperature of 70 F) ranging from 15 Mbh to 144 Mbh (1 Mbh =
1000 Btu per hour). Some manufacturers furnish a unit with several
heating capacities for each air capacity, thus enabling the engineer to
select the unit best adapted to the heating and ventilating load. Typical
capacities are given in Table 27.
TABLE 2. TYPICAL CAPACITIES OF UNIT VENTILATORS FOR
AN ENTERING AIR TEMPERATURE OF ZERO
CUBIC FEET or
AlR PER MlNCTl
TOTAL CAPACITY IN SQUARE FEET t CAPACITY AVAILABLE FOB HE\T- '
or EQUIVALENT DIRECT HEATING i LNQ THX BOOM IK SQUAOE FELT
SURFACE (RADIATION) | or EQUIVALENT DIRECT HEATING FINAL Am TEUPERA-
I SUEPACI (RADIATION > ' TTRE (Dzo FAHB)
EDR
Mbh i EDR ! Mbh
600
285
68
95
23
105
750
350
84
115 28
105
1000
455
110
150 36 1
105
1200
565
136
190 46 :
105
1500
705
169
235
56 ,
105
If no direct heating surface (radiation) is installed, the combined
heating and ventilating requirements must be taken care of by the unit
ventilators, and the total heat to be supplied is obtained by means of the
following formulae:
When all of the air handled hy the unit is taken from the outside,
Ht - 0.24 W (ty - *o)
W =
H
(1)
(2)
(3)
^ " 0.24flP ^
where
d = density of air, pounds per cubic foot.
H - heat loss of room, Btu per hour.
JJv = heat required to warm air for ventilation, Btu per hour.
Ht - total heat requirements for both heating and ventilation, Btu per hour
= H + #v.
Q = volume of air handled by the ventilating equipment, cubic feet per minute,
i = temperature to be maintained in the room.
/0 — outside temperature.
ty = temperature of the air leaving the unit.
TA.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing and Rating Steam Unit Ventilators (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 38,' 1932, p. 25).
447
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
W = weight of air circulated, pounds per hour.
0.24 = specific heat of air at constant pressure.
From Equations 1, 2 and 3 :
Ht = H + 0.24 d 60 Q (/ - *0) (4)
Example 1 . The heat loss of a certain room is 24,000 Btu per hour, and the ventilating
requirements are 1000 cfm. If the room temperature is to be 70 F and all air is taken
from the outside at zero, what will be the total heat demand on the unit if it is required
to provide for both the heating and ventilating requirements (combined system)?
Solution. H -» 24,000; d = 0.075 Q - 1000 cfm; / = 70 F; to = 0 F.
Substituting in Equation 4:
Ht - 24,000 + 0.24 X 0.075 X 60 X 1000 (70-0) ~ 99,600 Btu
, _ 24,000
_
0.24 X 0.075 X 60 X 1000
70 « 92 2 F
When part of the air handled by the unit is taken from the room and the
remainder from the outside,
Ht = 0.24TF0 (ty - to) + 0.24 Wi (ty - 0 (5)
where
WQ = weight of air, pounds per hour taken from out-of-doors.
Wi = weight of air, pounds per hour taken from the room.
Wo - do 60 & (6)
Wi = di 60 Qi (7)
where
d0 = density of air, pounds per cubic foot at temperature fa.
di SB density of air, pounds per cubic foot at temperature /.
Qo « volume of air taken in from the outside, cubic feet per minute.
Qi = volume of air taken in from the room, cubic feet per minute.
0.24 (W0 + Wi)
Ht - H + 0.24 dQ 60 Q0 0 - *>) (»)
Equations 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 may be used in the same manner as is
illustrated above for Equations 1, 2, 3, and 4. It may be noted in Equa-
tion 9, representing the total heat requirements, that as the quantity
Qo is diminished the heat requirements for the unit diminish very
materially.
In Example 1, if the quantity of air taken in from the outside is reduced
to zero, or all of the air handled by the unit is recirculated, the total heat
requirements Ht reduce from 99,600 Btu to 24,000 Btu, or to about one
fourth. Such a unit handling one third of its air volume from the outside
and two thirds from the room would show a total heat requirement of
QQ finn _ 94. nnn
24,000 + ' Q ' = 59,200 Btu. Units designed and operated
o
448
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
on this principle show an average heat requirement and, therefore, a boiler
capacity requirement of less than 50 per cent of that required for units
taking all their air from the outside.
If all of the air is recirculated, the total heat required is the same as the
heat loss of the room, or
Ht - H « 0.24 W fty - /; (10)
If the heat loss of the room is to be taken care of by the direct heating
surface, the unit ventilators will be required to warm the air introduced
for the ventilating requirements. Therefore:
ffv - 0.24 W (ty - 0 (11)
In this case ty should be equal to or slightly higher than /. If the unit
ventilator were of such capacity as to exactly provide for the ventilating
requirements, the direct radiation would be selected on the usual basis.
However, it is necessary to employ a unit which may not exactly meet the
ventilating requirements, since standard units are usually rated in terms
of the volume of air that will be delivered at a certain temperature ty for
an initial temperature of fc. Therefore a certain amount of heat (Jffb)
may be available from the unit ventilator for heating purposes, as pre-
viously stated, and the amount of equivalent direct heating surface may,
if desired, be deducted from the amount required for heating the room.
COOLING UNITS
Cooling units as applied to industrial product conditioning and pro-
cessing are similar in construction to unit heaters except that the heat
transfer surface is supplied with refrigeration instead of with steam or hot
water. They are normally installed within the space to be served, or at
least closely adjacent thereto. Occasionally they are provided to receive
outside air in which case this air is invariably filtered or washed to prevent
any possible contamination of the product.
Cooling units are provided in two major types similar to unit heaters,
either floor mounted with housed fan, or suspended with propeller type
fans. Normally, air outlet velocities are lower than for heating, due
largely to the effect of high velocities on the product. Cooling units are
normally of the free delivery type although they occasionally are sup-
plemented with duct work to provide more careful air distribution.
Product cooling originally was accomplished by means of stationary
pipe coils. This was later supplemented with the forced fan bunker
systems in which air was passed over banks of coils. The present trend
in this field is toward a more accurate control of both temperature and
humidity, thus placing these units in the classification of complete air
conditioning units as discussed in the next^ section. However, in the
majority of these cases dry-bulb temperature is controlled separately from
the control of humidity, thus classifying these units as cooling units.
The principal field for cooling units is in cold storage plants, fur storage,
fruit packing houses, provision stores, brewery fermentation and stock
rooms, candy plants, and other industrial process work. In replacing
bunker and wall coils in meat storage plants, cooling units give distinct
449
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
advantages in compactness, lower first cost and maintenance expense,
ease of defrosting, freedom from drip and the maintenance of sanitary
conditions, as well as uniform temperature and humidity under variable
load conditions. Cooling units by means of their positive air circulation
prevent dead-air spots, frequently objectionable in this industry.
Typical cooling units are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The former indicates a
suspended type cooling unit which may be designed with or without a
moisture eliminator. If high air velocities are maintained, an eliminator
will be necessary to prevent the drops of moisture from being carried
through with the air. The condensation that occurs is collected in a drip
pan and removed from the system through a drain pipe. Fig. 8 indicates
a typical floor-mounted unit of the housed fan type. The illustration
shows a common form of distributing outlet designed to give low outlet
velocities together with a controlled distribution. In process work, it is
often important that direct air distribution does not impinge on the
FIG. 7.
"*• DRIP CONNECTION
CEILING TYPE COOLING UNIT
product. Cooling units are normally constructed of galvanized steel
or non-ferrous material in order to reduce the corrosive effect of their
constant wetted condition.
Cooling units are often called upon to operate in rooms where a tempera-
ture below freezing is maintained and low refrigerant temperatures are
required. This results in the collection of frost on the heat transfer
surface which in turn leads to a rapid loss in capacity and requires eventual
defrosting. Such defrosting is accomplished by the following methods:
1. When the room is above freezing the source of refrigeration is cut off and the
fan allowed to operate until the unit has defrosted.
2. A reversal of the refrigeration system may be provided and the so-called hot
gas defrosting method used. ^This is accomplished by reversing the flow of the hot
gas so that it is delivered directly from the compressor to the evaporator of the
cooling unit. As soon as the ice and frost has been melted, the system is again
returned to its normal cycle.
3. Where brine is ^used as a refrigerant, heated brine may be sent through the
cooler to remove the ice.
4. When the room is at very low temperatures, warm air defrosting is sometimes
used by providing for the admission and removal of warm air from outside the cooled
space.
5. The surface may be sprayed with a strong brine solution.
450
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VEHTHATORS, AIR COHDITIONIHG. COOUNO UNITS
In order to prevent the collection of frost in low temperature rooms
where high latent heat loads are present, unit coolers equipped with a
consta-nt brine spray are frequently used. These are normally of the
housed fan type similar to Fig. 9f but equipped with a pump for recircu-
latmg brine over the coil. It is, of course, necessary to strengthen the
brine at intervals to maintain a non-freezing mixture.
Ratings of cooling units may be expressed in Btu per hour, or in tons of
refrigeration and should specify the quantity, temperature and humidity
of the air entering the unit with a stipulated refrigerant temperature
SUPPLY*"'
Flo. 8. SURFACE TYPE COOLING UNIT FIG. 9. BRINE SPRAY TYPE COOLING UNIT
within the coil. When chilled water or brine is used, the rate of circu-
lation of the cooling media as well as its entering temperature must be
given.
AIR CONDITIONING UNITS
Air conditioning with unit equipment has gained in popularity during
the last few years and this type of apparatus now represents the bulk of
the production of the industry. It is to be noted that some equipment
does not fulfill all of the basic requirements of a true air conditioning unit.
True air conditioning equipment involves not only the ability to alter
temperature and humidity conditions within the conditioned space, but it
must also be able to control these conditions.
The means for accomplishing these functions are outlined herewith:
451
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Heating
The normal air conditioning unit derives its heating function from a
heating coil, usually of the non-ferrous finned tube type supplied with
either steam or hot water. Steam may be supplied directly from a self-
contained and built-in oil or gas fired unit, from a separate domestic
steam boiler, or even from an outside source of a central heating plant.
Hot water is supplied either from a separate hot water boiler or in rare
instances from a domestic water heater.
In domestic or household conditioning units, adapted from a warm-air
heater to which humidification is added, or possibly all-year-round con-
ditioning, a direct-fired air interchanger is frequently used. The source
of heat in this case may be from the combustion of coal, oil, or gas. A
wide variety of designs and structures are used. In such direct-fired
systems, the bulk and volume of the heat transfer surface is necessarily
large in proportion to the rest of the equipment.
Where electric power is low in cost, electric heat has been furnished for
air conditioning units either in the form of encased heaters, or open wire
heaters. (See Chapter 40.) Radiant electric heaters are seldom used
except as their radiant heat is absorbed by some receiving wall and there
transmitted to the air in the form of convected heat.
Another method of applying electric heat is by means of the reversed
refrigeration cycle, whereby electric energy is used to compress a re-
frigerant and to deliver the heat of compression, withdrawn from a lower
temperature source, to the conditioned space by locating the condensing
coils in the air circulation circuit of the air conditioning unit. While this
method of heating has gained wide interest, it is practical only in a limited
number of applications.
Humidifying*
A variety of methods have been used to furnish humidification in
winter to air conditioning units. The oldest and best known is by means
of a direct spray which- is used in many different ways. The simplest
system is where the spray water is furnished from a constant water source,
such as city water, and is permitted to run to waste. Under such con-
ditions, the spray may be either of the direct atomizing type where, by
means of the nozzles, the water is broken into fine particles, or of the so-
called target spray type, where a fine stream of water under pressure is
caused to impinge upon a flat surface or target. Such methods are
normally rather inefficient in the use of water.
In some units, in order to increase the humidifying capacity and to
utilize a greater portion of the spray water, the atomized spray is per-
mitted to impinge against a heated surface thereby forcing its evapora-
tion. While this is practical in some instances, there is danger of scale
formation where hard water is employed.
One of the simplest methods of humidification in winter is by means of
a direct steam spray. This is seldom used in air conditioning units for
comfort applications due to the resulting odors. In industrial appli-
cations, however, it finds frequent use. The steam is usually introduced
to the air through a perforated tube or through some type of porous
material.
452
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS. AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
If a small atomizing spray is not used in comfort conditioning units, the
evaporative pan type of humidifier is usually employed. This consists of
a container offering as much water surface as possible and equipped with
means of heating the water. This heat may he applied either electrically,
by steam, hot water, or by circulation of the water from a heated space
through the evaporating pan. Since the humidification is accomplished
by surface evaporation only, it is essential that the air stream be directed
across the surface and that the evaporating surface be large. While this
system eliminates the dusting hazard when hard water is used with a
spray system, hard water tends to scale the heating surface and results in
loss of capacity and the need for frequent cleaning.
The rate of evaporation per unit surface exposed is low, thus it fre-
quently becomes difficult to provide sufficient surface for adequate
capacity. The higher the temperature of the water, the lower the relative
humidity of the air; the greater the velocity over the surface, the greater
is the rate of humidification. The evaporative pan type of humidification
limits the water wastage and is usually supplied with water through a
float valve. Due to the collection of salts in this evaporating pan such
humidifying systems require occasional drainage and cleaning.
Other methods of humidification attempted in air conditioning units
are through the use of wetted fabrics, porous eathernware plates, or other
capillary surfaces. These methods rely upon the capillary absorption of
the moisture up from the liquid level into the portion exposed to the air.
They^have a tendency to lose their effectiveness due to the resulting
deposit of mineral salts at the evaporating surfaces thereby clogging the
pores and reducing the contact of the air with the water. Also they
frequently become foul and often support bacterial growth.
Cooling and DdHumidificaiion
Those units that employ recirculated water sprays will undoubtedly
use such sprays as their means of cooling and dehumidification by
furnishing refrigeration to the water in circulation. Occasionally where
an adequate source of cold well water is available, this may be used as a
direct spray and run to waste.
Other methods of dehumidification accomplished by direct contact
with the transfer medium are by means of the so-called adsorption and
absorption systems. (See Chapter 24.) It must be recognized that these
methods of dehumidification do not in themselves provide cooling. The
substance removes the water vapor from the air thereby heating it. This
highly dehumidified air may then be cooled either by partial rehumidi-
fication or by direct contact with a cooling medium of cold water or direct
expansion refrigerant. There are now on the market solid adsorbents
such as silica gel and activated alumina. Water solutions of the chlorides
of various inorganic elements such as calcium and lithium chloride are
the absorbents most frequently used.
Finally a common direct means of cooling and dehumidification is
through the use of ice. In such units the ice is brought into as intimate
contact as possible with the air handled. Provision is made for the
removal of the moisture as rapidly as it is formed from the melting of the
453
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ice. Ice is also used to cool water which is circulated through the sprays.
In conditioning units, the use of surface cooling is probably more
common than direct spray or other direct transfer means. The type of
surface employed may, of course, be cast or fabricated from tubes. In
present day practice finned tubes or plate fins through which tubes are
passed form the most generally used cooling surface. The detailed fabri-
cation of this surface and the arrangement of the tubes will depend
largely upon the type of refrigerant for which it is intended.
The simplest construction is where chilled water or brine is used as the
refrigerating medium. With direct expansion refrigerant it is usually
necessary to provide a special arrangement of headers so that proper
distribution of refrigerant through all the surface is obtained. In some
cases, ordinary brine coils can be used when operated as a flooded refri-
gerant system. In some units a combination of a direct spray and a
refrigerant surface is used, the spray being directed against the surface.
Such systems claim the advantage of air washing together with the
maintenance of a clean and effective cooling coil.
It should be noted that when surface coolers are used, adequate pro-
tection in the form of filters or at least lint screens are necessary to prevent
fouling of the surface from the air borne dirt. Surface not- so protected
frequently becomes completely matted with lint, grease, and similar dirt.
The sources of refrigeration used with these surface type conditioning
units are discussed in Chapter 24. However, they may be divided into
the following groups: ,
1 1. Direct expansion refrigerant in which the liquid refrigerant is evaporated
within the coils of the unit. The vapor from these coils may be recompressed. in
centrifugal, rotary, or reciprocating type compressors, and the refrigerant again
returned to the evaporator coil.
2. Indirect refrigeration by means of:
a. Cold well water.
b. Cold city water.
c. Artificial refrigerated water provided by direct expansion of refrigerant in a
water cooler, direct steam jet refrigeration, 'or by the melting of ice.
Filtering — Air Cleaning
A variety of methods are employed as a means of controlling air purity.
In unit systems where filtering alone is considered satisfactory, the degree
of filtering varies widely and in proportion to the actual needs. If the air
is chiefly recirculated with but little outside air used for ventilation,
filtering requirements are largely limited to keeping the coils in a clean
and operable condition. Thus such units are frequently furnished with
simple lint screens of low resistance and formed of moderately close
meshed wire. Where outside air is used for ventilation, more complete
filtering of dust particles is necessary and for this purpose, there are a
large number of filters available on the market. Some of these filters are
of the so-called throw-away type, constructed of inexpensive material so
that when they become dirty or clogged they may be thrown away and
replaced with new ones* ' All -of these filtering methods are described in
detail in Chapter 26.
454
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTIUITORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOUNO UNITS
Ventilation
^ Inasmuch as air purity is one of the factors that constitute true air con-
ditioning, ventilation or the introduction of outside air is an essential part
of any air conditioning unit or system. While a unit that recirculates all
its air capacity is still considered" an air conditioning unit, the better type
system provides for the introduction of a certain proportion of outdoor
air. In some instances one of several units may operate entirely on out-
side air, while in other cases only a portion of the air handled by the unit
is drawn from out-of-doors. In such cases a damper is provided either in
the unit or in the duct connections for controlling the proportion of
outdoor air.
Location of Air Conditioning Units
The characteristics of the conditioned space, the building construction,
the type of system employed, the duct connections as well as the source of
power, piping and refrigeration influence directly the location of air
conditioning units.
Primarily a unit is either of the portable or fixed type. The portable
unit is usually a simple self-contained air conditioning or cooling unit
either with or without ventilation, but includes the condensing unit. If
the condensing unit is of the air-cooled type, the unit must be located
adjacent to a window or other source of outside air. On the other hand,
if it is of the water-cooled type, its location should be convenient to
sources of water and drainage. Portable units are invariably located
within the conditioned space.
Non-portable units, or units of fixed location may or may not be located
within the occupied space. Naturally units that are located in such
spaces must be built with decorative cases in order to harmonize with the
surroundings. Such units are normally of comparatively small capacity
varying from a fraction of a ton up to as much as five or six tons. Many
conditioning units and particularly those of the larger sizes are located
externally to the occupied and conditioned space and are connected
thereto by means of delivery and return ducts. Such an arrangement
permits the location of the conditioning unit convenient to either the
sources of refrigeration or outside air. It frequently permits the use of the
basement or of space less valuable than that on the level or floor of the
occupied zone. Oftentimes the same type of unit may find application in
an exposed position for one job and in a concealed location for another.
Thus it can be seen that it is not possible to define a unit merely on the
basis of its location. Frequently conditioning units are built into the
structure or into the architectural design of a room so that they ^ are
entirely concealed except for the discharge and return grilles or openings
which are designed so as to correspond to the decorative scheme of the
room.
Air Distribution
With portable units or units exposed within the conditioned space, the
distribution is usually through grilles or louvres built entirely into the
equipment. The discharge of the air from this unit, in general, should be
455
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
upward immediately at the unit, with sufficient horizontal component to
carry it to the most remote point in the room. Such a distribution permits
the cool air to drop slowly over the entire zone and return to the inlet of
the unit below the breathing line and along the floor. The location of
doorways, air vents, and heat exposed walls should be carefully observed,
as they have a marked effect on the direction of the air flow and on its
uniformity of temperature.
With the suspended type of unit, located within the conditioned space,
sufficient outlet air velocity should be provided to give adequate induction
and mixing with the room air thereby preventing the immediate dropping
of the air stream and resulting objectionable cold drafts.
^Where the units are located outside the conditioned space, air dis-
tribution is more frequently provided through multiple outlets located in
ducts from the conditioning unit. The location of these outlets is quite
FIG. 10. FLOOR TYPE HEATING AND COOLING UNIT
critical and is influenced both by the building construction, economies of
connections and by the distribution of load.
There _are a wide variety of outlet types used, and most of these have
fixed ^deli very characteristics, thus requiring careful consideration in their
location. Some types of outlets are now available with adjustable vanes
thereby permitting some alteration in the delivery of the air stream after
installation. This frequently eliminates objectionable down drafts re-
sulting from the impingement of the air stream against posts, pillars,
lighting fixtures, and beams.
TYPES OF UNITS
Several types and designs of air conditioning units in production and
proposed are available for selection. New designs are constantly ap-
pearing^ with new improvements, greater capacities, wider range of
application and superior construction. It will be impossible to cover in
this chapter the many types of construction on the market. Illustrations
456
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING. COOLING UNITS
of current makes and models will be found in the Catalog Data Section,
A few typical designs of conditioning units will be described in detail.
An all-year floor type heating and cooling unit for an exposed location
and with direct expansion coil supplied with refrigerant from a remotely
located compressor is shown in Fig. 10. A cooling coil for use with chilled
water may be substituted for the direct expansion coil indicated. The
fans below the separate cooling and heating elements deliver the air
against deflectors thereby obtaining distribution across the face of the
element and preventing condensate from dripping down into the fans.
The plate upon which the fans are mounted serves as the drip pan from
which the water is conducted to the drain. Separate elements are used
for heating and for cooling. Thus this unit may be used automatically for
heating and cooling without manual control. When the unit is used for
summer conditioning only, the heating coil may be omitted for the
J 1 J 1 \ ! t t t t
FIG. 11. CONDITIONING UNIT WITH TOP INLET AND OUTLET
installation. The illustration indicates an evaporative type humidifier
and drain pan.
Other units are available in which a target spray humidifier is sub-
stituted for the evaporative type thereby providing a unit for summer
cooling and dehumidification, at the same time supplying humidification
in winter for application in rooms with other existing heat sources.
Still another unit is available in which the fans are mounted at the top
of the unit delivering directly through a grille and drawing their air
supply through the cooling and heating coils. Other variations in pro-
portion and details of construction of this general arrangement are
common. With this type of unit, ventilation is usually provided by
means of a separate duct connected to the inlet of the unit.
An entirely different arrangement shown in Fig. 11 places both the air
inlet and the discharge at the top of the unit. The fan at one side dis-
charges the air downward to the bottom where it turns and passes hori-
457
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
zontally through an atomizing spray air washer. The path then con-
tinues upward through eliminators, a cooling surface and a heating surface
before it leaves the unit. With steam or hot water connected to the
heating element, tempered water to the sprays and refrigerated water to
the cooling element, this unit gives controlled temperature, humidity, air
cleaning, and air movement in both summer and winter. Air washing
may be connected in summer, or in intermediate season to remove room
"-^COOLING
ELEMENT
FIG. 12. SUSPENDED PROPELLER FAN TYPE COOLING AIR CONDITIONING UNIT
WINDOW ADAPTEI
^CONDITIONING FAN
CONDENSER-AIR
ROOM-AIR FILTER
.CONDENSER SURFACE
ROTARY VAPORIZER
FIG. 13. PORTABLE SELF-CONTAINED CONDITIONING UNIT FOR COOLING
odors. Excess water is run to waste. Acoustical treatment of the housing
and outlet baffles permits installation where noise requirements are
exacting.
A common type of suspended type unit for exposed location utilizing a
propeller type fan and suitable for summer conditioning only is illustrated
in Fig. 12. Such units are equipped with either a direct expansion coil or
one for chilled water or brine circulation. The outer cabinet is commonly
of wood-grained steel or baked enamel and is insulated from the cool air
458
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING. COOI-ING UNITS
chamber to prevent external condensation. The drip from the coil is
collected in an insulated drip pan and carried to a drain. The inlet to the
unit is provided with a lint screen to protcvt I'M ogling surface. Such
units are normally used for recirculation only but may be connected for
ventilation through short full-size ducts. Similar units are available with
twin housed fans of the same general construction, although usually such
fans draw the air instead of blow it through the r;;ils.
A self-contained completely portable cooling air conditioning unit is
illustrated in Fig. 13. For the operation of this unit, it is only necessary
that it be located adjacent to a window or shaft to which air connections
can be made and to plug in the motors to a convenient light socket. In
this unit, the conditioned air enters on the side, passing through a grille,
filter, and cooling coil and is delivered vertically to the room through a
special motor and fan assembly. Refrigeration is furnished by a recipro-
HEATWG ELEMENT
FIG. 14. VERTICAL REMOTE TYPE ALL-
YEAR-ROUND CONDITIONING UNIT
FIG. 15. SPRAY TYPE AIR
CONDITIONING UNIT
eating compressor driven from a motor located in the base. This com-
pressor utilizes an air cooled condenser. Air is drawn into the base by a
fan mounted on the compressor motor, so arranged that the air passes
through the refrigeration condenser and is again discharged out through
the window connection. A novel feature of this design is that the con-
densate from the cooling coil is sprayed over the condenser surface and
there vaporized, thus eliminating the need for drain connections. One
advantage of this type of conditioning unit is that it may be removed from
the occupied space during the winter season when cooling is not needed.
Another type of portable unit for occupied space locations differs from
the former in that the compressor is water cooled and a connection to
water and drain must be provided in addition to the electric connection.
Water and drain lines are carried in a composite hose, especially built for
this purpose and connections are usually made to a nearby washbowl.
459
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In order to reduce the starting load, one model has two separate motors
brought on to the line at delayed intervals thereby decreasing the initial
line surge and reducing light flicker. These water cooled units either
eliminate or reduce the need for outdoor air connections. Due to the
necessity of water and drain connections they are not as portable as the
air cooled type.
Remotely located conditioning units vary widely in details of con-
struction. Figs. 14, 15 and 16 indicate one type built-in sections thereby
permitting interchangeability of application with a minimum change in
parts. The vertical unit shown in Fig. 14 consists of a fan section, housing
one or more fans, mounted on a coil section in which are located a heating
coil^and a cooling coil, which may be built for either direct expansion
refrigerant, chilled water, or brine. These two sections are supported on
a third or drip-pan section. The distributing duct system is attached to
the fan outlets and returned fresh air connections are made to the drip
pan. A filter box is illustrated attached to the drip-pan section. By
RETURN
FIG. 16. HORIZONTAL REMOTE TYPE ALL-YEAR-ROUND CONDITIONING UNIT
eliminating the vertical type drip pan and substituting a horizontal drip
pan, this unit is converted into a horizontal suspended type conditioning
unit for connection to duct work, both with and without filters, as shown
in Fig. 16.
A spray type conditioning unit is illustrated in Fig. 15. This spray
type unit, which is similar to the arrangement given in Fig. 14, provides
for the complete washing of the air and the cooling coil. For winter
operation the spray provides means for humidification. The units may
also be obtained with by-pass dampers as shown in Fig. 15, to provide
control of cooling in summer and humidification in winter. The spray
type unit without the cooling coil may be used for humidification and heat
control. ^ This type of air conditioning unit is used in industrial process
air conditioning as well as for comfort air conditioning.
Residential Central System Units
The previous figures have largely confined themselves to the illustration
of all-year-round or summer conditioning units for office or commercial
460
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS. AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
application. The smaller units have, of course, been applicable to
residences. There remains a field of air conditioning units primarily
adaptable to residence work. They are in general the outgrowth or
adaptation of mechanical warm air systems to conditioning, which are
covered in Chapter 20. However, the following illustrations will cover
details not included in that Chapter.
In Fig. 17 is shown a conditioning unit which may be operated in
conjunction with a hot water or steam boiler. Heat generated in the
boiler is supplied to an exchanger which raises the air temperature as
it is circulated through the unit. The connection of a cooling coil to a
| Boiler
* Check il rf--------j- *«--
vafve ! j i /''..-./an :
& (j* 'J!lT.''«'. .'
Return % J.
i j | / ran *
IIM
i ••" •*" »S4j >
i! '''j»-'*
Compressor
; __ Condenser
7 \ Motor
L-, MOON
SI fei
Uqutd recetver
FIG. 17. RESIDENTIAL CONDITIONING UNIT WITH STEAM BOILER
source of refrigeration will provide year-round air conditioning. ^
type of system is particularly adaptable to a split system in which a
portion of the residence may be conditioned in the winter and summer
while the garage, servants' quarters and less f reqently used rooms may be
provided with radiator or convector heating directly from the boiler in
the winter.
A gas-fired winter conditioning unit is illustrated in Fig. 18 which is
equipped with apparatus to filter, heat, humidify and circulate the air in
a residence. If a cooling coil is added to the arrangement this unit may
also become a year-round conditioner.
A diagram of a direct-fired fuel oil conditioning unit is given in Fig. 19.
A circulating fan forces the filtered air over a heat exchanger through
which the combustion gases from the oil burner are being directed. A
461
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
cooling section may be placed in the air inlet, with cold water, or re-
frigerant being circulated through the cooling element.
BASIS OF RATING
In the past, the unit air conditioning industry has been handicapped
by the lack of any standard method of rating. A proposed code giving
a Standard Method of Rating and Testing Air Conditioning Equipment*
has recently been prepared.
On the basis of this new code, air conditioners are to be classified
primarily as free delivery type and pressure type, where delivery will be
measured in cfm standard air at specified fan speed. Pressure type units
will specify the delivery against various total fan static pressures. Cooling
Supply air to rooms
'
FIG. 18. GAS-FIRED FURNACE CONDITIONING UNIT
capacity will be expressed in total Btu per hour and this total will be sub-
divided into sensible heat cooling effect and dehumidification or latent
f olefect* Cooling capacities will be given on entering air temperatures
ot 85 F, 50 per cent relative humidity with 40 F refrigerant temperature
for comfort conditions and 45 F, 85 per cent relative humidity with 30 F
refrigerant temperature for commercial applications.
The duty for heating surfaces will be specified in Btu per hour for 70 F
entering air temperature based on 2 lb gage steam pressure or 180 F
entering water temperature with 20 F drop. Humidification will be
specified in pounds of water evaporated per hour at 70 F and 30 per cent
relative humidity entering air conditions. The Catalog Data Section
gives ratings of current models offered by leading manufacturers.
«Loc. Cit. Note 1.
462
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING. COOUNO UNITS
METHODS OF CALCULATING CAPACITIES
The methods of calculating heating and cooling loads for conditioning
units are similar to those described under Chapters 7 and S. Certain
manufacturers have adopted simplified and approximate methods which
through experience they have found applicable to unitary equipment.
Such methods involve certain averaging approximations which are
suitable for estimating purposes but many of which require rechecking
on a more accurate basis before actual installations are made.
The greatest error in calculating cooling loads is apt to be introduced in
the failure to appreciate the magnitude of the latent heat loads and the
Smoke
-*•
connection
FIG. 19. OIL-FIRED CONDITIONING UNIT
relationship between the latent heat removal and the refrigerant tem-
perature. It is extremely important that the proper balance be obtained
between the refrigerant temperature, the conditioning unit surface and the
conditions to be maintained within the occupied space. Unsatisfactory
conditions often result through the attempt to apply units with a source
of refrigeration which gives too high a surface temperature. Such con-
ditions may be obtained when well water of too high a temperature is
used or when a direct expansion evaporator is connected to a refrigeration
compressor of inadequate size. The high refrigerant temperature even
though it may give adequate dry-bulb temperatures, due to over-size
conditioning units, will not give proper humidity control due to its
inability to furnish sufficient dehumidification.
The use of surface coolers with widely extended fins may lead to similar
results since the large ratio of extended surfaces gives an average surface
temperature considerably above the refrigerant temperature within the
tubes. All these factors must be kept in mind when making the selection
463
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
of equipment. It is furthermore vital that the calculation of a cooling
load be based on an accurate survey before the selection of the equipment
is made.
COSTS
Due to the rapid development of the air conditioning industry and the
great progress that is being made each year, it is impossible to give any
cost figures that will be of value. There are, however, certain factors
that influence the cost of unit air conditioning installations.
1. Since the cost of the total job involves material cost plus installation labor and
since through the use of unitary equipment, material costs can be kept to a minimum,
every effort should be made to simplify installation.
2. Self-contained units in the small sizes now available, probably represent the lowest
cost individual installations. They have, however, their limitations.
3. The floor type all-year-round air conditioning units for the occupied space with a
remotely controlled compressor, heating sources being either the existing heat system or
steam connections to the unit, probably afford the lowest cost all-year-round service for
most individual rooms. This is particularly true in the case of residences. With offices,
this will probably be true if the compressor can be located immediately adjacent to the
conditioned space, as for example in a closet or nearby storeroom. The expenses
increase rapidly as the distance from the unit increases.
4. For multiple rooms or offices, the remotely located unit with connecting ducts
probably represents the most economical installation. Such installations are also par-
ticularly adaptable to stores, residences and small commercial installations.
Costs of operation vary widely depending entirely upon the cost of
power and water. Water costs in the larger installations are being
materially reduced through the use of cooling towers and special types of
condensers. The normal expense of operating the cooling system is
considerably in excess of that of winter heating both as to the first cost
and as to operation. Consequently, the more rapid growth of air con-
ditioning has been along commercial lines where it has represented an
actual profitable investment resulting in increased business returns rather
than along the lines of residential comfort cooling where it still represents
a luxury in comfort.
MISCELLANEOUS UNITARY EQUIPMENT
There are a number of units available 'which were not covered in the
previous discussion that accomplish only one or two of the functions of
air conditioning.
Attic Fans
Attic fans, used during the warm months of the year to draw large
volumes of outside air through a house, offer a means of using the com-
parative coolness of outside evening and night air to bring down the
inside temperature of a house.
Because the low static pressures involved are usually less than J^ in. of
water, disc or propeller fans are generally used instead of the blower or
housed types. The fans should have quiet operating characteristics, and
464
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS. VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
they should be capable of giving about twenty air changes per hour. The
two general types of attic fan installations in common use are:
Open attic fans, in which the fan is installed in a gable or dormer and
one or more grilles are provided in the ceilings of the rooms below.
Fresh air, which enters the house through open windows, is drawn into
the attic through the grilles, and is discharged out-of-doors by the fan.
An attic stairway may be used in place of the central grille. It is
essential that the' roof and the attic walls be free from air leaks.
Boxed in fans, in which the fan is installed within the attic in a box or
housing directly over a central ceiling grille, or in a bulkhead enclosing
an attic stair. The fan may be connected by a duct system to the
grilles in individual rooms. Fresh air entering through the windows of
the rooms below is discharged into the attic space and escapes to the
outside through louvers, dormer windows, or screened openings under
the eaves.
The locations of the fan, the outlet openings, and the grilles should be
selected after consideration of the room and attic arrangement in order to
give uniform air distribution in the individual rooms served. If the outlet
for the air is not on the side away from the direction of the prevailing
wind, openings should be provided on all sides. Kitchens should be
separately ventilated because of the fire hazard, and to prevent the
spread of cooking odors.
The operating routine which will secure best results within attic Jan is
an important consideration. A typical routine might require that in the
late afternoon when the outdoor temperature begins to fall, the windows
on the first floor and the grilles in the ceiling or the attic floor should be
opened, and the second story windows should be kept closed. This will
place the principal cooling effect in the living rooms. Shortly before
bedtime, the first floor windows may be closed and those on the second
floor opened, to transfer the cooling effect to the sleeping rooms. A time
clock may shut off the fan before waking time, or the fan may be stopped
manually at a later hour.
A disadvantage arising from the passing of a great ^amount of outside
air through a house is the dust nuisance, which varies considerably in
different locations. Persons suffering from allergic diseases caused by air-
borne pollens will have their troubles increased with attic type coolers.
Some typical data on an attic fan installation in an average six-room
house of frame construction containing 14,000 cu ft and located in the
southern part of this country are:
Installation cost....
Fan data
Operating period
Power consumption.-
$75 to $400, average $250
9000 cfm average, 280 rpm if belt driven, 570 rpm if direct
connected, 500 watts input
April 15 to October 15, intermittently as weather con-
ditions demand
500 kwh per year for 8 months* operation
465
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Humidifiers
Humidifying units may be installed as part of an air conditioning unit
system, or may be installed individually to furnish additional humidity.
Fig. 20 illustrates a humidifying unit for installation in connection with a
warm air heating system, and as such it is located at the intake of the
furnace. The air passes through a lint filter, then through the fans and
finally through an air washer or spray system. Surplus spray is eliminated
and the air delivered to the air distribution system. In other cases,
similar spray type apparatus is used to deliver humidified air through
ducts to openings beneath existing radiators in a steam heated residence.
For other steam heated homes, there is a humidifying unit as illustrated
in Fig. 21. This unit is normally placed at some central location on the
MOTOR
NOZZLES.
WATER
DRAIN PAN
FIG. 20, HUMIDIFYING UNIT FOR
WARM Am FURNACE
FIG. 21. HUMIDIFYING UNIT FOR
RADIATOR HEATED HOMES
first floor, and receives the air from the floor into fans, delivering it
through a heating coil and up through a target spray atomizer. Surplus
moisture is removed by means of -an eliminator filter and the humidified
air is delivered upward through the other half of the floor grille. Since a
large percentage of ^ the heater _ capacity is transformed into the latent
heat of humidification, this unit does not eliminate any existing steam
radiation. It may also be used with hot water systems but its capacity
is considerably reduced.
AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
The controls of all unitary equipment represent a vital part of their
successful operation. This is particularly true in ;the case of conditioning
equipment where a close inter-relationship exists between the thermo-
static room controls and the refrigerating unit controls.
466
CHAPTER 23. UNIT HEATERS, VENTILATORS, AIR CONDITIONING, COOLING UNITS
The proper selection of controls and the proper adjustment is extremely
important to prevent short cycling of compressor.-. Furthermore, the
proper adjustment of direct expansion valve controls is likewise extremely
important. A detailed discussion of control problems Is contained in
Chapter 37.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Distinguish between a unit and a central type of air conditioning system.
In a unit system, the air treating apparatus conbists of factory assembled equipment
which is shipped substantially complete or in sections and is' installed without field
fabrication except for the duct connections between the equipment and the point of
delivery of the air. Usually the air treating equipment is located closely adjacent to the
conditioned space and serves a limited area. A central type of air conditioning system
localizes the air treating equipment for the entire area at one point and involves the
field assembly of a large number of individual elements. Manufacturer of the unit is
responsible for the output and performance of the unit under-rated conditions, whereas,
the contractor installing the completely unitary or central type equipment is held re-
sponsible for the complete performance of the system.
2 • Is it satisfactory to use superheated steam in unit heaters?
Superheated steam can be satisfactorily used in unit heaters provided the capacity is
based on the saturated steam temperature and not on the total temperature. If un-
usually high superheat is used, trouble may be experienced from the excessive expansion
and contraction of the heating elements.
3 0 Is it satisfactory to install one unit heater as the total load on a coal
fired holler?
Such an arrangement is impractical if the unit heater is started and stopped in keeping
with the room temperature. However, if the room temperature controls the steam pres-
sure and the unit heater is arranged to start when there is steam in the mains and to
stop when there is no steam in the mains, such an installation will be satisfactory.
4 • Will a unit heater with a slow speed fan be more quiet than one with a
high speed fan?
Quietness is a function of the type, diameter, blade form, and location of the fan, as
well as the speed. For a given fan, slower speeds mean less noise.
5 • Is it satisfactory to use steam at pressures less than atmospheric for unit
heaters or unit ventilators?
If the air inlet temperature is above freezing, steam at any pressure may be used in the
heating element of the unit heater or unit ventilator. If the inlet temperature is below
freezing the heating element should be filled with steam of at least 5 Ib pressure (or with
a positive 5 Ib pressure differential between supply and return) and the steam supply
should never be throttled or the heating element may be frozen.
6 • In general, what is the primary function of a unit ventilator?
To maintain the desired room air conditions as to temperature, air change, and air
cleanliness, without drafts regardless of variations in outdoor temperature, occupancy,
sun, heat, and wind.
7 • What are the usual working parts of a unit ventilator?
The fan and motor assembly, a set of heating elements, outdoor and indoor air dampers,
filters (optional), outlet grille, some method of varying the outlet temperature in keeping
with the room requirements, and, in the case of some unit ventilators, a method of
limiting the outlet temperature to a minimum of 60 F.
467
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
8 • Do all unit ventilators introduce a constant amount of outdoor air?
Certain types employ full recirculation except when outdoor air is obtained by throttling
the ^ steam valve on the heating element so the proportion of outdoor air to room air is
varied. This is a very economical type of unit ventilator but in some communities it
cannot be used because of existing laws which require that some fixed amount of outdoor
air be introduced whenever the room is occupied. Certain types of units are designed to
always take in a minimum quantity of air from the outside and to automatically vary
this with the weather.
9 • Why are metal surface cooling elements instead of liquid spray chambers
used in the design of most air conditioning units and cooling units?
The first cost of the surface cooling type of unit is considerably less than the cost of
spray type equipment. Further, the requirements of many industrial air conditioning
jobs and of all comfort cooling jobs where unit equipment is applicable can often be
effectively met with the use of surface type units, with a reduction in the space required
for making the installation. Where space conditions are especially limited, the cross-
sectional area of the surface cooler can be reduced because the resulting increase in
velocity over the coil surface increases the effectiveness of the surface, whereas an
increase in velocity through a liquid spray would reduce its effectiveness.
10 • Why are air conditioning units with metal cooling surfaces not desirable
for all industrial jobs?
Wherever unusually close control of relative humidity is required, a spray type unit will
prove to be more satisfactory. Relative humidity control and accurate temperature
control, however, can be maintained without difficulty with the use of metal surface
units.
11 • Why is accurate control of relative humidity with surface coolers more or
less complicated?
A surface cooler cannot add moisture to the air, and moisture is removed only when the
surface temperature is below the entering dew-point temperature. Any change in
condition of the entering air will result in a change in the dry-bulb depression of the
leaving air. This change in entering condition requires not only a readjustment of the
air volume but also a change in the coil temperature, if accurate control over the relative
humidity is to be maintained.
What in general are the characteristics of operation of a unit using surface
For a constant entering dry-bulb temperature and a constant refrigerant temperature
any increase in the entering wet-bulb temperature will produce a rise in the leaving dry-
bulb temperature with an accompanying reduction in the wet-bulb depression of the
leaving air. The sensible heat removed by the unit decreases and the latent heat in-
creases, while the total heat removed also increases. When the dry-bulb temperature of
entering air is increased, with constant refrigerant temperature and constant wet-bulb
temperature^ of entering air, the wet-bulb depression of the leaving air increases, and
since it is this depression which determines the maintained relative humidity it must be
carefully considered when selecting the unit.
Chapter 24
COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION
METHODS
Air Cooling Processes, Dehumidification Processes, Practical
Combination Methods, Compression Systems, Mechanical
Refrigeration, Steam Jet System, Condensers, Evaporators,
Refrigerant Pipe Sizes, Operating Methods, Adsorption
System, Absorption System, Evaporative Cooling, Reverse
Cycle, Ice Systems
/COOLING and dehumidifying are closely related in most air condi-
\^J tioning work. Usually a reduction in both temperature and humidi-
ty is necessary to produce comfort. Also, it should be borne in mind
that: (1) there is a reduction in moisture content whenever air is cooled
below its dew-point, and (2) there is a rise in temperature whenever
moisture is removed from air by either adsorption or absorption. Con-
sequently, cooling and dehumidification must in most cases be considered
together, not as two separate problems, although each can be accom-
plished separately.
AIR COOLING PROCESSES
In air conditioning either of two arrangements, or a combination of
them, is used to accomplish air cooling. The two arrangements are:
(a) surface cooling, where the air is passed across a cold metal surface;
and (b) spray cooling, where the air is passed through a cold liquid
spray, usually water. In either case the surface or the spray liquid must
be at a temperature sufficiently low so that heat may be removed from
the air. Suitable temperatures for the purpose are obtained by the
proper use of
1. Refrigeration; or
2. Water from a cold natural source such as a well, from melting ice, or from applica-
tion of refrigeration; or
3. Evaporative cooling.
The choice of most suitable source of cooling in any specific case will
depend on the accompanying circumstances and can be determined only
by a thorough analysis made by a competent engineer.
469
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
DEHUMIDIFICATION PROCESSES
Dehumidification may be accomplished in any of three ways, or by
a suitable combination of them:
1. By cooling the air below its dew-point temperature thus causing a part of the
moisture contained to condense and precipitate.
2. By extracting moisture by adsorption.
3. By extracting moisture by absorption.
As in the case of air cooling, the best dehumidification method can be
determined only by a complete analysis taking into account all the circum-
stances of the particular case being considered. In Chapter 2 the nature
of the adsorption and absorption processes are explained and the principal
properties of the materials used are presented.
PRACTICAL COMBINATION METHODS
As applied in actual practice these several processes frequently have to
be combined in order to produce the desired results. Any or all of the
three processes of air cooling listed may be combined with any or all of
the three dehumidifying processes to produce both air cooling and de-
humidification. One form of combination consists of a multi-stage
method whereby moisture is removed from the air and then the resulting
mixture is cooled. Stage methods are common where dehumidification
is accomplished by the use of adsorbent or absorbent substances. Another
method, and one in common use, is to combine the air cooling and de-
humidification processes into one step. This is made possible by keeping
the temperature of the surface or liquid spray used for cooling below the
dew-point temperature of the air to be conditioned. It is the method
most commonly associated with comfort air conditioning in current
practice. Still another general method consists of what may be called
a parallel-flow method wherein the cooling or dehumidification, or both,
may be performed by splitting the air stream, performing the process on
part of it and then bringing the two parts back together again.
Obviously with so many possible combinations much leeway is left to
the designer to determine what shall be done in a practical case. The
remainder of this chapter is devoted to a discussion of some of these
possible practical methods and the equipment used in applying them.
Space does not permit discussing all the great variety possible and only
those in reasonably frequent use are included here. Others will occur
readily and can be analyzed in a fashion similar to those here treated.
COMPRESSION SYSTEMS
Comfort air conditioning imposes requirements on refrigeration
equipment not usually found in general cooling applications so that
specially designed apparatus is often required to replace that normally
used for industrial cooling. Standard equipment can be adapted to meet
air conditioning requirements but extreme care must be taken to deter-
mine the limits of its applicability.
In industrial or process cooling systems the load is fairly constant,
470
CHAPTER 24. COOUNG AND DEHUMIDIFXCATION METHODS
noise in operation \* not of paramount importance, bpace is available or
relatively cheap, and the* cooling system is to a j^rcat extent separate or
independent of other mechanical equipment. By contrast, air condition-
ing for space cooling and comfort work in office buildings, theaters and
places of public assemblage requires special consideration of all these
factors. Space in public buildings is limited, noise interferes with the
occupants and the cooling equipment must be adaptable to the other
air handling apparatus. MoM: important, the load fluctuates tremen-
dously and is seasonal.
Types oi Compressors
There are many different types of compressors, a number of refrig-
erants, different types of evaporators, condensers and arrangements of
cycle and each type has its particular place in usage. Compressors
generally used are of the following types:
1. Reciprocating compressors using a volatile refrigerant.
2. Centrifugal compressors.
a. Using a volatile refrigerant.
b. Using water as a refrigerant.
3. Rotary compressors using a volatile refrigerant.
4. Steam jet or vacuum systems using water as a refrigerant.
Reciprocating compressors are generally used with any low pressure
refrigerant such as dichlorodifluoromethane, monofluorotrichlorome thane,
methyl chloride, ammonia and sulphur dioxide. These compressors have
been developed to a point where their efficiency is high and their operation
very satisfactory. Relatively low speed operation makes them desirable
for general use in large installations. Generally they are of two types,
vertical and horizontal either single or double acting. The horizontal
double-acting compressor is not generally used in air conditioning,
except when carbon dioxide is used as a refrigerant in the larger indus-
trial systems. Vertical, single acting, encased crank, reciprocating
compressors of the uniflow type with valves in the pistons have proven
reliable and are used in capacities from 1 hp to more than 100 hp. At
present reciprocating compressors are used with more refrigerants than
any other type of compression unit. When carbon dioxide is used as a
refrigerant, a reciprocating compressor is required because of the ^ ex-
tremely high pressures and the relatively high ratio of compression.
Centrifugal compressors using monofluorotrichloromethane, m'ethylene
chloride or water vapor can theoretically be used with any of the
other refrigerants, but the resulting loss in efficiency with the higher
pressure gases limits the centrifugal compressor to the refrigerants
sighted. At the present time centrifugal compressors are limited to air
conditioning systems of a minimum of about 50 tons. Centrifugal com-
pressors are usually built in two or more stages where the compression
ratio is high and their design follows closely that of any other centrifugal
equipment such as is found in general service pumps and fans.
Rotary compressors are expanding in use due to the development of
new refrigerants. These units are of four common designs, consisting
of rotating elements generally referred to as centrifugal, eccentric, gear
and blade types. The rotation of the shafts and blades traps the refrig-
471
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
erant vapor between the moving elements and the case and delivers it
to the condenser at the required pressure. The rolling together of the
impellers as in the case of the gear compressor prevents the return of the
refrigerant vapor to the low side of the system.
Steam jet compressors which are particularly adapted to large tonnage
installations are simple, compact, have no moving parts and produce
practically no vibration. However, they are not economical for water
temperatures much below 40 F or where the cost of generating steam is
higher than the cost of operation with other prime movers.
MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
While the mechanical refrigeration systems differ in the methods used
for compression of the refrigerant vapor, they are fundamentally similar.
Heat of Compression
Added to Gas
Low Pressure Saturated Gas
High Pressure Superheated Gas
Refrigerant by
Substance, Cooled
Cold Out
^ N^Expansion Valve
for Reducing Pressure
Hot Out
High Pressure Saturated Liquid
FIG. 1. MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Refrigerant vapor usually saturated or slightly superheated, is drawn into
the compressor^ diagrammed in Fig. 1. It is then compressed and dis-
charged at a higher pressure to a condenser. The vapor is condensed
as it contacts a heat transfer surface over which is flowing a cooling
medium such as water, air or a combination of the two. The liquid
refrigerant flows to the evaporator through an expansion valve which
reduces its pressure and regulates its flow. In the evaporator the refrig-
erant absorbs heat from the medium which is to be cooled. When this
medium is water or brine, the evaporator is known as a water or brine
cooler and the refrigeration system, if used for air cooling, is known as
an indirect system. When the medium cooled is air, the evaporator is
known as a direct expansion cooler and the system is known as a direct
expansion system.
Fundamentally, the function of the system is to absorb heat at one
temperature and pump it to a higher temperature, where it may be re-
moved by an available cooling medium. In order to conserve refrigerant,
virtually all refrigeration systems are completely closed and the same
refrigerant is recirculated.
472
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMXDIFICATION METHODS
Theoretical Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle
The complete mechanical refrigeration cycle may Ix* illustrated on the
temperature-entropy diagram, and also on the procure- volume diagram
both of which are shown" in Fig. 2.
Considering the theoretical cycle, saturated vapor is drawn into the
compressor at a and compressed at constant entropy (adiabaticallyji and
then delivered to the condenser at b. Condensation occurs at constant
temperature T2 from b to c with a contraction from the vapor to the
liquid volume. The line cd represents cooling from the temperature of
the condenser to that of the evaporator by an external cooling means.
At the same time, the pressure is lowered to Pj. Evaporation then occurs
from d to a at temperature TiT completing the work cycle abcda. Since no
external means of cooling the refrigerant liquid is normally available, the
,c P?
120
r
5 t
•lOOjl
s
£
60
v\
12C
80
a ai
Too
~U* i^ !iT"
ENTROPY
J20
SPECIFIC VOLUME, CU FT PER LB
FIG. 2. THEORETICAL DICHLORODIFLUCROMETHANE (P^ CYCLES
cooling is generally accomplished by evaporation of a portion of the
refrigerant. Since the work of expansion is usually used up as friction in
the expansion valve, this process is assumed to be carried on at constant
total heat, as represented by the line ce on the temperature-entropy
diagram. Thus tie refrigerating effect is represented by an area eagfe.
While the normal theoretical cycle starts with saturated vapor, operation
is common at a condition of superheated vapor (as at Oi). Moreover,
expansion may start either with a mixture of liquid and vapor or with a
sub-cooled liquid, as at £1, with expansion to e\. It is obvious that this
latter is desirable as it increases the refrigerating effect. Area aJwdaai
represents the work of such a superheated cycle, while the area ei<hgif&
represents the refrigerating effect of the cycle with superheated vapor
and sub-cooled refrigerant liquid.
It will be noted on the pressure-volume diagram the volume of the
saturated liquid is indicated by a dotted line close to and parallel to the
ordinate.
In the discussions in this chapter a slight error is introduced by not
including all of the work of pumping the liquid from the low to the high
473
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
pressure. This occurs because the liquid line is not a line of equal pressure
but of saturation pressures. The error in work per pound of refrigerant
figured from total heats, which should be added to the indicated figures is
roughly the specific volume of the liquid at the lower pressure and tem-
perature multiplied by the pressure difference in appropriate units. This
error may become of some importance in calculations involving carbon
dioxide or in problems involving the liquid of any of the refrigerants, as in
figuring expansion valve orifices.
Theoretical Work per Pound
The temperature-entropy and pressure-volume diagrams are based on
one pound of the refrigerant. Likewise, the theoretical work and the
refrigerating effects are conveniently based on a pound of refrigerant. The
compression work per pound may be found by several methods.
The temperature-entropy method starts with state point a. Since the
quality of a is known, the heat content of the vapor Ha is known, and also
the entropy 5a. Since point b lies near the saturation curve it is customary
to assume 5a = Sb and with T% given, J2b can be determined. If W =
work in foot-pounds per pound of refrigerant, then
W = (Hi - #a) X 778 (1)
The pressure- volume method starts with state point a, whose pressure
and specific volume are known. The work of compression is the adiabatic
work of compression from PI to PS, plus the work of expelling the vapor
at constant pressure PS minus the external work of evaporation of the
vapor to volume FI at pressure PI.
(2)
It is frequently helpful to think of the compression of the vapor in
terms of head. The head may be likened to a vertical column of vapor in
which is located the vapor to be compressed. The compression occurs
when the vapor is moved down from a level corresponding to PI to a new
level corresponding to P^ in equilibrium with the surrounding vapor. If
this process is carried on isentropically, the result will be the same as
indicated previously. Then if h is the head in feet,
W = h (3)
This relationship may easily be seen from the fact that a small difference
of head dh divided by the specific volume of the vapor V is equal to the
increment of pressure difference dP.
Head is very useful in considering the performance of centrifugal com-
pressors, which merely substitute a centrifugal for the gravity head. It
is also useful in considering problems of fluid flow. In' these problems,
the head per degree can be obtained either by direct calculation or
approximately by dividing the total head by the temperature difference
TZ — TI. The velocity head loss can then be calculated in degrees, using
the customary formula V*~2gh.
474
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMioiriCATiow METHODS
Coefficient of Performance
The coefficient of performance of a refrigeration system is the ratio of
the refrigerating effect to the work of compression, both expressed in the
same units.
The ideal or Carnot coefficient of performance depends upon the tem-
peratures Ti and Tz in much the same way as the ideal ^efficiency of a
steam engine depends upon its working temperature, with an inverse
relationship.
I deal C. of P. « -^-"S,- '5;
Tz — Ti
Evidently the smaller the compression range, the less power will be
required to produce a given refrigerating effect.
The theoretical coefficient of performance of actual refrigerants is
always less than the ideal due to the tendency of most refrigerants to
superheat when compressed, and due to the heat of the liquid which must
be removed. The cycle efficiency is the theoretical C. of P. divided by
the ideal for the same temperatures. The cycle efficiency usually changes
as the compression temperatures change.
Practical Cycle
Fig. 3 illustrates the pressure-volume and temperature-entropy dia-
grams for an actual cycle. These diagrams are based upon the com-
pressor receiving vapor superheated and upon sub-cooling of the liquid
going to the evaporator. The theoretical cycle is aibiccie&i. However,
the vapor during compression actually follows line ai&2 due to superheating
as a result of the inefficient work of compression. The theoretical work of
compression is aifacdai. Added to this is the area b«bigjiibz on the tem-
perature-entropy diagram which represents the inefficient work of com-
pression (assuming no compressor heat losses). The sum of^ these areas
represents the total work of the compressor per pound of refrigerant, and
the ratio of theoretical cycle work to the actual work represents the over-
all efficiency. It should be noted that area ai&2&iai is considered as part
475
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
of the inefficient work and is commonly termed the superheat loss. The
refrigerating effect per pound is the same for the practical as for the
theoretical cycle, working with the same sub-cooling of liquid and super-
heating of vapor, that is, area e&igtfiei.
Sources of loss which are usually recognized as reflected by the overall
efficiency referring particularly to reciprocating and rotary systems, are
as follows :
1. The superheat loss.
2. A pressure loss to and from the cylinder of the compressor. (The line pressure
drop between the compressor and the evaporator and condenser, respectively, is usually
taken into account separately in the design of the refrigeration system.)
3. Leakage loss through valves and past pistons is quite small in most compressors.
4. With an oil soluble refrigerant, there may be an absorption loss due to absorption
and 're-evaporation of refrigerant in the oil of the cylinder.
5. Mechanical losses are always present and are usually a large part of the total.
SPECIFIC VOLUME, CU FT PER LB
FIG. 3. PRACTICAL DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE (Fi2) CYCLES
Reciprocating and rotary compressors always take in less vapor than
that which corresponds to the displacement. The overall volumetric
efficiency is the ratio of the suction vapor volume to the piston displace-
ment. On reciprocating compressors part of the loss is the re-expanded
volume, at suction pressure, of the vapor which was in the clearance
volume. This is expressed by the following equation :
Volumetric Efficiency = 1 - ~- X (^jr) * - 1
(6)
vc = clearance volume.
Vd = cylinder displacement volume,
The balance of the overall volumetric efficiency is known as the super-
heat volumetric efficiency even though it includes some other sources of
capacity loss.
476
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMZDIFICATION METHODS
The mechanical efficiency of a reciprocating and rotary compressor
must be multiplied by the superheat volumetric efficiency to give the
overall efficiency of the compressor.
Eff.overaii - ^Tgj—^ / Mech. Eff. - Sujjcr. Vol. Ef!. X Mech. Eff. (7}
Normally, the volumetric efficiency of a ronipre&sor varies with the
ratio of compression, while the mechanical efficiency remains virtually
fixed. Good standard practices for dirhlorridifluoromethanc compressors
are:
Low comp. ratio * 2.3 to 1 High comp. ratio « 5 to I
w°!' S5'reexD' 94 to 90 per cent SS to 92 per cent
v- i &5*sup<tr* 75 to ^ Per cent "3 to 77 P61" cent
y? .^overall 70 to SI per cent ti4 to 71 per cent
Mech. Eff. 75 to So per cent 75 to 85 per cent
These values are for one ton or larger compressors. Part of the dif-
ference expresses the change with capacity. With other refrigerants and
other types of compressors there will be some further variation.
STEAM JET SYSTEM
The steam jet type of compressor, under certain circumstances, is
desirable for use in air conditioning. The power used for compressing
the refrigerant is steam, taken directly from the boiler, thus eliminating
the mechanical losses of manufacturing electric current. As the com-
pression ratio between the evaporator and condenser under normal
circumstances is large, the mechanical efficiencies of the equipment are
somewhat lower than those of the positive mechanical type of compressor;
also the condensing water requirements are considerably greater, as
both the refrigerant and the impelling steam must be condensed.
The steam jet system functions on the principle that water under high
vacuum will vaporize at low temperatures, and steam ejectors of the type
commonly used in power plants for various processes will produce the
necessary low absolute pressure to cause evaporation of the water.
A diagrammatic representation of a typical steam ejector water cooling
system is shown in Fig. 4. The water to be cooled enters the evaporator
and is cooled to a temperature corresponding to the vacuum maintained.
Because of the high vacuum, a small amount of the water introduced in
the evaporator is flashed into steam, and as this requires heat and the
only source of heat is the rest of the water in the evaporator tank, this
other water is almost instantly cooled to a temperature corresponding
to the boiling point, determined by the vacuum maintained. The
amount of water flashed into steam is a small percentage of the total
water circulated through the evaporator, amounting to approximately
11 Ib per hour per ton of refrigeration developed. The remainder of
the water at the desired low temperature is pumped out of the evaporator
and used at the point where it is required.
The ejector compresses the vapor which has been flashed in the
evaporator, plus any entrained air taken out of the water circulated, to a
somewhat higher absolute pressure, and the vapor and air mix with the
impelling steam on the discharge side of the jet. The total mixture of
477
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
entrained air, evaporated water, and impelling steam is discharged into a
surface condenser at a pressure which permits the available condensing
medium to condense it. The resulting condensate is removed from the
condenser by a small pump, from which it can be discharged to the sewer
-^El EVAPORATOR
CHILLED WATER DISCHARGE
FIG. 4. STEAM EJECTOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
400
FIG. 5. STEAM EJECTOR TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
or returned to the system in the form of make-up water, or part of it may
be returned to the boiler feed pump.
The slight amount of air which may be entrained in the cooled water is
removed by a small secondary ejector which raises the pressure sufficiently
so that the air can be discharged to the atmosphere. A small secondary
condenser, of course, is necessary to condense the steam used in the
secondary jet.
The performance of the steam ejector may be studied theoretically
by tie use of the temperature-entropy diagram, Fig. 5. Unlike its usual
478
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDXFICATIOJ* METHODS
application, however, the amount of working fluid is different for one
portion of the cycle than for the other. Dry saturated steam under high
pressure, for example 100 lb per square inch gage, at a, is expanded
through the nozzle of the steam ejector. With 100 per <:un efficiency, the
expansion would occur along irentropic line ab. Actually, however, most
nozzles are only about 90 per cent efficient, the real expansion being along
the line ab\. Since the exact path of the line ab\ is not known, the work
area is normally assumed by using the i.sen tropic giving a w< >rk area abgea.
The velocity at the mouth of the nozzle may be determined in the usual
manner using this area and the velocity coefficient of the nozzle.
At the evaporator pressure or slightly below, the vapor from the nozzle
mixes with virtually dry saturated vapor from the evaporator. An impact
loss also occurs at this point due to the mixture of vapors at different
velocities^ This results in bringing the state point of the mixture to c.
Compression then occurs along the line cd, the work of compression per
pound being cdfgc. In computing the work area, however, the point c
is not actually known. Therefore, the work area cidfgci is used in express-
ing the efficiency of the ejector, the line c\d being an isentropic. The
losses are expressed by nozzle efficiency', impact loss and diffuser efficiency.
The work of compression, however, is performed on the mass of the
mixture. Thus, the available work is reduced in proportion to :
*l* primary
-W mixture
The impact loss is commonly determined from the formula:
Af J "primary ~f~ Afl secondary = .VI mixture &.>
Common efficiencies for commercial ejectors are: nozzle efficiency
90 per cent, diffuser efficiency 60 to 70 per cent. Customary steam rates
in pounds per ton are approximately as follows:
Evaporator temp. 50 F Steam press. 100 lb per sq in. Stfam press. 12 lb per sq in.
Condenser temp. 105 F Steam rate 30 lb per hour JXT tun Steam rate 45 lb per In iur per tan
Evaporator temp. 40 F Steam press. 100 lb per s 4 in. Steam press. 12 lb per SQ in.
Condenser temp. 105 F Steam rate 40 lb per hour per ton Steam rate 70 lb per hour per ton
CENTRIFUGAL VAPOR VACUUM SYSTEMS
The centrifugal vapor vacuum system functions on the same general
principle as the steam jet system, except that a centrifugal evacuator is
used to produce the low absolute pressure instead of the velocity of the
steam through a jet. Less condenser water is required and a vacuum pump
is employed instead of a steam jet purge.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSION SYSTEMS
The different types of compression systems have quite different
characteristics of capacity and power with varying evaporator tempera-
ture and with varying condenser temperature, as will be seen from curves
in Figs. 6 and 7.
The capacity of the reciprocating and rotary compressor varies slowly
with a change of evaporator temperature, and the variance of power
479
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
requirements, in the air conditioning range of operation, is small for a
change of evaporator temperature. On the other hand, the capacity and
power of the centrifugal machine vary rapidly, and the capacity of the
steam ejector also varies considerably. Thus, both these latter types tend
to be more nearly self -regulating than the reciprocating and rotary com-
pression type. On the other hand, the operating range of the latter near
standard capacity is superior. Although the capacity of the reciprocating
and rotary compressor is little affected by the condenser temperature,
the power of the compressor is greatly affected, while the reverse is true
30
50
55
35 40 45
EVAPORATOR TEMPERATURE, F
FIG. 6. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
MACHINES AT CONSTANT SPEED
for the centrifugal compressor. As previously indicated, the condenser
temperature has no effect on the capacity of the steam ejector type of
compressor until a certain point is reached, beyond which the capacity is
zero. The steam consumption for the performance characteristic curves
shown in Figs. 6 and 7 remains constant for all evaporator and condenser
temperatures.
Steam jet refrigeration requires from 3 to 10 times as much condenser
water as other types of mechanical refrigeration, but its capacity is not
effected by condensing water temperature as long as the water does not
greatly exceed 100 F. Consequently, steam jet systems are well suited
to those applications where condensing water is cheap, or where con-
480
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION METHODS
densing water is rather high in temperature. From Fig. 0 it is evident
that steam jet refrigeration is better suited for use with evaporator
temperatures above rather than below 40 F.
CONDENSERS
Condensers used in connection with refrigerating equipment for ab-
sorbing the work of compression are of three general designs: (1) au%
(2) water, and (3) evaporative.
Air Cooled
Air cooled condensers are seldom used for capacities above 3 tons of
refrigeration, unless an adequate water supply is extremely difficult to
120
85
"90 95 100 105
CONDENSER TEMPERATURE, f
FIG 7 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
" " MACHINES AT CONSTANT SPEED
obtain, as for instance in railway air conditioning. Even on fractional
tonnage installations, air is used as the condensing medium only where
wateris expensive or where simplicity of installation warrants the higher
condensing pressure, and consequent higher power costs than can be
obtained using water as the condensing medium.
The conventional air cooled condenser consists of an extended surface
coil across which air is blown by a fan The hot refrigerant gas enters the
coil at the top and as it is condensed flows to a receiver located below the
condenser. Air cooled condensers should always be located m a well
ventilated space so that the heated air may escape and be replaced by
cooler air.
481
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The principal disadvantages to air cooled condensers are the power
required to move the air and the reduction of capacity on hot days. This
loss of capacity due to high condensing pressures on warm- days requires
that equipment of reduced capacity be selected to meet the peak load.
Thus, at normal loads the equipment is oversized.
Water Cooled
Water cooled condensers are usually of the double pipe type or the
shell and tube type. Double pipe condensers are arranged so that water
passes through the inner of two concentric pipes, and refrigeration
circulates through the annular space in the outer pipe. Where possible,
there should be counter-flow of the refrigerant and the condensing water
to maintain maximum temperature differences.
The amount and temperature of the condensing water determine the
condensing temperature and pressure, and indirectly the power required
for compression. It is, therefore, necessary to determine a balance so
that the quantity of water insures economical compressor operation.
Because there is a decided tendency to conserve the water in city mains
and because most large cities are restricting the use of water for air
conditioning and refrigeration equipment, it is often necessary to install
cooling towers or evaporative condensers. Cooling towers, unfortunately,
produce the warmest condensing water at the time when the load on the
system is greatest, so that the refrigeration equipment must be designed
to meet not only the maximum load at normal conditions, but also the
maximum load at abnormal condensing water temperatures. If properly
designed, this makes little difference in the efficiency of operation through-
put the year except at those times when the condensing water temperature
is highest. As this occurs only for 5 per cent of the entire cooling period
it can be disregarded as a factor in establishing yearly operating costs.
The cooling tower has a certain advantage over the use of water from
the city mains in that the temperature of the condensing water varies
directly with the outdoor temperature and, as pointed out, the refrigera-
tion load also varies with this temperature. Certain economies are pos-
sible when a cooling tower is used which cannot be achieved by the use of
condensing water from city mains, even where the city water temperature
is extremely low. Normally, the lowest city water temperature met
during the summer months is from 65 to 70 F. This temperature range
takes place for the entire cooling period, regardless of the outdoor tempera-
tures. _ With the cooling tower, the temperature of the condensing water
may rise to 80 or 85 F under maximum conditions, but under less than
maximum conditions the temperature of the water leaving the cooling
tower drops considerably, and it has been established that 50 per cent
of the time the outdoor wet-bulb temperature varies from 60 to 70 F
and the cooling tower water, for the same periods, varies from 65 to 75 F.
When the outdoor wet-bulb temperature drops below 60 F, which occurs
approximately 30 per cent of the time, the condensing water temperature
is still lower. The cost of water used for condensing is negligible, as the
only water required is that used to make up the loss by evaporation in
the cooling tower itself. Refer to the section on cooling towers in Chapter
25.
482
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
ticularly ^ those used in^ buffing and polishing, are connected by short
branch pipes to the main duct which renders proportioning impractical.
Construction
The ducts leading from the hoods to the exhaust fan should be con-
structed of sheet metal not lighter than is shown In Table 4. The piping
should be free from dents, fins and projections on which refuse might
catch.
All permanent circular joints should be lap-jointed, riveted and sol-
dered, and all longitudinal joints either grooved and locked or riveted
and soldered. Circular laps should be in the direction of the flow, and
piping installed out-of-doors should not have the longitudinal laps at the
bottom. Every change in pipe size should be made with an eccentric
taper flat on the bottom, the taper to be at least 5 in. long for each inch
change in diameter. All pipes passing through roofs should be equipped
with collars so arranged as to prevent water leaking into the building.
The main trunks and branch pipes should be as short and straight as
possible, strongly supported, and with the dead ends capped to permit
inspection and cleaning. All branch pipes should join the main at an
TABLE 4. GAGE OF SHEET METAL TO BE USED FOR VARIOUS DUCT DIAMETERS
DIAMETEB OF DUCT
GAGS of METAL
8 in. or less
24
22
20
18
9 to 18 in
19 to 25 in.
26 in. or more
acute angle, the junction being at the side or top and never at the bottom
of the main. Branch pipes should not join the main pipes at points where
the material from one branch would tend to enter the branch on the
opposite side of the main.
Cleanout openings having suitable covers should be placed in the main
and branch pipes so that every part of the system can be easily reached in
case the system clogs. Either a large deanout door should be placed
in the main suction pipe near the fan inlet, or a detachable section of
pipe, held in place by lug bands, may be provided.
Elbows should be made at least two gages heavier than straight pipe
of the same diameter, the better to enable them to withstand the addi-
tional wear caused by changing the direction of flow. They should pref-
erably have a throat radius of at least one and one-half times the diameter
of the pipe.
Every pipe should be kept open and unobstructed throughout its entire
length, and no fixed screen should be placed in it, although the use of
a trap at the junction of the hood and branch pipe is permissible, provided
it is not allowed to fill up completely.
The passing of pipes through fire-walls should be avoided wherever
possible, and sweep-up connections should be so arranged that foreign
material cannot be easily introduced into them.
483
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
with the cooling coils. Another common and efficient method of cooling
spray water is to use a Baudelot type of heat^ absorber where the water
flows over direct expansion coils at a rate sufficiently high to give efficient
heat transfer from water to refrigerant.
Another type of spray water cooler is the shell and tube heat exchanger
in which the refrigerant is expanded into a shell enclosing the tubes
through which the water flows. The velocity of the water in the tubes
affects the rate of heat transfer, and as the refrigerant is in the shell com-
pletely surrounding the tubes at all times, good contact and a high rate of
heat transfer are insured. The disadvantage of such a system is that with
the falling off of load on the compressor the suction temperature or the
temperature in the evaporator drops and there is a possibility of freezing
the water in the tubes, which, of course, might split the tubes and allow
the refrigerant to escape into the water passage. This danger can be
eliminated by automatic safety devices.
Another system of cooling spray water is to submerge coils in the spray
collecting tank, or in a separate tank used for storage. The heat trans-
mission through the walls of the coils, however, is low and a great deal
more surface is required than for any other type of cooler. However, with
large storage tanks this type of cooling can be utilized to advantage.
When direct cooling of air is employed, the refrigerant is inside the coil
and the air passes over it. Cooling depends upon convection and con-
duction for removing the heat from the air. The type of coil used can be
either smooth or finned, the finned coil being more economical in space
requirement than the smooth coil. The fins, however, must be far enough
apart so as not to retain the moisture which condenses out of the air.
The indirect cooler, where brine is cooled by the refrigerant and the
resulting cold brine is used to cool either air or water, introduces several
other considerations. It is not the most economical from a power con-
sumption standpoint, as it is necessary to cool the brine to a temperature
sufficiently low so that there is an appreciable difference between the
average brine temperature and that of the substance being cooled. This
requires that the temperature of the refrigerant must be still lower, and
consequently the amount of power required to produce a given amount of
refrigeration increases due to the higher compression ratio, but there are
other considerations which make such a system desirable. In the first
place, where a toxic refrigerant is undesirable or cannot be used, due to
fire or other risks especially in densely populated areas, the brine can be
cooled in an isolated room or building and then be circulated through the
air conditioning equipment in perfect safety because it is used to cool the
water or air, without any possibility of direct contact between the air and
refrigerant.
REFRIGERANT PIPE SIZES
The selection of proper pipe sizes and factional pressure losses varies
with the installation and the capacity of the system. Generally the
suction piping should be selected so that the pressure loss is between 2
and 3 Ib per square inch. The pressure drop in liquid lines should be
maintained so as to permit no vaporization in the pipes with limiting
pressure drops not to exceed 5 Ib per square inch. Hot or discharge gas
484
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFZCATION METHODS
lines should be limited to approximately 4 !5» p<\~ square inch pressure
drop.
For installations involving piping connections between compressor?
and evaporative or other remote condensers, pressure drops for discharge
or hot gas lines may be referred to in Table 1 . Pressure losses in liquid
refrigerant lines of various sizes and capacities are given in Table 2,
Pressure drops of suction refrigerant pipe lines at varying capacities
and refrigerant temperatures may be referred to in Table 3. All tables
are for 100 ft of pipe, including an average number of fittings, and for
other lengths the losses are proportionate. Allowances should be con-
sidered for drops through control and regulating valves which must be
added to the other pipe losses to determine the total drop. All copper
pipe referred to in these tables are of type L wall thickness and are
designated by outside diameter.
OPERATING METHODS
There are various methods of designing and operating air conditioning
systems to obtain economical operation. Peak outside conditions
seldom exist for periods of greater than 3 hr. On many installations
there is a peak internal load which may or may not coincide with the
peak outside conditions. Thus, each application must be carefully
analyzed by the engineer, and the proper equipment installed to satisfy
the requirements. Adequate automatic controls should be installed
for any system selected.
Where there are a number of small rooms to be conditioned, as for
example, a group of hotel bedrooms where the load varies with occupancy
and exposure, it may be best to employ individual room units, each
with its own control. These individual units may be of the self-contained
type (condensing unit, evaporator, fan and controls all in one cabinet)
or of the remote type with the condensing units located outside of the
room. In some cases it is good practice to use one large condensing unit
to serve a group of room evaporator units. Where this is done, the
condensing unit must have some type of control which will prevent
freezing evaporator temperatures when only a portion of the evaporators
are in use. This can be accomplished by means of a back pressure regu-
lating valve which maintains the evaporator pressure at a safe limit,
but allows the crank case pressure to fall. Other methods of accomplish-
ing the same result are the use of a variable speed compressor or the use
of a partial by-pass from the high side to the low side of the compressor.
Any of these three methods of lowering the condensing unit capacity
drop the operating cost at the reduced loads, but the operating cost per
ton is higher.
Central Distribution Systems
On air conditioning systems using duct distribution, the same general
types of control are employed to meet the varying load conditions, i.e.
(1) the system may consist of several condensing units and evaporators
which are cut in or out, depending upon the demand, or (2) condensing
unit capacity may be reduced by using back pressure regulating valves,
by-pass valves, or variable speed compressors.
485
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1.
PRESSURE LOSSES IN DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE DISCHARGE
OR HOT GAS LiNESa
PRESSURE DROP IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH PER 100
CAPACITY
BTU PER HOUR
LINE SIZES, INCHES
*/s
X
H
1?8
m
iy&
m
2H
3H
3H
10,000
15,000
20,000
2.3
4.9
8.5
1.0
2.0
3.4
0.6
1.0
1.7
0.6
25,000
30,000
40,000
5.3
7.5
2.6
3.6
6.4
0.9
1.2
2.1
0.5
0.7
50,000
60,000
70,000
9.8
3.1
4.4
6.0
1.0
1.3
1.9
0.5
0.7
0.9
80,000
90,000
100,000
8.0
10.2
2.5
3.1
3.8
1.1
1.4
1.7
0.5
125,000
150,000
175,000
6.0
8.5
11.6
2.6
3.8
5.1
0.7
1.0
1.3
200,000
250,000
300,000
6.7
10.4
1.7
2.6
3.7
0.6
0.9
1.2
0.5
400,000
500,000
600,000
6.7
10.5
2.2
3.5
5.0
0.9
1.5
2.1
0.7
1.0
800,000
1,000,000
1,250,000
9.0
3.8
5.8
9.5
1.8
2.9
4.4
1,500,000
2,000,000
6.4
11.3
aSoft annealed copper tubing up to and including
outside diameter and larger.
in. outside diameter. Hard copper pipe 14 in.
^Length of tubing includes the average number of fittings.
Another method of providing for economy of operation is to have
storage capacity which can be utilized during the peak period. The
refrigerating system can be operated for a longer period at maximum
efficiency with tanks to store cold water or brine for supplementing the
actual output of the refrigerating equipment. However, storage tanks
require space and extra apparatus, which increase the cost of the entire
system, and further, it is difficult to determine the exact size of the
compressor because of the other variables which enter the problem.
Depending upon the availability of storage space, the compressor may be
designed for any reasonable percentage of the maximum load. On this
basis of selection, the smaller the compressor, the larger the storage
space, and vice versa.
486
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION METHODS
TABLE 2. PRESM-ISF, LO^KS IN Di* ui.«jiu>i>n i.rMj:m
LiQrii) i<i:FR!fc»rh,\N7 LIM >
CAPACITY
BTU PEII Hora
100,
125,
150,
175,
200,
000
000
000
000
000
0
0
1
; i
2
.6
.9
.3
.s
.3
0.
0
225,
250,
275,
300,
000
000
000
000
; 2
3
! !
.9
.6
.3
.1
U.
1.
! i.
: 1.
8
0
2
4
325,
350,
375,
400,
000
000
000
000
5
6
I
9
.9
.9
.9
.0
i 1.
; i.
7
! 2."
6
$
1
3
0
.8
450,
500,
550,
000
000
000
! 2.
' 3.
4.
9
! ;
1
1
1
.0
.3
.5
0
t
600,
700,
800,
000
000
000
5.
6.
! 8.
i
0
7
7
1
2
3
.8
.4
.1
0
! 1
S
1
4
1
1
900,
,000,
,200,
000
000
000
1
i
3
4
6
.9
. t
.7
1
2
3
7
1
0
1
1
1
,400,
,600,
,800,
000
000
000
I
9
.0
4
5
6
0
1
3
2
2
,000,
,200,
000
000
!
,
7
i 9
9
2
aLength of tubing includes the average number of fittings.
There is a further method of controlling the compressor output which
is particularly adaptable to the centrifugal type of machine. This is
accomplished by varying the amount of condensing water used with the
fluctuation in load demand. Because of the characteristics of the cen-
trifugal type of apparatus, as the condensing water quantity is reduced
and the condensing temperature consequently raised, the discharge
pressure of the centrifugal machine rises correspondingly and the horse-
power input to the machine drops proportionately. While this reduces
the total power input to the machine, it does not necessarily reduce the
power input per ton of refrigeration developed, as the power input does
not drop with a rising discharge pressure as fast as the refrigerating
effect is reduced.
487
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. PRESSURE LOSSES IN DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE
SUCTION REFRIGERANT LINES
COPPER PIPE
ACTUAL O.D.
INCHES
CAPACTTT
BTTJ PER HOUR
PRESSURE DROP IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH PER 100 FT&
REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE DEG F
-10
0
10
20
30
40
so
Ji
2,000
4,000
6,000
0.3
1.3
2.8
0.3
1.0
2.2
0.2
0.8
1.8
0.2
0.7
1.5
0.2
0.6
1.2
0.1
0.5
1.0
0.1
0.4
0.9
8,000
10,000
12,000
4.8
7.4
10.5
3.8
5.8
8.4
3.1
4.8
6.8
2.6
3.9
5.6
2.1
3.3
4.7
1.8
2.8
4.0
1.5
2.3
3.3
14,000
16,000
18,000
14.0
11.0
14.5
9.1
12.0
15.0
7.6
9.8
12.3
6.4
8.3
10.4
5.4
7.0
8.7
4.5
5.8
7.2
20,000
15.0
12.7
10.7
8.9
m
7,000
10,000
15,000
0.4
1.0
1.9
0.3
0.7
1.5
0.3
0.5
1.2
0.2
0.5
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.3
0.7
0.1
0.3
0.6
20,000
25,000
35,000
3.3
5.0
9.7
2.6
4.0
,7.7
2.1
3.2
6.2
1.7
2.7
5.1
1.4
2.2
4.3
1.2
1.9
3.6
1.0
1.6
3.0
45,000
60,000
70,000
15.8
12.6
10.0
8.4
14.8
7.0
12.2
5.9
10.2
14.0
4.9
8.6
11.7
IN
10,000
15,000
20,000
0.3
0.7
1.2
0.2
0.5
0.9
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
30,000
40,000
50,000
2.6
4.6
7.0
2.1
3.6
5.5
1.6
2.8
4.4
1.3
2*. 3
3.5
1.1
1.9
2.9
0.9
1.6
2.5
0.8
1.4
2.1
60,000
80,000
100,000
10.0
7.8
14.0
6.2
11.0
5.0
8.7
13.5
4.2
7.3
11.3
3.5
6.2
9.5
3.0
5.2
8.2
m
30,000
40,000
50,000
1.6
2.7
4.2
1.3
2.1
3.2
1.0
1.7
2.5
0.8
1.4
2.1
0.7
1.1
1.7
0.6
0.9
1.4
0.5
0.8
1.2
60,000
70,000
80,000
6.1
8.7
4.5
6.3
8.4
3.6
4.8
6.3
2.9
3.8
4.9
2.4
3.1
4.0
2.0
2.6
3.3
1.7
2.2
2.8
90,000
100,000
120,000
8.0
10.0
6.2
7.6
4.9
6.1
8.6
4.1
5.0
7.0
3.5
4.2
5.9
140,000
9.5
7.9
^Length of tubing includes the average number of fittings.
488
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION METHODS
TABLE 3. PRKSSPRE Lr>;--:.-, j
Srnmx KrFki«ii.R\N
s I »n HI.
'C''N"IS
M?HMI i HAN:
( "UPPER PIPE rs«.,™ -
AcrriL O.D. tyrr « ii
INCHES BTL PEIi H"v»
:.,,-,,: I,
• P !', I' ,'
.:,- ro ><
iu* I*, n
^i. 1*,:-, F
".o
r-.I-r:
i
I
1l
M
U.4
1.4
3.M
i j
2**
50,000 0.7
100, OCX) 2.6
150.000 ; 5.6
0.5
l.'l
»!«>
2.U
u.2
ii.:
1.4
200.000 9.S
250, 000 ' 14.X
300, 0(X)
0.7
in. 3
14.5
5.2
fs.tl
11.3
4.1
3.4
5.1
7.2
4*.2
5.U
350.000 !
400,000 i
19.5
15.3
19.6
12.0
15.3
9.7
12.5
iu!i> :
6.7
s.5
25-8
50,000 0.2
100,000 I 0.7
150,000 1.6
0.2
0.6
1.2
0.1
0.5
1.0
0.1
0.4
O.S
0.1
11.3
(1.6
0.1
0.2
O.S
0.1
0.2
0.4
200,000 2.8
250,000 i 4.3
300,000 ! 6.1
2.1
3.4
4.5
1.7
2.6
3.7
1.4
2.1
3.0
1.1
1.7
2.4
U.9
1.3
1.9
0.7
1.1
1.5
350,000 8.2
400,000 '
450, 000
6.0
7.8
5.0
6.5
t . 7
4.0
5.1
6.4
3,2
4.2
5.3
2.5
3.3
4.0
2.0
2.7
3.5
500,000
550,000
600,000
7.S
6.4
7.7
5.0
6.2
7.4
4.2
5.1
6.2
,,
200,000
300,000
400,000
1.2
2.6
4.5
1.0
2.0
3.4
O.S
1.6
2.6
0,6
1.3
2.1
0.5
1.0
1.7
0.4
0.8
1.4
0.4
0.7
1.3
500,000
600,000
700,000
7.3
5.4
S.I
4.1
6.0
8.4
3.3
4.7
6.5
2.7
3.8
5.2
2.2 ;
4!2
1.9
2.7
3.5
800,000
900,000
1,000,000
8.6
i
6.8
8.7
5.5
7.0 j
8.9
4.6
5.9
7.3
m
300,000
400,000
500,000
1.2
2.0
3.2
0.9
1.6
2.5
0.7
1.3
1.9
0,6
1.0
1.6
0.5
0.8
1.3
0.4
0.7
1.0 ;
0.3
0.6
0.9
600,000
700,000
800,000
4.6
6.4
8.7
3.6
4.9
6.4
2.8
3.8
4.9
2.2
316
3.9
1.8
2.5
3.2
1.5
2.0
2.5
1.3
1.7
2.2
900,000
1,000,000
1,100,000
8.2
6.2
7.7
9.4
4.9
6.1
7.3
3.9
4.9
5.8
3.2
4.0
4.S
2.7
3.3
4.0
1,200,000
1,300,000
1,400,000
8.7
i 6.9
S.O
i 9.3
1
5.6
6.6
7.6
4.8
5.6
6.4
aLength of tubing includes the average number of fittings.
489
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. PRESSURE LOSSES IN DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE
SUCTION REFRIGERANT LINES (CONCLUDED)
COPPEB PIPE
ACTUAL O.D,
INCHES
CAPACITY
BTU PEE HOUR
PRESSURE DROP IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH PER 100 Fra
REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE DEQ F
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
4H
400,000
600,000
800,000
1.0
2.4
4.1
0.8
1.8
3.1
0.6
1.4
2.4
0.4
1.1
2.0
0.4
0.9
1.6
0.3
0.7
1.3
0.3
0.6
1.1
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
6.6
10.0
4.8
7.1
10.0
3.7
5.4
7.5
3.0
4.4
5.9
2.5
3.5
4.8
2.0
2.9
3.9
1.6
2.4
3.3
1,600,000
1,800,000
2,000,000
10.0
7.7
10.0
6.2
7.9
9.7
5.1
6.4
7.9
4.2
5.3
6.6
2,200,000
9.5
7.9
^Length of tubing includes the average number of fittings.
ADSORPTION SYSTEMS
A diagrammatic representation of an open solid material adsorption
system is shown in Fig. 9. Two or more beds of the adsorbent are used
so that one bed may be used as an adsorber while another is being re-
activated. Most adsorption systems use some internal means of heating
the adsorbent bed before activation, and cooling it after activation.
Thus, the use of relatively high room temperatures and comparatively
large amounts of outside air are desirable in connection with these
systems. In order to offset the effect of high air temperature, some
effort is made to keep the humidity lower than usual.
To flue
pump
Unconditioned
air
Source of heat
FIG. 9. OPEN SOLID MATERIAL ADSORPTION SYSTEM
490
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATION METHODS
Silica Gel
Silica gel has two applications when used to replace refrigeration. In
the one principally used, the air from which moisture is to be extracted is
taken through silica gel beds by suction or pressure fansT and by means of
this process the moisture becomes adsorbed by the silica gel and the air
leaves at a lower dew-point and a higher sensible temperature than those
at which it entered. lathis air is passed over surface coolers in which tap
water or another cooling medium is flowing through tubes, a certain
amount of sensible heat will be removed. The air leaves the surface cooler
or^interchanger with the same dew-point with which it emerged from the
silica gel beds, but with a lower dry-bulb temperature, although the dry-
bulb temperature may be higher than the temperature of the air entering
the silica gel beds.
In^ another method, the first two of the steps outlined are duplicated,
and in addition the air is carried through a spray type washer. Because
the air enters the washer with a low wet-bulb, and because adiabatic
saturation will take place at a temperature close to the entering wet-bulb,
considerable cooling of the air can be accomplished; but this can be done
only with a consequent increase of the dew-point.
It is necessary to reactivate the silica gel after it has adsorbed about
25 per cent of its own weight in the form of moisture. As reactivation
requires a high temperature and since silica gel is only active at low tem-
peratures, cooling of the beds must also be completed before they can be
used^ again. This necessitates three stages in the silica gel containers and
requires either three beds of silica gel or one bed divided and automatically
put in position. The reactivation is usually done by means of gas or oil
fires and the cooling of the beds by means of indirect water cooling or by
means of small quantities of dehydrated air taken from the system beyond
the interchanger.
Activated Alumina
The application is quite similar to that employed for silica gel ; that is,
the material is exposed to the air flow and after reaching about 75 per
cent saturation is reactivated by removing the moisture adsorbed by
means of applied heat. The actual scheme generally followed in the
use of this material for continuous service varies somewhat from silica
gel inasmuch as the material is placed in three units which are used
consecutively for the different steps. These steps permit each unit to
operate as follows: (1) in series with the preceding unit, (2) alone, and
(3) in series with the following unit. This plan allows for adsorption,
reactivation, and cooling, in a manner similar to that used with silica gel.
Taking a single unit, when it is in the (1) step and operating with the
preceding unit, the alumina adsorbs approximately 25 per cent of the
moisture in the air and takes up about 1.3 per cent of its weight of water.
During the second step when it is operating alone, it takes up 100 per cent
of the moisture in the air until the weight of the water adsorbed is brought
up to about 6.7 per cent. During the third step when the unit is operating
with the succeeding unit, it extracts about 75 per cent of the moisture in
the air until the water weight adsorbed comes up to about 10 per cent of
491
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the weight of the adsorber. The time allowable for reactivating is equal
to the time occupied by the second unit adsorbing alone, plus the time
when the second and third units are adsorbing in series, plus the time
when the third unit is adsorbing alone, at the expiration of which time the
first unit will be again required.
The temperature of air used for alumina reactivation is usually between
300 and 700 F and the air flow rate will have to be higher with the low
temperature air than it will be with reactivating air of higher temperature.
For example, air at 400 F for reactivating will, at 10 cu ft per hour per
pound of alumina, require about 6 hr for reactivation. In the three
unit system, after reactivation the cooling of the activated alumina may
be carried out with considerable rapidity by using dry air from the adsorp-
tion unit for circulation through the unit which has just completed reacti-
Conditioned air
Dry bulb dependent
upon cooling medium
' 58° D. P.
Refrigerated or city
Water recooler ~"
r Inlet
Cooling water
(city supply or
cooling tower)
Jfe —Outdoor or
K> room air
Liquid distributor
•Regenerator
FIG. 10. DIAGRAM OF LITHIUM CHLORIDE ABSORPTION SYSTEM
vation. The final temperature of the unit before it goes back into service
should be not over 200 F. As a basis for computing the amount of cooling
air required for reactivation, each cubic foot of cooling air has been found
capable of removing 2.2 Btu when heated from 85 to 200 F and of provid-
ing a sufficient margin of safety in operation.
OPEN ABSORPTION SYSTEMS
The cycle of liquid absorbents are fundamentally the same. A diagram
of a lithium chloride absorption system is shown in Fig. 10. The liquid
absorbent is brought in contact with air having a certain vapor pressure
due to its contained water vapor. The absorbent having a lower vapor
pressure, absorbs moisture in the form of water from the water vapor
that is in the contacting air. A change of state takes place because there
is a rise in temperature in the liquid absorbing the moisture, which is a
function of the amount of water vapor condensed from the air stream.
492
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDJFICATIOK METHODS
Absorption of moi-Hsre by th»- liquid vuMkn^ !h* i'«jjnvnTr.itimi »»f
the liquid so that its. ab^rbir^ rapann i- n-/!im^l ,tu'l nvr.eniMnn. or
the driving off of the e\<v>s moir-tun* in tht* !i<ji;i*3, m»M b*j perfumed.
A constant density can be maintained by rnntimiuu-h' withdrawing a
small portion of the total liquid for intV:>:v»- roiio-nlr.i'ion without
varying the vapor pressure of the total ma-?.
There are two methods of regeneration. One 5* ?.«> boil off ih<- t-xrew*
moisture by raising the temperature of thr solution above the boiling
point of the particular concentration. As the .-ah 5n the solution dof*
not vaporize, it is not carried off in the boiling process. In iht* .-mall
amounts of liquid diverted to the regenerator for concentration, cart*
should be taken that too much moisture is not driven off, which may
cause freezing or solidification of the salts.
The second method of regeneration is to raise the temperature of the
solution with ordinary steam coil interchanges to about 225 F, and then
passing the solution at this temperature over various types of scrubbers,
through which untreated air is circulated. The increase in temperature
of the liquid raises its vapor pressure to such an extent that there is an
exchange of vapor between the liquid and the air, as well as an equali-
zation of temperature between the air and the liquid absorbent. The
air is then capable of taking up part of the moisture from the liquid and
carries this excess moisture into the atmosphere with the leaving air.
After this vaporization has taken place, the highly concentrated, hot
brine is circulated through an interchanger through which the water used
in cooling the main solution can be re-used to reduce the temperature
of the concentrated solution to a point where it may be introduced into
the main solution tank at only a slightly higher temperature than the
main body of the solution.
There are two places in the operation where there is a tendency to
raise the temperature of the liquid. One is the absorption of vapor from
the air, which changes the latent heat of the vapor absorbed to sensible
heat, thus raising the temperature of the liquid and consequently, the
temperature of the air. The other is the heat added to the regenerator
liquid in order to re-evaporate and carry off the excess moisture which
has been condensed in the first stage.
CLOSED ABSORPTION SYSTEMS
The fundamental rule governing the absorption (in a closed system)
of a gas by a liquid is Raoult's Law, which states that at any given temp-
erature the ratio of the partial pressure of a volatile component in a
solution to the vapor pressure of the pure component at the same temp-
erature is equal to its mol fraction in the solution. The mol fraction, in
turn, is equal to the number of mols of substance divided by the total
number of mols present. The number of mols in a given weight of a
compound is equal to the weight divided by the molecular weight.
This lawr applies strictly, only to what is known as an ideal solution,
that is, one in which the intermolecular forces between the substances
present in the solution are equal. Actually, no such solutions exist, so
that deviations from Raoult's LawT are always found in practice. The
493
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
deviation is called positive when the observed pressure is greater than that
calculated from Raoult's Law, while the term negative deviation refers
to the opposite case. Negative deviations are found wherever chemical
attraction exists between the solvent and the solute. Positive deviation
occurs when there is a difference in the internal pressure of the com-
ponents, chemical attraction between them being absent.
In order to make an effective absorption machine, large negative
deviations from Raoult's Law must be shown by solutions of the refrig-
erant in the liquid absorbent, because, the larger the negative devia-
tion, the greater is the amount of refrigerant that can be cycled, using
a given weight of absorbent. Cycling a large amount of refrigerant for
a given weight of absorbent is important because of the heat required
to raise the temperature of the mixture and disassociate the refrigerant
and the absorbent. Only the latent heat of the refrigerant can be recovered
for useful work.
Water
Water
nnn n nn
Source of heat
Water inlet
FIG. 11. CLOSED ABSORPTION SYSTEM
Many refrigerant-absorbent combinations have been proposed and
quite a number have been tested. Fig. 1 1 is a diagrammatic representation
of a typical closed absorption system. In this system a mixture of
refrigerant and absorbent is evaporated in the generator, passes to an
analyzer and rectifier where it is purified, and then to a condenser where
the refrigerant and remaining absorbent is condensed. It then passes
through an ^ expansion valve to an evaporator, where heat is absorbed
from a cooling load. From the evaporator the vapor and residual ab-
sorbent passes to an absorber where it meets absorbent which is ini-
tially low (weak) in refrigerant concentration. The absorbent absorbs
the vapor, and the strong absorbent liquor is transferred to the generator
through an interchanger with the weak liquor returning from the
generator.
A cooling medium, ordinarily water, is used in the absorber to remove
the heat of absorption and maintain the absorptive power of the absorber
at a maximum.
494
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDJFICATION METHODS
Like the steam ejector system, the absorption ^\>tem compares most
favorably when a cheap source of cooling water and steam or other
heat source is available. Unlike the ejector system, the comparative
performance is usually best with a wide range of temperature between
the evaporator and absorber, since with a good refrigerant-absorbent
combination, the amount of heat and water required for a given refrig-
erating effect increases slowly with an increase of evaporator-condenser
temperature range.
At the present time the most used refrigerant-absorbent combinations
are: (1) water and ammonia and (2; monofluorodichlorome thane and
dimethyl ether of tetraethylene glycol. With the latter combination the
boiling points of the refrigerant and absorbent are sufficiently wide apart
that almost pure refrigerant is obtained without the use of a rectifier.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
Evaporative cooling is accomplished by passing air through a water
spray in which the water is being continually recirculated. The air,
entering in an unsaturated condition, evaporates a part of the water at the
expense of the sensible heat. As this is an adiabatic transfer, the total
heat content of the air remains constant, while the dew-point rises and the
dry-bulb falls until the air is saturated.
The reduction in dry-bulb temperature is a direct function of the
wet-bulb depression of the air entering the spray chamber and the re-
sulting air temperature is governed entirely by the entering wet-bulb
temperature of the outside air and the efficiency of the spray.
THE REVERSE CYCLE
The idea of heating by the reverse refrigeration cycle has captured the
imagination of many people and has been much discussed. In principle,
heat is absorbed in an evaporator from some available source of heat,
pumped to a higher temperature and delivered to a condenser. The heat
from the condenser is used for heating purposes. The compressor acts
as a heat pump whose fundamental function is to raise the potential of
the heat. The theoretical work of compression in relation to the heat
delivered is:
-A (9)
where
Ti — absolute temperature of evaporator.
Tz = absolute temperature of condenser.
Thus, with a small spread of temperature between the evaporator and
the condenser, 6 or 8 times as much heat may be obtained theoretically
and 4 or 5 times practically, as the work put in. There are a number of
limitations, however, the most serious of which is the lack of ready
availability of a practical source of heat.
495
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
1 Well water is the most desirable since Its temperature Is high even in the winter
<n i Vms a hr^e amount of heat may be removed In relation to the weight of water
kii^lel
2. Air may be used but its specific heat is low and its temperature uncertain. When
tfce n*ost heat i? needed, the temperature of the air is lowest, thus resulting in the least
favorable temperature combination.
b. It has been proposed to obtain heat by freezing water, but this is still in the
theoretical sta;e.
Some of the other factors which act as limitations are the large tem-
perature spread when using air as a source of heat and when attempting to
coo! with even moderately low outside temperatures, the frequent^ dis-
parity between the size of the cooling load and heating load requiring
extra" equipment for a complete heating load, and the relatively high
initial cost of equipment at present available for the^ reverse cycle in
comparison with that available for heating by conventional means.
Because of these limitations, the present application of the system is
largely limited to temperate climates, such as Florida and Southern
California, or to heating only for intermediate seasons, or to other locali-
ties which have peculiar advantages as, for instance, the ready availa-
bility of well water. In these locations it is frequently possible to do all
of the heating necessary with the refrigeration equipment so that the
extra cost is only that of reversing the functions of the condenser and
evaporator,
ICE SYSTEMS
Ice may be used for chilling water for air conditioning work, but its
application is limited because of the cost of ice and the difficulty of
handling it. While not impossible, the direct cooling of air by ice is
rather impractical. The most general method of cooling water with
ice is to spray the water over the surface of the ice, insuring as much
contact as possible, and approximating the same performance as the
type of cooler. This cold water is then circulated through
cooling coils in the air by means of a pump.
P10BLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 * Electrically driven diehlorodifluorome thane condensing units are to be
used In an air conditioning system, requiring 20 tons refrigerating capacity
for conditions of maximum load. An overall analysis of the seasons operating
conditions stows an average load factor of 62.5 per cent, and allowing for varia-
ble time intervals of operation of refrigeration units installed, three-quarters
of the operating season, or 750 hr, would require operation of the equipment
at one-half load, and one-quarter of the operating season or 250 hr full load
capacity of the refrigeration equipment would be required.
The Increased first cost of 2-10 hp, 10 ton condensing units over 1-20 hp, 20 ton
condensing unit is, $830.00 installed price, to the customer.
The increased first cost of a 2-speed compressor motor of 20 hp size over a con-
stant speed 20 hp size motor including increased starter cost is $210.00. The
efficiency of the 2-speed motor above is 83 per cent at full load speed, and
T dmt for fllU load at ^ speed* At ^ speed' fun load is ^ total bhp of
Discuss the considerations involved in making a decision as to whether a single
wit with a 20 hp motor of the 2 speed type would be used in preference to
2-10 hp constant speed units.
496
CHAPTER 24. COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFICATIQN METHODS
The cost of 2-10 hp 10 ton units in excess of 1-20 hp, 20 ton unit with 2-speed
$830.00-1210.00 or $620.00, increased first cost. At 15 per cent fixed charges, 1
represents an increased annual cost of $93.00 for 2 compressors over one compre®
The advantage of 2 compressors instead of one compressor on an installation of this tj
is in the breakdown service provided in the event one compressor is shut down for rejx
the system ^could be operated at one-half capacity utilizing the duplicate machine, 1
motor efficiency of the constant speed unit would be higher at full load than would
the efficiency of the 2-speed motor at low speed. Offsetting this latter ^advant
however, is the fact that the condenser on the condensing unit would provide a lo
refrigerant condensing temperature for }/£ load operation with the same final condens
water temperature than would be the case with duplicate units each furnished with
own compressor and condenser. Operation at a lower condensing temperature wo
provide for a power saving compensating for the lower efficiency of the 2-speed mo
when operated at slow speeds. It is, in a case of this kind, purely a question as to whet
or not the purchaser would deem an investment of $620.00 more and an increased^ fi;
charge of $93.00 a year, advisable to get breakdown sen-ice through the installatior
duplicate units. In most cases, this increased first cost would not be warranted beca
of the fact that satisfactory indoor conditions could not be obtained at full load if o
one-half the refrigeration capacity were available.
2 • For condensing purposes, an air conditioning system uses city water whi
has an average 70 F supply temperature. The following table lists the numl
of hours per year during which definite wet-hulh temperatures and cor
spending refrigeration rates pertain.
Wet-Bulb
Temperature
F
No. of
Hours
per Year
Refrigeration
Required
Tons
80
6
284
79 - 75
100 ! 233
74 - 70
277
183
69 -65
330
157
64-60
277
144
59 -55
158
79
54-50
52
37
Total 1200 hours
If the power requirements of a dichlorodifluoromethane refrigeration systt
are in accordance with the following data on partial load operation, determi
the seasonal power cost at 2 cents per kwhr:
Tons of Refrigeration
Kw per ton
Seasonal power cost:
284 233 183 157 144 79 37
0.89 0.89 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.93 0.97
WET-BULB
TEMPERATURE
F
TON-HOUES
K^HB
80
79 - 75
74 - 70
69 - 65
64 - 60
59-55
54 - 50
Totals
6 X284
100 X 233
277 X 183
330 X 157
277 X 144
158 X 79
52 X 37
= 1,704
= 23,300
= 50,700
= 51,800
= 39,900
= 12,500
= 1,920
1,704 X 0,89
23,300 X 0,89
50,700 X 0.87
51,800 X 0.86
39,900 X 0.86
12,500 X 0.93
1,920 X 0.97
- 1,517
= 20,Z50
= 44,100
= 44,500
= 34,300
= 11,600
« 1,860
181,824 ton-hours
158,627 kwt
The 158,627 kwhr at 2 cents per kwhr will cost $3,173.
158,627 kwhr
The average consumption will be
181,824 ton-hours
497
= 0.873 kw per ton.
AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
30 l*inir flic* QueMion 2, If city water costs 20 cents per thousand
If 1,25 are per minute per ton, estimate the annual
water rw%!,
v J V 1 -•" * 75 gal per ton-hour.
3 V4,*OJ iw:-houri X 75 « 13,620,00) gal per year.
*'*' '^ *>( - ^**" » $2,724 the yearly cooling water cost.
4 • I Hin« ilir data of Question 2, If a cooling tower were installed for re-using
tlu* 4*0* id t»n -tin 3 *» at«-r, ent Jmate the annual compressor power cost of a dichloro-
flilliiiirirtii€4thaiW' refrigc*raficin >*ystejm if the final temperatures of the water
fratiiiie liar Mmlintf t«^er and t"he kilowatt input per ton are the following:
284 233 183 157 144 79 37
Temperature of water
tammr tower, F S6.7 81.8 76.5 72.1 66.4 61.3 55.6
Kw per ton 1.10 0.94 0.S5 0.80 0.74 0.59 0.62
1*7 ITS 4 --; JB Tos-florss Kw PUB TON i KWHB
74 - 7'*
59 - .V>
Total
1J04 X
1.10
s=
1,875
X
0.94
=
21,900
X
0.85
=
43,300
X
0.80
as
41,400
X
0.74
=
29,500
X
0.59
ar
7,370
1,920 X
0.62
ss
1,200
1S1,S24 ton-hours
146,545 kwhr
The 14«*v34S kwhr at 2 cents per kwhr will cost $2,931.
The average consun^on will be = °-805 kw per ton'
5 • If a steam ejector system were used to secure the refrigeration for the air
conditioning system of Question 2, compute the annual steam cost if steam is
for 53 cents per thousand pounds and if there is an average steam con-
sumption of 2tt Ib of steam per hour per ton when used with a cooling tower
tons X 20 Sb of steam per ton = 3,636,480 Ib of steam.
The 3,636,450 Ib at 53 cents per thousand pounds will cost $1,929.
6 * Discuss the difference in results obtained in cooling and dehumidifying in
an air washer from those obtained in a surface cooling coil.
Air leaves a dehumidifying air washer in a saturated condition at a dew point tempera-
tare can be easily maintained at a constant level by controlling the spray water
Tins saturated air may then be reheated to proper delivery temperature
by reseating or by mixing with by-passed air.
For a eet air -velocity and a set mean refrigerant temperature, a given cooling coil is
ci a definite amount of heat. Whether the air leaving the coil is
or not then on the entering dry- and wet-bulb temperatures From
n gte 1* the easlest- ay to contro1 the
nrt P?1' e eases- Tay to contro te outPut of the coolins coi
Jl?fi Iff the dry-bulb temperature oi the conditioned space. This means then that
tee teal dew point will vary somewhat depending on entering air conditions.
Samniarizing then, the air washers permit close control over both final dry-bulb and
1^*11™' SUrfaCe °00lerS Permlt dose C0ntr^ OVer the
498
Chapter 25
SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDffTCATION
AND DEHUMTOIFICATION
Air Washers, Apparatus for Direct Huxnldification, Spray
Generation and Distribution, Self-contained Humidifiers*
Atmospheric Water Cooling Equipment, Design Wet-bulb
Temperatures, Cooling Ponds, Spray Cooling Towers, Natural
Draft Deck Type Towers, Mechanical Draft Towers, Winter
Freezing
AIR humidification is effected by the vaporization of water whk
always requires heat from some source. This heat may be adde
to the water prior to the time vaporization occurs or it may be secure
by a transformation of sensible heat of the air being humidified to later
heat as the vapor is added to the air. The thermodynamics of tl
process are discussed in Chapter L Dehumidification consists of tl
removal of moisture from air and may or may not involve the remov;
of heat from the air- vapor mixture. With spray equipment dehumic
ification of air necessitates the removal of heat.
Am WASHE1S
Air washers may be used as either humidifiers or dehumidifiers d<
pending upon the method of their operation and the temperature of th
spray water. The functions of an air washer are to regulate the moistui
and heat content of air passing through it and to remove dust and dii
from the air. As cleaning devices air washers are not as effective as a;
filters in the removal of dust and dirt.
The construction of commercial air washers is indicated in Figs.
and 2. Any air washer consists essentially of a chamber through whic
the air passes and comes in intimate contact with water. This chamb*
may be built of either wood, stone, or sheet metal; the latter being th
almost universal material of construction. The lower portion of th
washer chamber serves as a sump for the water passing to its botton
Contact between the air and the washer water is secured: (1) b
breaking the water into a very fine mist, (2) by passing the air ovc
surfaces which are continuously wetted by water, or (3) by a combinatio
of water sprays and wetted plates. Scrubber-plate types of washers ai
499
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
used largely to wash heavy reclaimable products from the air, and are
generally composed of one to three eliminator-type baffle scrubber
plates across the air stream. Water is generally supplied at the tops of
the scrubber plates by flooding nozzles placed across the top of the
washer. Spray washers have one or more banks of water atomizing
nozzles placed in the air stream above the level of the water in the sump.
The direction of the water sprays may be against the air stream, with
the air stream, or with one bank spraying with the air stream and one
bank of nozzles spraying against it. The number of nozzles required
depends upon their design, the quantity of air handled, and the arrange-
ment of the nozzles.
Scrubbers generally consist of eliminator-type baffle plates placed
in the air stream to cause several reversals of the direction of air flow.
The scrubber plates are more effective as air cleaners than as humid-
L
^ ~~ ' T aT Sri;
V4UCTION STRMNC* \ ^STOAJf W
FIG. 1. TYPICAL SINGLE BANK AIR WASHER FIG. 2. TYPICAL Two BANK AIR WASHEI
ifiers. All washer chambers should have inlet diffuser plates to aid in
producing more uniform velocities of air flow through the washer spray
chamber. These inlet vanes also aid in preventing spray water from
being thrown into the air duct ahead of the washer. At the outlet end
of the washer suitable flooded eliminator plates, which will cause from
4 to 6 reversals of the direction of air flow, should be installed for the
purpose of removing drops of unvaporized water from the leaving air.
When the air carries sulphur and gases mixed with it the spray water
may become acidulated and special consideration must be given to the
selection of eliminator plates to reduce the corrosive action.
Essential items in air washer operation are; uniform distribution of
the air across the chamber section above the level of the water in the
500
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
sump; moderate velocities of air flow, 300 to 600 fpm in the spray cham-
ber; an adequate amount of spray water broken up into a fine mist
throughout the air stream; sufficient length of air travel through the
water spray and over thoroughly wetted surfaces, and the elimination
of free moisture from the air as it leaves the unit.
Washers are sometimes arranged in two or more stages to cool through
long ranges or to increase the overall efficiency of heat transfer between
the air and the heating or cooling medium. A multi-stage washer is
equivalent to a number of washers in a series arrangement. Each stage
is in effect a separate washer.
Usually the catalog capacity of a washer is expressed in cubic feet of
air per minute and is based upon an air velocity of 500 fpm through the
gross cross-sectional area of the unit above the tank. At this rating
spray type washers handle about 2J4 gpm of water per bank per square
foot of area, that is, about 5 gpm per bank per 1000 cfm. These propor-
tions of air, water, area, and velocity may be departed from to meet
the needs of some particular job, but certain limiting relationships
should be observed.
For a single stage air washer, a 15 F drop in wet-bulb temperature of
the air passing through the washer is about the maximum that should be
anticipated. For greater decrease in wet-bulb temperature, multi-stage
washers should be utilized. A rise of 6 F should be the calculated maxi-
mum for the spray water.
The area of a washer may be dictated by space limitations outside the
washer, such as headroom, or by the inside space requirements, such as
face area needed by a bank of cooling coils. The length of a washer is
determined by the number of spray banks, or scrubber plates, and if
cooling coils are installed in the unit, by the number of banks of coils.
Roughly, a spray space of about 2 ft 6 in. in length is required for each
bank of sprays, (the leaving eliminators require about 1 ft 6 in., entering
eliminators about 1 ft).
The resistance to air flow through an air washer varies with the type of
eliminators, number of banks of sprays, direction of spray, air velocity,
type of scrubber plates, size and type of cooling coils if located in the
washer. Manufacturers should be consulted to obtain the resistance for
a particular installation.
HUMIDIFICATION WITH AIR WASHER
Air humidification can be accomplished in three ways with an air
washer These are: (1) use of recirculated spray water without prior
treatment of the air, (2) preheating the air and washing it with recircu-
lated spray water, and (3) using heated spray water. In any problem of
air washing the air should not enter the washer with a dry-bulb tempera-
ture less *han 35 F so that there will be no danger of freezing the spray
water. .
When method 1 is used the principles of adiabatic saturation des-
cribed in Chapter 1 are involved. The process is one of evaporative
cooling as the dry-bulb temperature of the air is reduced and the total
heat of the air and water-vapor mixture is unchanged. Moisture is added
501
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
to the air and a part of the sensible heat of the initial mixture is trans-
formed to latent heat as evaporation of some of the spray water takes
place. Theoretically the spray water and the dry- and wet-bulb tem-
peratures of the air should come to the wet-bulb temperature of the air
entering the washer and the air should leave the washer adiabatically
saturated at the entering wet-bulb temperature. Due to limitations of
air washer construction and operation air is not generally completely
adiabatically saturated. This introduces an item into the calculations
which is known as humidifying or saturating efficiency. This efficiency is
the ratio of the actual reduction of dry-bulb temperature to the reduction
of dry-bulb temperature theoretically possible. Expressed as a percentage
humidifying efficiency is :
where
eh = humidifying efficiency, per cent.
ti « initial dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
tz = final dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
tl — initial wet-bulb temperature of the entering air, degrees Fahrenheit.
The humidifying or saturating efficiency of a washer is dependent upon
the number of spray banks and nozzles, the effectiveness of the nozzles
in breaking an adequate quantity of water into a fine spray, the velocity
of air flow through the water sprays, and the time of the contact of the
air with the spray water. Other conditions being the same, low velocities
of air flow are more conducive to higher humidifying efficiencies than
high ^velocities of air flow. The following may be taken as representative
humidifying or saturating efficiencies of air washers for the conditions
stated:
1 bank — downstream ........................................................................ 60-70 per cent
1 bank— upstream ___ ......................................................................... 65-75 per cent
2 banks — downstream ........................... . .......................................... 85-90 per cent
2 banks — 1 upstream and 1 downstream ...................................... 90-95 per cent
2 banks—upstream ........................... ................................................. 90-95 per cent
The air leaving the washer may require the use of a reheater coil to
produce the required dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity.
When air of a given specific humidity has a low initial dry-bulb tem-
perature it may be preheated before it enters a washer using recirculated
spray water. The preheating of the air increases both the dry- and
wet-bulb temperatures and lowers the relative humidity, but not the
specific humidity of the air. With an increased wet-bulb temperature,
the air Js capable of accumulating more moisture by the process of
adiabatic saturation and the final specific humidity and the final dry-bulb
temperature of the air as it leaves the washer will be higher. An addition
of sensible heat by the preheater takes place prior to the air entry into
the washer. In the case of method 2 the process of humidification within
the washer is ^ similar to method 1. The final desired conditions are
secured by adjusting the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air and
the use of a reheater when such is necessary.
Method 3 involves heating the spray water to a temperature equal
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
to the air and a part of the sensible heat of the initial mixture is trans-
formed to latent heat as evaporation of some of the spray water takes
place. Theoretically the spray water and the dry- and wet-bulb tem-
peratures of the air should come to the wet-bulb temperature of the air
entering the washer and the air should leave the washer adiabatically
saturated at the entering wet-bulb temperature. Due to limitations of
air washer construction and operation air is not generally completely
adiabatically saturated. This introduces an item into the calculations
which is known as humidifying or saturating efficiency. This efficiency is
the ratio of the actual reduction of dry-bulb temperature to the reduction
of dry-bulb temperature theoretically possible. Expressed as a percentage
humidifying efficiency is :
where
eh = humidifying efficiency, per cent.
ti « initial dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
tz = final dry-bulb temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
tl — initial wet-bulb temperature of the entering air, degrees Fahrenheit.
The humidifying or saturating efficiency of a washer is dependent upon
the number of spray banks and nozzles, the effectiveness of the nozzles
in breaking an adequate quantity of water into a fine spray, the velocity
of air flow through the water sprays, and the time of the contact of the
air with the spray water. Other conditions being the same, low velocities
of air flow are more conducive to higher humidifying efficiencies than
high ^velocities of air flow. The following may be taken as representative
humidifying or saturating efficiencies of air washers for the conditions
stated:
1 bank — downstream ........................................................................ 60-70 per cent
1 bank— upstream ___ ......................................................................... 65-75 per cent
2 banks — downstream ........................... . .......................................... 85-90 per cent
2 banks — 1 upstream and 1 downstream ...................................... 90-95 per cent
2 banks — upstream ........................... ................................................. 90-95 per cent
The air leaving the washer may require the use of a reheater coil to
produce the required dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity.
When air of a given specific humidity has a low initial dry-bulb tem-
perature it may be preheated before it enters a washer using recirculated
spray water. The preheating of the air increases both the dry- and
wet-bulb temperatures and lowers the relative humidity, but not the
specific humidity of the air. With an increased wet-bulb temperature,
the air is capable of accumulating more moisture by the process of
adiabatic saturation and the final specific humidity and the final dry-bulb
temperature of the air as it leaves the washer will be higher. An addition
of sensible heat by the preheater takes place prior to the air entry into
the washer. In the case of method 2 the process of humidification within
the washer is ^ similar to method 1. The final desired conditions are
secured by adjusting the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air and
the use of a reheater when such is necessary.
Method 3 involves heating the spray water to a temperature equal
AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
•'^* 1!: *r}r" ruM- of huir,jf]ifi<'utinn by use of an air washer the heat
r.nv-'sjry *»T th»- v.ipun/dfinn nf the moisture added to the air Is secured
"jtfo Mn-ra hf.it ^"ftd in the spray water or by a transformation of
^'HM^f* *H lt*t_T/ heat in the air humidified. In the latter case the total
hfa; lj! .!;>; *»r remains contain but the dry-bulb temperature of the
air huniMHnr-J j- reduml.
Spray generation is by (1) atomization, (2) impact, (3)
hydraulic and (4) mechanical separation.
Atowi&ition involves the use of a compressed air jet to reduce the water
to a fine spray. With the impact method, a jet of water under
impinges directly on the end of a small round wire. Where
kyt.ratt!i£ is employed, a jet of water enters a cylindrical
and through an axial port with a rapid rotation which
it immediately to separate in a fine cone-shaped spray In the
separation process, water is thrown by centrifugal force from
the of a rapidly revolving disc and separates into particles suf-
ficiently small to be utilized in certain types of mechanical humidifiers.
Spray
Strlbntim is obtainecl by CD air jet, (2) induction, and (3) fan
r Jet which|e?crat?8 *e sP^y in atomizers also carries the spray
^ ** distribution and evaporation, and tS
of distribution is termed air jet. Where distribution is obtained
aSpiratmg e!ec? of an imPact or centrifugal spray jet is
to a current of air to flow through a duct or casinV and
this air current distributes the spray. Fan propulsion obviously conslts
of the utilization of fans to entrain and distribute the spray
Industrial type direct humidifiers are commonly classified as m
atomizing, (2) high-duty, (3) spray and (4) self-contained or centrifugal
Atomizing Humidifiers
There are several types of atomizing humidifiers, all of which relv unon
HSgh-Diity Humidifiers
^^
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIHCATIOM & DEHUMIDIFICATION
it. The spray-generating nozzle which is of the impact type
a cylindrical casing. A drainage pan presides for the collec-
pumping unit.
is located in a
tion and return of unevaporated water which flows through a return pipe
to a filter tank, from which it is recirculaterl. A powerful air current is
forced through the humidifier by means of a fan mounted above the unit.
The air enters from above, is drawn through the head, charged with
moisture, and cooled to the wet-bulb temperature. It then escapes from
the opening below at a high velocity in a complete and nearly horizontal
circle. The spray is quickly evaporated and the resulting vapor is rapidly
and thoroughly diffused. This effective distribution of fine spray over
the maximum possible area insures complete and extremely rapid vapori-
zation even at the highest humidities.
Spray Humidifiers
This type of humidifier consists of an impact spray nozzle 5n a cylin-
drical casing with a drainage pan below it. The aspirating effect of the
spray nozzle induces a moderate air current through the casing which
distributes the entrained spray. The general method of circulating and
returning the water is similar to that employed for high-duty humidifiers.
A suitable pump and centrally-located filter tank are required.
The spray and high-duty types of humidifiers have many features in
common but the latter, because of its finer spray and greater capacity,
is often considered better adapted for producing high humidities.
Self-Contained Humidifiers
The self-contained or centrifugal humidifier has the ability to generate
and distribute spray without the use of air compressors, pumps, or other
auxiliaries. These may be used either singly or in groups. In large
installations, where suitable connections are provided to permit the
cleaning and servicing of individual units without affecting the room as a
whole, group control of the water and power may be employed.
Where large quantities of power are generated in a limited space and
where a comparatively high relative humidity is required, it is often
feasible and economical to use a combination of direct and indirect
humidification. The indirect humidificatipn provides the desired quantity
of ventilation and cooling, and the additional direct humidification pro-
vides for increase in humidity without interfering with the ventilation or
the cooling effected by the indirect system.
In general, it may be stated that direct humidification is most satis-
factory where high humidities are desired but where little cooling, ven-
tilation or air motion is required. Therefore, the indirect system is most
applicable where either low or high relative humidities are desired with
maximum cooling and ventilation effect. For conditions that require an
unusually large amount of heat to be absorbed by ventilation, together
with the maintenance of high humidities, it is often preferable to make
use of the combination system of indirect and direct humidification. If
the indirect system alone were used it would mean an unusually large
volume of air to be handled, which might interfere, due to air motion,
with production, even though it would result in greater cooling effect. If
direct humidification alone were used, no ventilation would be obtained,
with consequently higher room temperatures.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
506
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
AIR DEHUMIDIFICATION WITH WASHERS
Moisture removal from an air- vapor mixture can be accomplished by
use of an air washer so long as the temperature of the spray medium is
less than the dew-point of the air passing through the unit. The final
dry-bulb temperature and the percentage of the saturation of the air
leaving a dehumidifier washer are dependent upon: the air velocity, the
length of air travel through the sprays, the dry- and wet-bulb tempera-
tures of the entering air, the spray temperature, the number of spray
banks and nozzles, the quantity of spray medium handled, and the
effectiveness of the nozzles in breaking the spray into a fine mist.
Both sensible and latent heat are removed in the process of dehumid-
ification by cooling. Abstraction of sensible heat occurs during the
entire time that the air is in contact with the spray medium. Latent
heat removal takes place as condensation occurs. Therefore, the lower
the spray temperature the greater the amount of moisture removal per
pound of dry air all other conditions remaining the same. The spray
temperature should be controlled to 1 or 2 F below the desired leaving
dew-point temperature of the air. Washers with two or more banks of
sprays are usually selected for comfort air conditioning installations.
Such washers will cool the air to within 1 or 2 F of the spray temperature.
Where a limited supply of cold water is available multiple stage
washers may be used to an advantage. The cool water is pumped through
the multiple spray systems in series. By this arrangement the entering
air is cooled first by the warmer water and finally by the cooler water
which gives the maximum amount of cooling with the minimum amount
of water. The approximate temperatures of water from non-thermal
wells at depths of 30 to 60 ft are given in Fig. 41. Frequently the tempera-
ture of the city water main supply is low enough during the summer ^ to
permit an appreciable cooling effect. Table 1 lists the maximum city
water main temperatures for various localities in this country and Canada.
Air washers using refrigerated spray media generally have their own
recirculating pumps. These pumps deliver to the washer sprays a mixture
of water from the washer sump, which has not been re-cooled, and re-
frigerated water. The quantities of each of the portions of the spray
medium are controlled by a three-way or mixing valve actuated by a dew-
point thermostat located in the washer air outlet.
An illustration of a cooling and dehumidifying calculation is given in
Example 3 of Chapter 1.
ATMOSPHERIC WATER COOLING EQUIPMENT
In the operation of a refrigerating plant or a condensing turbine, one
of the main problems is the removal and dissipation of heat from the
compressed refrigerant or the discharged steam. This is accomplished
ordinarily by first transferring the heat of the gas to water in a heat
exchanger, from which water it may then be dissipated in a number
of ways. If the plant is situated on the banks of a river or lake, an intake
'Temperature of Water Available for Industrial Use in the United States, by W. D. Collins (U. S.
Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 520 F).
507
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. AVERAGE MAXIMUM WATER MAIN TEMPERATURES**
STATE
CITY
TEMP.F
STATE
CITY
TEMP. F
Ala
T> * U
84
Mass
Boston
80
A^nhili*
73
Cambridge
70
Ariz.
Phoenix. _
81
Fall River.
76
Tucson
80
LowelL
50
Calif
Anaheim.
60
Lynn
68
Berkeley..—
69
72
New Bedford
Salem
70
68
Fullerton
75
Worcester.
76
CilpnHflle
68
Mich
Detroit
77 '
Los Angeles
Oakland
75
69
Flint „
Grand Rapids
70
84
Ontario
70
82
Highland Park-
Jackson -
77
56
Pomona
Riverside
75
78
Kalamazoo
Lansing—
53
64
Sacramento
72
Saginaw
82
San Bernardino
San Diego-
San Francisco
65
82
62
Minn
Duluth
Minneapolis
St. Paul _
55
80
77
Whittier
75
Mo.
Jefferson City
82
Colo
Conn
Denver
Bridgeport
75
66
Kansas City _.
St. Joseph
84
84
Hartford—
73
St. Louis.-
85
New Haven
76
Springfield
70
W'aterb ury
72
Nebr.
Lincoln
87
D. C.
Washington
84
Omaha
87
Del
AVilmington
83
Nev.
Reno
61
Fla
Jacksonville
Miami.
80
80
N. H.-
N T.
Manchester
Tersev Citv
76
63
Tampa
77
±r y ^"^y
Newark,-
74
Ga.
Atlanta
87
Paterson
78
Macon
80
Trenton
79
Ill
Chicago
76
N. Y
Albany
68
Cicero
Evanston
76
73
Buffalo
Jamaica
75
56
Peoria
67
Mt. Vernon
74
Ind. .
Rockford
Springfield
Evansville.
59
82
86
New Rochelle-
New York.
Rochester
75
72
70
Gary
75
Schenectady
60
T i / Y-~
Indianapolis
South Bend. .
80
61
Syracuse
Utica.-
74
69
Iowa._
Terre Haute,-
Cedar Rapids—
82
78
N. C.. . .
Yonkers
Asheville
70
74
Kans
Des Moines
Sioux City
Concordia
77
62
57
N. M
Charlotte
Winston-Salem
Albuquerque
85
82
65
Kansas City.
86
Ohio .
Akron
76
Ky
La
Topeka
Wichita... ."
Louisville
Baton Rouge
New Orleans
88
72
85
85
85
Canton
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Columbus
Dayton
Lakewood
50
84
74
82
60
82
Me.
Augusta
60
CJ_ * £L 1 J
Md
Baltimore
67
opnngneld
Toledo.-
72
83
aThese averages taken from various city water main locations, with some actual values slightly higher
and some lower than values shown.
508
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
TABLE 1. AVERAGE MAXIMUM WATER MAIN TEMPERATURE* (CONTINUED)
STATE
ClTT
TESP. P
STATE
CITY
TEMP.F
Okla
Oklahoma City
82
Utah
j
44
Tulsa.-
85
Salt Lake City
60
Oreg
Eugene
60
Va
Fredericksburg
75
Portland
64
Lvnchbursr
73
Pa.
Altoona _
74
Norfolk.
80
Erie
75
Wash.
Olympia
58
Johnstown
McKeesport
74
82
Seattle-
Spokane
62
51
R. !...._
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
Providence
83
67
68
W. Va
Tacoma
Charleston
H untington
57
85
78
S. C
Charleston
80
AVheelinsr
78
S. Dak
Greenville
Spartanburg
Rapid City...
81
78
55
Wis
LaCrosse.
Madison
Milwaukee
54
58
70
Tenn.._
Chattanooga
Knoxville
84
89
Racine.-
68
Memphis
70
Texas
Nashville.
Amarillo
Austin
90
65
90
PROVINCE
Beaumont—
Dallas
Fort Worth
86
86
84
Alta
B. C. ..
Calgary...
Vancouver
64
60
Galveston
90
Ont.
London
50
Houston
84
Toronto
63
Port Arthur
San Antonio
83
76
P. E. I
Que.
Charlottetown
Montreal
48
78
Wichita Falls
85
Quebec
68
aThese averages taken from various city water main locations, with some actual values slightly higher
and some lower than values shown.
may be taken upstream or at a considerable distance from the discharge,
to prevent mixing of the heated discharged water with the inlet water.
If the source of cooling water is a city supply or a well, the discharge
water may be run into the nearest sewer or open waterway. Lacking
an unlimited water supply, or in cases where city water is too expensive
or where the water available contains dissolved salts which would form
scale on the heat-exchanging apparatus, it is necessary to recirculate the
water, and to cool it after each passage through the heat-exchanger by
exposure to air in an atmospheric water cooling apparatus.
Air has a capacity for absorbing heat from water when the wet-bulb
temperature of the air is lower than the temperature of the water with
which it is in contact. The rapidity with which this transfer of heat occurs
depends upon (1) the area of water in contact with the air, (2) the relative
velocity of the air and water, and (3) the difference between the wet-bulb
temperature of the air and the temperature of the water. Because the
changes in rate do not occur in direct proportion to changes in the govern-
ing factors, data on the performance of atmospheric water cooling equip-
ment are largely empirical.
As the heat content of the air increases, its wet-bulb temperature rises.
(See Chapter 1.) Because it is impractical to leave the air in contact
509
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
with water for a long enough time to permit the wet-bulb temperature of
the air and the temperature of the water to reach equilibrium, atmos-
pheric water cooling equipment aims to circulate only enough air to cool
the water to* the desired temperature with the least possible expenditure
of power.
In an air washer, humidifier or dehumidifier, the air is first conditioned
by water to change its moisture and temperature, and it is then sent to
the place where it is to be used. In water cooling equipment the tem-
perature of the water is reduced by air, and the cooled water is carried to
its point of usage. In the air washer, an excess of water is used to con-
dition a fixed quantity of air, while in water cooling equipment, an excess
quantity of air is used to cool a fixed quantity of water.
Both types of equipment have a common basis of design, however, in
that the size of the equipment is determined by the quantity of air that
must be handled. With the air washer, the size of the equipment is fixed
by the quantity of air to be conditioned, and the amount of conditioning
is controlled by the quantity and temperature of the water supplied and
its method of application. With water cooling apparatus, its size and the
quantity of air required bear no direct relation to the quantity of water
being cooled, but vary through a- wide range for different services and
conditions.
Sizes of Equipment
Assuming a definite quantity of water to be cooled, the size and design
of atmospheric cooling equipment are affected by the following factors:
1. Temperature range through which the water must be cooled.
2. Number of degrees above the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air to which
the water temperature must be reduced.
3. Temperature of the atmospheric wet-bulb at which the required cooling must be
performed.
4. Time of contact of the air with the water. (This involves height or length of the
apparatus and velocity of air.)
5. Surface of water exposed to each unit quantity of air.
6. Relative velocity of air and water.
Items 1, 2, and 3 are established by the type of service and geographical
location, while items 4, 5, and 6 depend upon the design of the equipment.
The establishment of a proper cooling range depends upon :
1. Type of service (refrigerating, internal combustion engine and steam condensing) .
2. Wet-bulb temperature at which the equipment must operate satisfactorily.
3. Type of condenser or heat-exchanger used.
Because the design of an entire plant is usually affected by the quantity
and temperature of the cooling water supply, plants should be designed
for cooling water conditions which can be most efficiently attained. The
first consideration is usually the limiting temperature of the plant. For
example, if an ammonia compressor refrigerating plant is to be designed
for 185 Ib head pressure as a normal maximum, the limiting temperature
of the ammonia in the condenser is 96 F. Should the ammonia tempera-
ture go above this figure the head pressure will exceed 185 Ib and power
consumption increases. To obtain this head pressure, the temperature of
510
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
the circulating water leaving the condenser must always be less than 96 F
by an amount depending upon the size and design of the condenser, the
quantity of water being circulated, and the refrigerating tonnage being
produced. A condenser having a large surface per ton of refrigeration
may be designed to operate satisfactorily with the leaving hot water
temperature within 3 or 4 F of the ammonia temperature corresponding
to the head pressure, while a small condenser might require a 10 F
difference.
Table 2 lists several gases with data as to the temperatures and pres-
sures for which commercial condensers are designed. Internal combustion
engines have limiting hot water temperatures of 125 F to 140 F. The
cooling of such fluids as milk or wort has variable requirements and is
usually done in counter-flow heat^exchangers in which the leaving circu-
lating water is at a much higher temperature than is the leaving fluid.
TABLE 2. CONDENSER DESIGN DATA
GAS
MAXIMUM PRESSURE
DESIRED IN
GAS TEMPERATURE
IN CONDENSER
LEAVING HOT WAT
DE<
ER TEMPERATURE
aF
CONDENSES
DZQ F
Best Condenser Design
Average Condenser
Design
Steam
28 in. vacuum
101.2
97
93
Steam '.
Steam.—
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide-
Methyl
chloride
Dichlorodi-
fluoromethane
27 in. vacuum
26 in. vacuum
185 Ib gage
head pressure.....*
1030 Ib gage
head pressure
102 Ib gage
head pressure
117 Ib gage
head pressure
115.1
125.9
96.0
86.0
100.0
100,0
110
120
92
83
96
96
105
114
88
81
92
93
The temperature range, once the hot water temperature is approxi-
mately known, depends upon:
1. Maximum wet-bulb temperature at which the full quantity of heat must be
dissipated.
2. Efficiency of the atmospheric cooling equipment considered.
Design Wet-Bulb Temperatures
The maximum wet-bulb temperature at which the full quantity of
water must be cooled through the entire range is never, in commercial
design, the maximum wet-bulb temperature ever known to exist at the
location nor the average wet-bulb temperature over any period. ^The
former basis would require atmospheric cooling equipment several times
greater than normal size, and the latter would result during a large part of
the time, in higher condenser water temperatures than those for which the
plant was designed. For instance, the maximum wet-bulb temperature
recorded in New York City is 88 F, and the July noon average for 64
years is close to 68 F. Yet in the years 1925 to 1934, inclusive, there were
but 8 hours per year when the wet-bulb temperature reached 80 F or more,
and there were 975 hours in the average summer (June to September,
inclusive) when the wet-bulb temperature was 68 F or above. As these
511
HEATING VENTIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
975 hours represent a third of the summer period, cooling equipment
based upon the noon average July wet-bulb of 68 F would be inadequate.
Commercial practice is to choose a wet-bulb temperature for refrigeration
design purposes which is not exceeded during more than 5 to 8 per cent
of the summer hours (75 F for New York City), with somewhat lower
requirements for stearn turbines and internal combustion engines. This
difference is made because the heaviest load on a refrigerating plant is
coincident with high wet-bulb temperatures, whereas the heaviest electric
power demand occurs either in the winter or after nightfall in summer,
when the wet-bulb temperature is low. Table 1, Chapter 8, shows design
wet-bulb temperatures which will not be exceeded more than 8 per cent
of the time in an average summer.
Knowing the hot water temperature and the wet-bulb temperature for
which the equipment must be designed, the cold water temperature must
TABLE 3. EFFICIENCY OF ATMOSPHERIC WATER COOLING EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMENT
COOLING EFFICIENCY— PER CENT
Minimum
Usual
Maximum
Spray Ponds
Spray Towers
30
40
45 to 55
45 to 55
60
60
Natural Draft Deck or Atmospheric
Towers
35
50 to 70
90
Mechanical Draft
35 '
55 to 75
90
be chosen to place the requirement within the efficiency range of the type
of atmospheric water cooling apparatus to be used. Efficiency of atmos-
pheric water cooling apparatus is expressed as the percentage ratio of the
actual cooling range to the possible cooling range. Since the wet-bulb
temperature of the entering air is the lowest temperature to which the
water could possibly be cooled this is:
Percentage cooling efficiency of atmospheric water cooling equipment =
(hot water temperature - cold water temperature ) X 100
hot water temperature - wet-bulb temperature of entering air'
Efficiencies of various types of atmospheric water cooling apparatus
vary through wide limits, depending upon air velocity, concentration of
water per square foot of area, and the type of equipment. The commercial
range of efficiencies is given in Table 3 although unusual designs may
operate outside these ranges. y
From consideration of the factors which include the cooling range and
design wet-bulb temperature, the quantity of water required can be
calculated from the amount of heat to be dissipated. The normal amounts
oi heat to be removed from various processes of the cooling equipment are -
'
uiesel engine. ^800 to 4500 Btu per horsepower.
512
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
Cooling Ponds
A natural pond is often used as a source of condensing water. The
hot water should be discharged close to the surface at the shore line.
Natural air movement over the surf ace of the water will cause evaporation
and carry away heat. Because increased density due to the loss of heat
causes the cooled water to sink to the bottom of the pond, the suction
connection for intake water should be placed as far below the surface as
possible, and at as great a distance from the discharge as practicable.
Spray Cooling Ponds
The spray pond consists of a basin, above which nozzles are located to
spray water up into the air. Properly designed spray nozzles break up the
water into small drops, but not into a mist because the individual drops
must be heavy enough to fall 'back into the basin and not drift away with
the air movement. The water surface exposed to the air for cooling is
the combined area of all the small drops. Since the rate of heat removal
by atmospheric water cooling is a function of the area of water exposed
to the air, the difference in temperature between the water and the wet-
bulb temperature of the air, the relative velocity of air and water, and
the duration of contact of the air with the water, a much larger quantity
of heat may be dissipated in a given area with the spray pond than with
the cooling pond, because of (1) the speed with which the drops travel as
they are propelled into the air and fall back into the water basin, (2) the
increased wind velocity at a point above the surrounding structures or
terrain, (3) the increased volume of air used, and (4) the vastly increased
area of contact between air and water.
Spray pond efficiencies are increased by (1) elevating the nozzles to a
higher point above the surface of the water in the basin, (2) increasing the
spacing between nozzles of any one capacity, (3) using smaller capacity
nozzles, to decrease the concentration of water per unit area, and (4)
using smaller nozzles and increasing the pressure to maintain the same
concentration of water per unit area. Usual practice is to locate the
nozzles from 3 to 7 ft above the edge of the basin, to supply from 5 to
12 Ib pressure at the nozzles, using nozzles spraying from 20 gpm to
60 gpm each and spacing them so the average water delivered to the
surface of the pond is from 0.1 gpm per square foot in a small pond to
0.8 gpm per square foot in a large pond.
Increasing the pressure, spacing the nozzles farther apart, or increasing
the elevation of the nozzles will increase the cross-section of spray cloud
exposed to the air, and therefore increase the quantity of air coming in
contact with the water. Best results are obtained by placing the nozzles
in a long relatively narrow area located broadside to the wind.
Spray ponds may be located on the ground if they have an earthen or
a concrete basin, or they may be placed on roofs having special waterproof
roofing. To prevent excessive drift loss, or the carrying of entrained
water beyond the edge of the pond by the air on the leeward side, louver
fences are required for roof locations and for those ground locations where
space is so restricted that the outer nozzles cannot be located at least
20 ft to 25 ft from the edge of the basin. Such fences usually are con-
structed of horizontal louvers overlapping so the air is forced to turn a
513
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
corner in passing through the fetice, and the heavier drops of water are
thrown back, owing to their inertia. The louvers also restrict the flow of
air, particularly at the higher wind velocities, and thus further reduce the
possibility of water being carried off. The height of an effective fence
should be equal to the height of the spray cloud. Louver boards are
preferably of red gulf cypress or California redwood supported on cast-
iron, steel or wood posts. Where building ordinances forbid the use of
combustible materials, sheet metal is customarily used.
permanganate.
1/4 to 1J^ gal of hot water. About 10 parts of permanganate should
be used per million parts of cooling water.
The permanganate attacks the algae, forms a brown covering over it,
and causes it to settle. Enough of the permanganate solution should be
added periodically to cause the water to have a pink color for a period of
from 15 to 20 min. Small additions of the permanganate daily do^not
give concentrations which are effective. The best results are obtained
when sufficient quantities are added periodically at intervals of several
weeks, the time intervals being dependent upon local operating conditions.
The chemical is non-poisonous and is non-corrosive when used as directed.
Spray Cooling Towers
Where not more than 30,000 Btu per minute are to be dissipated, the
spray cooling tower is a satisfactory apparatus. The word tower in this
connection is somewhat of a misnomer as the apparatus is essentially a
narrow spray pond with a high louver fence. As usually built, the nozzles
spray down from the top of the structure and the distance from the center
of the nozzle system to the fence on either side is not more than half the
distance that the nozzles are elevated above the water basin. Heights
range from 6 ft to 15 ft and the total width of a structure is not usually
greater than its height. Spray cooling towers occupy less space on small
jobs than spray ponds of equivalent capacities because the towers have
a capacity of from 0.6 gpm to 1.5 gpm per square foot of tower area. The
louvers are continually wet, and so add to the surface of water exposed
to the cooling air.
Natural Draft Deck Type Towers
In past years most of the atmospheric water cooling on refrigeration
work has been done with natural draft deck type towers, which are also
referred to as wind or atmospheric towers. These towers consist of heavy
wooden or steel framework from 15 to 80 ft high and from 6 to 30 ft
wide, having open horizontal lattice-work platforms or decks at regular
intervals from top to bottom, and a catch basin at the foot. The hot
water is distributed over the upper part of the structure by means of
troughs, splash heads, or nozzles, and it drips from deck to deck down to
the basin. The object of the decks is to arrest the fall of the water so as to
present efficient cooling surfaces to the air, which passes through the
tower parallel to the decks. The decks also add to the area of water
surface exposed to the air, but since they furnish a resistance to air flow,
too many decks are a detriment.
514
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
To prevent the loss of water on the leeward side of the tower, wide
splash boards are attached at regular intervals from top to bottom. These
boards or louvers extend outward and upward, and in most designs the
top edge of each louver extends above the bottom edge of the one above it.
Efficiency of a deck tower is improved, within limits, by increased
height, increased length, or increased width. The first two increase the
area of water exposed to the wind, and the latter increases the time of
contact of the air with the water.
Wind Velocities on Natural Draft Equipment
Since natural air movement is the prime requirement for a deck type
tower, spray cooling tower, or spray pond, the apparatus must be de-
signed to produce the desired cooling on days when the wind velocity is
below average when the wet-bulb temperature is at the maximum chosen
for design, and when the plant is operating at full load. The apparatus
must also, for best results, be located with its longest axis at right angles
to the direction of the prevailing hot weather breeze. Table 1, Chapter 8,
gives the average summer wind velocities and directions in representative
cities. Natural draft cooling equipment should be designed to operate
properly with not more than one-half of the average wind velocity, and in
no case for a wind velocity of more than 5 mph. It is obvious that natural
draft towers and other natural draft equipment must be so located that
they are not obstructed by trees, buildings, or other wind deflectors.
Mechanical Draft Towers
Mechanical draft towers usually consist of vertical shells, constructed
of wood, metal, or masonry, in which water is distributed uniformly at the
top and falls to a collecting basin at the bottom. The inside of^the tower
may be filled with wood checker-work over which the water drips, or the
water surface may be presented to the air by filling the entire inside of the
structure with spray from nozzles. Air is circulated through the tower
from bottom to top by forced or induced draft fans. Since the air flows
counter to the water, the air is in contact with the hottest of the water
just before leaving the top of the tower, and each unit of air picks up more
heat than a similar unit would on natural draft equipment, so the me-
chanical draft tower cools water by using less air than the other types of
equipment need. As movement of the air through the towers is obtained
by power-consuming fans, it is essential that the air used be reduced to a
minimum so as to secure the lowest possible operating cost.
The efficiency of a mechanical draft tower is increased by increasing
height, area, or air quantity. Increasing the height increases the length
of time the air is in contact with the water without affecting seriously the
fan power required, but it increases the pumping power needed. In-
creasing the area while maintaining constant fan power increases the air
quantity somewhat and because of lowered velocities it increases the
time this air is in contact with the water. The surface area of water^in
contact with the air is increased in both cases. Increasing the air quantity
decreases the time the air is in contact with the water, but, since a greater
quantity is passing through, the average differential between the water
temperature and the wet-bulb temperature of the air is increased, and
515
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
this speeds up the heat transfer rate. Increased air quantities are
obtained only at the expense of increased fan power, which increases
approximately as the cube of the air quantity. Air velocities through
mechanical draft towers vary from 250 to 600 f pm over the gross area of
the structure.
Mechanical draft water cooling equipment may be set up inside build-
ings, where it usually draws its air supply from the general space in which
it is installed, and discharges its exhaust air through a duct to the outside.
Indoor cooling towers may be either of the wood-filled or the spray-filled
type. In many cases where little height but considerable area is available,
water is cooled in a spray-filled structure similar to an air washer, with
the air passing horizontally through the apparatus and being discharged
TABLE 4, COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TYPES OF ATMOSPHERIC WATER COOLING EQUIPMENT
Figures Indicate order of desirability
COOLING
POND
SPRAT
POND
SPRAY
TOWER
DECK
TOWER
MECHANICAL
DRAFT
INDOOR
TOWER
Cost
x
2
1
3
4
5
Area
5
4
3
2
1
x •
Height
Weight per square foot
1
X
2
X
3
1
4^5
3
4-5
4
X
2
Independence of wind velocity.
Drift nuisance
6
1
3
6
4
5
5
4
1-2
2-3
1-2
2-3
Make-up water required—
1
6
5
4
2-3
2-3
Pumping head
Maintenance
Suitability for congested districts
Water quantity required for definite
result
1
2
x
6
2
1
5
5
3
3
4
4
4-5
4
3
1 2
4r-5
5
1
1 9
6
6
2
*Not comparable.
through a duct to the outside. Such apparatus does not have the counter-
flow advantage of the vertical mechanical draft water cooling equipment,
and therefore requires a much larger excess of air for proper operation.
Air velocities and operating powers are considerably above those required
by vertical mechanical draft water cooling equipment.
Make-Up Water
Since the atmospheric water cooling equipment performs its functions
chiefly by evaporating a portion of the water in order to cool the re-
mainder, there is a continual drain on the quantity of water in the system,
and this loss must be replaced. Approximately 1 gal of water is lost for
every 1000 gal of water cooled per degree of cooling range; so if 1000 gpm
of water are cooled through a 10 F range, 10 gpm of water will be re-
quired to replace evaporated water. Replacement supply is usually
regulated by a float control valve. Because the evaporation of the water
leaves behind the salts which the water contained, high concentration of
salts may make chemical treatment of the make-up water necessary to
avoid excessive deposits in the condensers. An additional amount of
make-up water must be added to replace windage, or drift loss. This
additional amount of water varies from 0.1 to 3 per cent of the quantity
of water being circulated, this percentage depending upon the type of
equipment and the wind velocity.
516
CHAPTER 25. SPRAY EQUIPMENT FOR HUMIDIFICATION & DEHUMIDIFICATION
Winter Freezing
If atmospheric water cooling equipment is operated in freezing weather,
the water may be cooled below freezing temperature so ice forms and
collects until its weight causes damage. To obviate freezing during con-
tinued operation, the efficiency of the apparatus may be lowered. This
is done on the spray pond and the spray cooling tower by reducing the
quantity of water fed to the apparatus, thereby lowering the pressure at
the nozzles and increasing the size of the drops produced. On the deck
tower the upper system may be shut off and a secondary distribution
system put in service midway down the height of the tower. The water
will be kept above freezing because it will have shorter contact with the
air. The mechanical draft tower can be protected by reducing the air
flow through the tower, by stopping or reducing the speed of the fans, or
by partially closing dampers.
If the system is operated intermittently in freezing weather, water in
the basin may freeze and the expansion of the ice may do harm. Freezing
during intermittent operation can be prevented only by draining the
water basin when it is out of service. On small roof installations, a tank
large enough to hold all the water in the system is often installed inside
the building and the basin is drained into this by gravity, the pump suc-
tion being taken from this inside tank.
A comparison of various types of water cooling equipment is given in
Table 4.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What performance tests should he given air washers?
a. Capacity, 6. Resistance, c. Visible entrainment of free moisture, and d. Humidifying
or dehurnidifying efficiency.
2 • What are different types of air washers?
a. Spray, b. Wet scrubber, and c. Combination spray and scrubber.
3 • Upon what air velocity are air washers usually rated?
500 fpm through the area above the tank.
4 • What is the difference between direct and indirect humidification?
Direct humidification signifies that the humidifiers are within the space to be humidified
with distribution produced by the number of humidifiers. With direct humidification
there is relatively little air movement.
Indirect humidification signifies that the air is drawn from the enclosure and passed
through the humidifier (air washer) and distributed by means of a duct system.
5 • Where is direct humidification desirable?
Direct humidification is desirable when high humidity is required accompanied with
cooling, ventilation, or air motion.
6 • Where is indirect humidification desirable?
Indirect humidification is desirable when high humidity is required with simultaneous
removal of heat by ventilation.
517
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
7 • Why do cooling towers give best results when the humidity of the air is low?
The cooling of the water by dropping it through the air depends mostly upon the evapor-
ation of the water. If the relative humidity of the air is low, the water vapor will be
readily absorbed and carried away, while if the relative humidity is high, its capacity to
pick up water vapor is less and the water is cooled less with the same exposure to the air.
8 • What are some of the advantages and disadvantageous of a forced draft
cooling tower compared with a natural draft wind tower?
Advantages: a. Does not depend on wind, b. Less space required, and c. Less drift loss
and less make-up.
Disadvantages: a. Higher first cost, and 6. Higher maintenance cost.
9 • What wet-hulh temperature for outside air is usually selected in air con-
ditioning design when cooling is to be accomplished?
One which is not exceeded more than 5 to 8 per cent of the time in the locality where the
plant is situated.
10 • Where should the suction connection be placed in a cooling pond?
As far below the surface as possible and as far away from the discharge as practicable.
11 • What chemical is used to kill algae formation in spray ponds?
Potassium permanganate.
12 • What is the usual amount of spray water delivered to a cooling pond per
square foot of area?
From 0.1 gpra on small sizes to 0.8 gpm on large sizes.
13 • About how much water is lost by evaporation in atmospheric cooling?
About 1 gal per 1000 gal for each degree of cooling range.
14 • How is freezing obviated in cooling pond sprays?
The pressure and quantity of water is lowered so that the drops become larger in size
and do not freeze so readily.
518
Chapter 26
AIR CLEANING DEVICES
Air Cleaner Requirements, Classifications, Viscous Type
Filters, Unit Filters, Automatic Filters, Dry Air Filters, Air
Washers, Methods o£ Installation, Stack Gases, Settling
Chambers, Centrifugal Separators, Industrial Filters,
Electrical Precipitators, Exhaust Systems, Air Scrubbers
THE removal of impurities from air brought into a building, or from
air recirculated in a building for ventilating or air conditioning
purposes is the function of any air cleaning or filtering device. These
impurities include carbon (soot) from the incomplete combustion of fuels
burned in furnaces and automobile engines, particles of earth, sand, ash,
automobile tires, leather, animal excretion, stone, wood, rust and paper,
threads of cotton, wool and silk, bits of animal and vegetable matter,
bacteria and pollen. Microscopic examination shows that the character
. of the impurities varies with the locality, but as a rule carbon forms the
greater part of them while the total is somewhat proportional to the state
of industrial activity and the wind intensity. Additional information on
sources of air pollution and the particle sizes of atmospheric impurities
will be found in Chapter 4.
AIR CLEANER REQUIREMENTS
To fulfill the essential requirements of clean air, an air cleaner should :
1. Be efficient in the removal of harmful and objectionable impurities in the air, such
as dust, dirt, pollens, bacteria.
2. Be efficient over a considerable range of air velocities.
3. Have a low frictional resistance to air flow; that is, the pressure drop across the
filter should be as low as possible.
4. Have a large dust-holding capacity without excessive increase of resistance, or
have ability to operate so as to keep the resistance constant automatically.
5. Be easy to clean and handle, cleans itself automatically, or else be inexpensive
enough to replace when dirty.
6. Leave the air free from entrained moisture or charging liquids used in the cleaner.
The SOCIETY has developed a code1 which explains how such devices
are rated by (1) capacity in cubic feet of air handled per minute, (2) re-
sistance in inches of water at rated capacity, (3) dust arrestance, the
*A S H V E Standard Code for Testing and Rating Air Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation
Work (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 225).
519
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
percentage relationship expressing dust removal efficiency at rated
capacity, (4) reconditioning power, the energy necessary to operate the
mechanism of an automatic air cleaning device, and (5) dust-holding
capacity, the amount by weight of standard dust which a non-automatic
air cleaning device will retain before reconditioning is necessary.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR CLEANERS
According to the Code, the following four classifications are given the
devices:
Class A. Automatic Type: In general all air cleaning devices which use power to
automatically recondition the filter medium and maintain a non-varying resistance to
air flow.
Class B. Low Resistance N on- Automatic Type: Air cleaning devices for warm-air
furnaces, unit ventilating machines and similar apparatus and installations in which a
maximum of not more than 0.18 in. water gage is available to move air through the air
cleaning device.
Class C. Medium Resistance Non-Automatic Type: Air cleaning devices for systems
in which a maximum of not more than 0.5 in. water gage is available to move air through
the air cleaning device.
Class D. High Resistance Non-Automatic Type: Air cleaning devices for the air
intake of compressors, internal combustion engines, and the like, where a pressure of
1.0 in. or more water gage is available to move air through the air cleaning device.
Air cleaners may also be classified as follows:
1. According to principle of air cleaning.
a. Viscous air filters.
(1) Unit type.
(2) Automatic type.
b. Dry air filters.
c. Air washers.
d. Electrical precipitators.
2. According to application.
a. For central fan systems of ventilation and air conditioning. Filters of the
automatic or semi-automatic type, as well as the non-automatic viscous unit
or dry type are usually recommended and are installed in a central plenum
chamber.
b* ?°r. unit ventilators. Filters of viscous unit or dry type, installed at inlet of
individual units.
c. For window installations. Self-contained units consisting of fan and filter
usually dry or viscous type, adapted to be placed in the ordinary window.
d. For warm-air furnaces. Unit type viscous or dry filters placed in small plenum
chamber of warm-air house heating systems.
e. For compressors and Diesel engines. Unit or automatic type viscous or dry
niters, installed at air intake of compressors and Diesel engines.
f. For compressed air lines. Unit type viscous or dry filters.
g. For stack gases. Settling chambers, dynamic or electrical precipitators.
h. For exhaust systems. All types.
Air cleaners may be classified further as follows:
*' M^^r^^rt*101^' WLth the ****** con^sti°n of large cities and an
™tj ' i r ?1 -h thr°u£hout the entire country, the percentages of foreign
material m the air, such as soot or carbon, which are unaffected by an air washer
type of air cleaner, have increased. This has brought about the development of
520
CHAPTER 26. AIR CLEANING DEVICES
the viscous and dry type air filters which are part of many ventilating and air
conditioning systems.
2. For removal of dusts, smokes and fumes from stack gases. Prevention of atmos-
pheric pollution from this source is of ever increasing importance, sometimes forced
legally and frequently used in order to obtain increased efficiency.
3. For removal and collection of industrial dusts from the point of their production
through exhaust systems.
VISCOUS TYPE FILTERS
The principle of air cleaning used in viscous filters is that of adhesive
impingement. Dust and dirt in the air, especially soot and carbons, are
trapped and retained by successive impingements on coated surfaces.
While the arrangements of filtering media and the kind of materials used
are almost unlimited, there are certain rather definite requirements for a
practical commercial filter.
Investigations in this country and abroad demonstrate that the first
impingement of dust laden air on a viscous coated surface removes about
60 per cent of the dust, the next impingement takes 60 per cent of what
then remains — that is, 24 per cent — and the next impingement removes
9.6 per cent. To secure maximum efficiency, it is necessary to divide the
air into innumerable fine streams, as the more intimately and freely the
air is brought into contact with the viscous-coated media the better will
be the cleaning.
The binding liquid used with viscous filters should have the following
properties:
1. Its surface tension should be such as to produce a homogeneous film-like coating
on the filter medium.
2. The viscosity should vary only slightly with normal changes of temperature.
3. It should be germicidal in its action to prevent the development of mold spores
and bacteria on the filter media.
4. The liquid should have a high affinity for dust at low temperatures.
5. The liquid should have high capilarity, or ability to wet and retain the dust.
6. Evaporation should not exceed 1 per cent.
7. It should be fireproof.
8. It should be odorless.
Viscous Unit Filters
In the unit type viscous filter, the filtering media are arranged in units
of convenient size to facilitate installation, maintenance, and cleaning.
Each unit consists of an interchangeable cell or replaceable filter pad and
a substantial frame which may be bolted to the frames of other like units
to form a partition between the source of dusty air and the fan inlet.
Where necessary reconditioning equipment should be installed near each
group of unit filters, with hot water and sewer connections provided.
To secure greater dust holding capacity and a practically constant
resistance and air volume, the filter media are usually placed in the
direction of air flow, with progressively finer filter densities determined
by the percentage of dust impinged. This arrangement provides relatively
large spaces for the collection of dirt in the front of the filter where the
bulk of the dust is taken out without undue increase in resistance, while
at the back of the filter the openings are smaller to secure high efficiency
in the removal of the finer dust particles.
521
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The resistance of -a well-designed unit filter of the adhesive impinge-
ment type usually depends upon the velocity at which the air is handled
and upon whether the unit is clean or dirty. The cleaning efficiency of
the unit is usually highest after it has accumulated ascertain portion of its
maximum load of dirt because some dust collected in the cell acts as an
efficient medium for the further seizing of solids from the air. By periodi-
cally cleaning a predetermined number of cells, the resistance and capacity
£0.30
50.25
UJ
0.20
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
QUANTITY OF DUST, OUNCES
FIG. 1. CHART SHOWING CHANGE IN RESISTANCE DUE TO DUST ACCUMULATION
0.40
600
650 700 750 800 850 900 950
AIR THROUGH FILTER. CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE
1000
FIG. 2. RESISTANCE TO AIR-FLOW OF TYPICAL UNIT AIR FILTERS
of a built-up filter may be held at any desired figure. The frequency of
cleaning any unit filter installation depends upon the dust concentration
of air being cleaned, and on the amount of dirt which can be accumulated
in the filter medium without causing excessive resistance. (Figs. 1, 2 and 3.)
It is difficult to satisfactorily compare the cleaning efficiencies of various
. niter types unless the efficiency ratings are determined under laboratory
conditions in accordance with some definite test procedure such as that
developed by the SOCIETY." Efficiency tests made in the field with atmos-
phencdust are subject to so many variables that consistent comparisons
are difficult. Of course there is no standard atmospheric dust, as atmos-
pheric dust varies widely in composition and concentrations in different
1x>c. Cit. Note 1.
522
CHAPTER 26. AIR CLEANING DEVICES
localities. Wide variations are also found due to different seasons of the
year as well as the time of day and the direction of the wind. A chart
showing the increase in resistance of a unit filter of the viscous impinge-
ment type, when tested with the standard test dust described in the code3,
is given in Fig. 1. The resistance to air flow of three typical clean viscous
impingement type filters having different media densities is shown in
Fig. 2. Type A is a dense pack used in bacteria control; Type B is a
medium pack used for general ventilation work and Type C is a low
resistance unit for use where low resistance is the important factor and
maximum cleaning efficiencies are not essential. The operating charac-
teristics which might be expected under various dust concentrations with
air filters having different dust-holding capacities are illustrated in Fig. 3.
Filters consisting of inexpensive frames of cardboard or similar material
filled with viscous-coated glass wool, steel wool or the like are available.
I.U
1.6
1.2
\4\
\\\
\\
\
DL
rty
ist holding capacity of unit
pe viscous filter in pounds
\
A
.
"/y
K
\
%
\
(
\
0.4
(
X
s
\
\
^
s
xi
/A
^
j
>»
-^
tb
•*^
•***.
•^~*.
•**.
•«•«.
*M«
3 2 '
i <
j 8 10 12 14 16
WEEKS OF 60 OPERATING HOURS
FIG. 3. MAINTENANCE CHART FOR UNIT TYPE Viscous FILTERS
Because of their construction these units may be discarded when dirty
and replaced with new units at relatively little expense. They are used in
general ventilation work and with warm-air furnaces and other instal-
lations where low first cost and low resistance to air flow are essential.
The operating characteristics of these units conform in general with those
of the rigid frame type.
Viscous Automatic Filters
The principle of air cleaning used in the viscous automatic filters is
the same as in the unit filters. The removal of the accumulated dust, •
however, is done automatically instead of by hand. The automatic clean-
ing and recoating of these filters is based on the principle that the viscous
fluid itself will perform the cleaning function, thereby eliminating a sepa-
rate washing agent. The dust collected by the filter thus is deposited
finally in the bottom of the viscous fluid reservoir from which it may be
«Loc. Cit. Note 1.
523
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
removed by different methods, depending on the design of the filter.
There are three general types of automatic filters. They are differentiated
from each other according to the process of self-cleaning and renewing
of the viscous coating used by each type, as follows:-
1 The filter medium has the form of an endless curtain suspended vertically, with its
lower portion submerged in a viscous fluid reservoir. The curtain rotates slowly through
this bath, thus performing the cleaning and recoating of the filter medium.
2. The filter screen is arranged in the form of shelves or cylinders, and the viscous
fluid is flushed through all parts of the medium in a direction opposite to the air flow.
3. The filter medium is arranged vertically and is stationary. The viscous fluid is
flushed from above over the medium, while the air flow is stopped.
The washing and renewing process in automatic filters usually is inter-
mittent. It is accomplished by an electric motor or by other motive
power and is controlled by manual or by automatic timing devices.^ The
operating cycle is of a predetermined frequency and should be so timed
as to insure a constant static pressure drop across the filter. The customary
resistance to air flow is ^-in. water gage at an air velocity of 500 fprn,
measured at the filter entrance. Automatic viscous filters are made up in
units which are delivered either fully assembled or in parts to be assem-
bled at the point of installation.
DRY AIR FILTERS
Dry air filters, in which dust is impinged upon or filtered through
screens made of felt, cloth, or cellulose, are available in various types.
These filters require no adhesive liquid, but depend on the straining or
screening action of the filtering medium. Because of the close texture
of the filtering media used in most of the dry filters, the surface velocity,
or velocity of the air entering the media, ranges between 10 and 50 fpm,
depending on the nature and texture of the fabric. This necessitates a
relatively large screen surface, and the filter media are usually arranged
in the form of pockets to bring the frontal area within customary space
requirements.
As in viscous unit filters, an average constant resistance and air volume
may be obtained by periodic reconditioning or renewal of the filter
screens. Since some materials suitable for dry filtering media are affected
considerably by moisture which tends to cause a rapid increase in resis-
tance, they should be treated or processed to minimize the effect of
changes in humidity.
Filters using felt and similar materials as filter media usually depend
upon vacuum cleaning for reconditioning. A special nozzle, operated
from a portable or stationary vacuum cleaner, is shaped to reach all parts
of the filter pockets. Permanent filter media should be capable of with-
standing repeated vacuum cleanings without loss in dust removal efficiency.
While most dry filters are cleaned by replacing an inexpensive filter sheet,
the useful life of these sheets often may be lengthened by vibrating or
vacuum cleaning.
AIR WASHERS
Air washers have not been used extensively in the past in cleaning air
for ventilating purposes because of their inability to remove fine dirt
524
CHAPTER 26. AIR CLEANING DEVICES
particles. However, new types have been developed which appear to have
possibilities for applications where the air to be cleaned is extremely
dirty or where a higher degree of cleanliness is desired than can be ob-
tained with a conventionally designed air washer. Information on air
washers used in connection with humidifiers will be found in Chapter 25.
METHODS OF INSTALLATION
The published performance data for all air filters are based on straight
through unrestricted air flow. Filters should be installed so that the face
area is at right angles to the air flow whenever possible. Eddy currents
and dead air spaces should be avoided and air should be distributed
uniformly over the entire filter surface, using baffles or diffusers if neces-
sary.
The most important requirements of a satisfactory and efficiently
operating air filter installation are:
1. The filter must be of ample size for the amount of air it is expected to handle. An
overload of 10 to 15 per cent is regarded as the maximum allowable. When air volume is
subject to increase, a larger filter should be installed.
2. The filter must be suited to the operating conditions, such as degree of air clean-
liness required, amount of dust in the entering air, type of duty, allowable pressure drop,
operating temperatures, and maintenance facilities.
3. The filter type should be the most economical for the specific application. The
first cost of the installation should be balanced against depreciation as well as expense
and convenience of maintenance.
The following recommendations apply to filters and washers installed
with central fan systems:
1. Duct connections to and from the filter should change size or shape gradually to
insure even air distribution over the entire filter area.
2. Sufficient space should be provided in front as well as behind the filter to make it
accessible for inspection and service. A distance of two feet may be regarded as the
minimum.
3. Access doors of convenient size should be provided in the sheet metal connections
leading to and from the filters.
4. All doors on the clean air side should be lined with felt to prevent infiltration of
unclean air. All connections and seams of the sheet metal ducts on the clean air side
should be as air-tight as possible.
5. Electric lights should be installed in the chamber in front of and behind the air filter.
6. Air washers should, whenever possible, be installed between the tempering and
heating coils to protect them from extreme cold in winter time.
• 7. Filters installed close to air inlet should be protected from the weather by suit-
able louvers, in front of which a large mesh wire screen should be provided.
8. Filters should have permanent indicators to give a warning when the filter re-
sistance reaches too high a value.
STACK GASES
Solid particles discharged with stack gases, both domestic and industrial,
contribute to the need for air cleaning in general ventilation. The
common foreign matter includes the larger fly-ash and unburned carbon
particles ranging up to 100 microns and larger, as well as the permanently
suspended smokes. Usually it is economical to collect the coarser par-
525
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
tides in separators, either gravitational or centrifugal, thus preventing
clogging and overloading of the filters or precipitators used for the fines.
Air cleaning devices for this purpose must meet the severe conditions of
temperature and corrosion while handling large air volumes at low power
and labor costs.
SEPARATORS
In addition to the air cleaning devices previously mentioned, the
following are common types available for application to the removal
of stack gases.
Gravitational Settling* Chambers
The larger dust and gas particles will settle out from air if time and
space are provided. Since the settling rate is constant, the required time
of retention of the air in a gravitational settling chamber varies directly
with the distance through which the particles must fall before reaching
a retaining surface. Horizontal plates placed parallel with the air flow
are effective and introduce negligible resistance. Air velocities should
be selected so that the settled dust will not be redispersed, and for this
reason baffles or constrictions producing increased velocity or turbulence
should be avoided.
Relations between time of gas passage, distance of fall, and size of
particles removed can be calculated from Fig. 1 in Chapter 4. With a
forward air velocity of 50 fps passing between horizontal 14 ft shelves
placed 3.3 in. apart vertically, particles of 100 microns, which settle at
the rate of 59.2 fpm, will all have time to settle through the 3.3 in. vertical
distance and reach the shelf while the air is passing along the shelf. Due
to redispersion, actual operation would be much less favorable except
at low air velocities.
Simple settling chambers consist of large spaces through which air
velocities are decreased to one or two feet per second and in which dust
particles fall into hoppers. In proper design, the inlets and outlets are
placed and baffled so as to cause minimum turbulence, and the collected
dust is protected from eddy currents.
Centrifugal Separators
The force causing settling can be increased many times that of gravi-
tation by giving the air a whirling motion and introducing centrifugal
force. The settling rate then becomes dependent upon the peripheral air
velocity and the radius of curvature as well as upon the other factors.
In centrifugal and cyclone separators, air is introduced tangentially
into a vertical cylinder and passes out from the center of the top.
The gas velocity and curvature of the cylinder cause whirling which
throws the particles to the surface. In the simple centrifugal type, the
particles slide down the surface and are removed through a hopper in
the cone bottom. In the cyclone type, they are thrown through slits in
the periphery and collect in a second outer cylinder where the air is nearly
static and there is little chance for redispersion.
Assumptions regarding streamline flow and turbulence make general
calculations of centrifugal settling rate quite involved and rough. Their
526
CHAPTER 26. AIR CLEANING DEVICES
range of usefulness is indicated in Fig. 1 of Chapter 4. They have wide
application in connection with industrial operations such as grinding,
screening, combustion, etc., but have little or no effect upon the finer
particles.
Small diameters give smoother stream lines and larger centrifugal
forces for the same power consumption, so that several small units in
parallel are to be preferred to one larger one.
INDUSTRIAL FILTERS
In principle and practice the industrial dry filters are similar to those
used for general ventilation, the latter being a development of the former.
Bag filters up to 2.5 ft in diameter and 30 ft long, hung vertically, are fed
through a header, allowing gas to pass out through the sides of the bag
and retaining the dust particles on the inner surface. Depending on the
nature of the cloth or mat filtering medium, retention of fines can be very
high if gas velocity is low, about 0.5 to 3 cu ft per square^foot per minute.
The collected dust particles themselves aid in agglomerating and retaining
others. Periodic shaking, with the fans off or reversed, at intervals of a
few hours drops the excess dust into a lower header or hopper for removal.
Readily removed filters built in small sections in which filter media ^can
be replaced are of distinct advantage where deterioration is rapid. Various
styles of construction are available which combine quick interchange-
ability and large filtering area per square foot cross-sectional area. Use
of several independent units in parallel is important for the reconditioning
of each unit separately. Both continuous and intermittent shaking and
sweeping devices remove excess dust and maintain a low resistance.
ELECTRICAL PRECIPITATORS
For removing fine dust or liquid particles which show no gravitational
settling tendency, electrical precipitators are highly effective in air
cleaning applications. In this system of air cleaning the particles are
first ionized in a region where they acquire an electrostatic charge. ^ The
separation of the particles is then accomplished by passing the air be-
tween parallel plates where the dust particles are attracted to grounded
collecting electrodes. The electric field holds them to this electrode
unless a high critical redispersing gas velocity is exceeded. Particles are
shaken down by either periodic mechanical or hand rapping.
The materials of construction for the apparatus may be selected to
meet nearly any required conditions of temperature and corrosion. The
discharge electrodes are usually of metal in the form of ^ wires or edges
placed equidistant between collecting electrodes either in the form of
hollow pipes or plates. By properly choosing the type of electrodes the
generation of oxides of nitrogen may be practically eliminated.
Voltage requirements depend primarily upon the electrode spacing and
the gas conditions or particle nature. The maximum field intensity is
limited by the arcking voltage for the particular conditions. The discharge
electrode should be negative because with this charge higher voltages
may be carried without arcking.
527
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Quick removal of dust particles produced by such operations as grind-
ing, screening, mixing, etc., is accomplished with exhaust systems. Their
applications are numerous and varied, and not only prevent health
hazards but eliminate product contamination. Mere discharge to the
atmosphere outside of the building without collection is frequently of
little effect, for incoming air redistributes the objectionable material.
Information on the design of industrial exhaust systems will be found in
Chapter 34. Any of the air cleaning devices previously described may
be used with them depending upon the severity of the conditions and the
nature and size of the material to be collected.
AIR SCRUBBERS
Air scrubbers are used extensively in exhaust systems since they pro-
vide removal of at least the coarser particles. The choice of scrubbing
medium depends upon the character of the particles to be removed. The
liquid medium should wet the particles, and the wetting is a surface
tension phenomenon specific for each liquid-solid pair. Water effectively
wets particles similar to silica, and oil wets particles similar to carbon.
Combinations of oil and water, producing a froth, are effective for both
and for materials of intermediate nature.
Intimate contact between the scrubbing liquid and the particles is
essential, and many variations in constructions are available. Fine
sprays, baffles, bubble caps, open and packed towers, and splash systems
are used. Even the finest sprays are of low efficiency when used in an
open chamber. Impact of the dust particles against a wetted surface is
necessary for their retention, and this requires high gas velocities and
well placed baffles or packing. Atomization of the liquid and air together
is highly effective in removing the finest particles but makes for high
power requirements.
Corrosion is frequently serious, particularly with high temperature
gases containing soluble constituents. The collected material is removed
as^a thick sludge, and its wetted condition is a factor for consideration
if it has possible recovery value.
REFERENCES
An Improved Simple Method of Determining the Efficiency of Air Filters by H G
Tufty and E. Mathis (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 33, 1927, p. 57). '
Design and Application of Oil-Coated Air Filters, by H. C. Murphy (A.S H.V.E
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 33, 1927, p. 73).
A Study of Dust Determinates, by F. B. Rowley and John Beal (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928, p. 475).
T P^^i^X^rS111111^ of Dust in Air by Impingement, by F. B. Rowley and
John Beal (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 483).
ino^^ooo1^ Dust Abatement> by M. D. Engle (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37,
19ol, p. 233).
Operation and Maintenance of Air Filters, by W. G. Frank (Heating, Piping and Air
Conditwmng, May, 1931, p. 378).
Size and Characteristics of Air-Borne Impurities, by W. G. Frank (Heatins, PMnz
and Aw Conditioning, January, 1932, p. 35).
528
CHAPTER 26. AIR CLEANING DEVICES
Fundamental Principles in the Design of Dry Air Filters, by Otto Wechsberg (A.S.
H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, April, 1933, p. 217).
Operation, Maintenance of Cloth-Screened Dust Collectors, by W. F. Terry (Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, May, p. 259, June, p. 304, 1933).
Testing and Rating of Air Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation Work, by
Samuel R. Lewis (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 270).
The Dust Problem in Air Conditioning, by F. B. Rowley (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL
SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, June, 1935, p. 293).
An Alternate Method of Comparing Dust Arrestance in Air Cleaning Devices, by
Arthur Nutting (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating. Piping and Air Conditioning,
August, 1937, p. 511). -
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Assume a fan and duct system which handled 10,000 cfm through clean
filters with a system resistance of 0.8 in. of water and that after the filters have
become dirty the system resistance increases to 1.0 in. of water, and that the
fan speed remains unchanged. Is there any way of predicting the volume of
air delivered after the filter becomes dirty?
Yes. If the performance curves for the particular make of fan are available, the new
volume may be determined from the resistance pressure curve. (Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4,
Chapter 27.)
2 • What are the advantages of viscous filters?
The principal advantage of the viscous filter is its large dust holding capacity. The dust
accumulation is distributed through the depth of the filtering medium rather than upon
the surface as in the dry types, which makes it possible for viscous filters to handle
heavy dust concentrations without excessive resistance. Since its efficiency and resis-
tance are based on maximum air velocities of from 300 to 500 fpm through the filter,
the viscous filter consumes the minimum amount of space for a given air volume.
3 • What are the advantages of dry filters?
Dry filters are more efficient in the removal of fine dust particles from the air, and some
types will eliminate even as much as 60 per cent of the smoke particles. Dry filters also
are easily and conveniently maintained by vacuum cleaning, vibrating, or renewing the
filtering medium,
4 • If an air washer is used for cooling and humidity control in an air con-
ditioning system, is a filter needed?
An air filter is desirable in conjunction with an air washer because of the large amount of
soot in the air which, due to its greasy and amorphous nature, is not readily trapped in
an air washer. Filters should be placed between the washer and the air intake so that
all the dirt will be collected at one point to simplify maintenance and to protect all the
equipment in the system.
5 • Is an air filter needed with an extended surface type heat exchanger?
An air filter is essential with an extended surface heat exchanger in order to maintain its
efficiency, for without this protection dust particles will adhere to the exposed surfaces,
and gradually build up a deposit to the point where the efficiency will be impaired and the
resistance increased by restricting the air passage.
6 • What is the proper location of a filter in relation to the fan?
A filter will operate equally well whether placed on the suction or discharge side of the
fan. It has become standard practice, however, to locate the filter on the fan inlet side
because there it has: (1) simpler duct connections, (2) reduced static pressure losses,
(3) more even air distribution over the entire filter area. Where an exceptionally high
efficiency in dust removal must be maintained, it is often advisable to place the filter on
the discharge side of the fan so there can be no infiltration of unclean air.
529
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
7 • What instruments and apparatus are required for determining the pollen
concentration in air by means of the settling method?
A microscope with a field of known area and a glass slide coated with a viscous material.
8 • Describe the procedure for determining the pollen concentration in air by
means of the settling method.
A glass slide coated with a viscous material is placed for a period of 24 hours in a hori-
zontal position in the atmosphere to be tested. The slide is then removed and placed
under the microscope, and pollen counts are made of approximately 25 fields over the
area of the glass slide. Having determined the count over a definite area, as for example,
1 sq cm, and finding the settling rate of the average particles from the chart, Fig. 1 in
Chapter 4, the concentration in parts per cubic yard can be calculated.
9 • The resistance to air flow of a unit ah- filter is found to be 0.4 in. of water.
The volume of air
e filter area required in order to reduce the pressure
across the filter from 0.4 in. of water to 0.16 in. of water?
Referring to Fig. 2: The resistance is substantially proportional to the square of the
velocity, or
ft V?
R* Vf
0.4 _ 200*
0.16 " F22
Fa « 126.5 fpm
Q = AV
1000 = 126.5 A
= .
The filter area would be increased from 5 sq ft to 7.91 sq ft.
10 • A ventilating system complete with filters has a fan which, when operating
at 400 rpm and delivering air at 1 hi. of water total static pressure, requires an
input of 3 horsepower. After the system operates for a time, the pressure drop
across the filter caused by the clogging action of the collected dust and dirt
increases from 0.1 in. of water to 0.4 in. of water. To maintain the original
rate of air delivery with the increased static pressure, at what speed must the
fan be run and what horsepower will be required?
Static pressure after clogging of filter = 1 + (0.4 — 0.1) = 1.3 in. of water.
The static pressure varies as the square of the fan speed. Therefore, if X is the fan speed
after the static pressure increases:
.
i \ 400 y
X = 456 rpm.
The horsepower varies as the cube of the fan speed. Therefore, if Y is the horsepower
after the static pressure increases:
JL - ( 456 Y
3 V 400 /
Y = 4.44 horsepower.
To maintain the original rate of air delivery with the increased static pressure, the fan
speed must be increased from 400 to 456 rpm, and the horsepower from 3 to 4.44.
530
Chapter 27
FANS
Classification, Performance, Fan Efficiency, Characteristic
Curves, System Characteristics, Selection of Fans, Volume
Control, Fan Designations, Motive Power
IN heating and ventilating practice, fans are used to produce air flow
except where positive displacement is required, in which case com-
pressors or rotary blowers are used. Fans are classified according to the
direction of air flow as (1) axial flow or propeller type if the flow is parallel
with the axis, and (2) radial flow or centrifugal type if the flow is parallel
with the radius of rotation.
Axial flow fans are made with various numbers of blades of a variety
of forms. The blades may be of uniform thickness (sheet metal), either
flat or cambered, or may be of varying thickness of so-called aerofoil
section (airplane propeller type). Where an axial flow fan is intended for
operation at comparatively high pressures the hub sometimes is enlarged
in the form of a disc and the fan is known as a disc fan.
Radial flow or centrifugal fans include steel plate fans, pressure blowers,
cone fans, and the so-called multiblade fans. All the foregoing types have
variations which may be obtained by modification of the proportions or
change in the curvature and angularity of the blades. The angularity of
the blades determines the operating characteristics of a fan ; a forward
curved blade is found in a fan having slow speed operating characteristics,
while a backward curved blade is found in a fan having high speed
operating characteristics.
A wide variation exists in the demands which have to be met by fan
installations. A fan may be required to move large quantities of air
against little or no resistance or it may be required to move small quanti-
ties against high resistances. Between these two extremes innumerable
specific requirements must be met. In general, fans of all types in each
general class can be made to perform the same duty, although mechanical
difficulties, noise or lack of efficiency may limit the use to one or another
type. The most common field of service for fans of the propeller type is in
moving air against moderate resistances, especially where no^ long ducts
or heavy friction must be overcome and where noise is not objectionable,
whereas centrifugal fans are commonly employed for operation at the
comparatively higher pressures and where extreme quietness is necessary.
FAN PERFORMANCE
Fans of all types follow certain laws of performance which are useful in
determining the effect of changes in the conditions of operation. These
531
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
laws apply to installations comprising any type of fan, any given piping
system and constant air density, and are as follows:
1. The air capacity varies directly as the fan speed.
2. The pressure (static, velocity, and total) varies as the square of the fan speed.
3. The power demand varies as the cube of the fan speed.
Example 1. A certain fan delivers 12,000 cfm at a static pressure of 1 in. of water
when operating at a speed of 400 rpm and requires an input of 4 hp. If in the same
installation 15,000 cfm are desired, what will be the speed, static pressure, and power?
Speed = 400 X j|§gj - 500 rpm
Static pressure - 1 X (gjjj)* - 1M in-
Power - 4 X 3 = 7.81 hp
When the density of the air varies the following laws apply:
4. At constant speed and capacity the pressure and power vary directly as the
density.
Example 8. A certain fan delivers 12,000 cfm at 70 F and normal barometric pressure
(density 0.07492 Ib per cubic foot) at a static pressure of 1 in. of water when operating at
400 rpm, and requires 4 hp. If the air temperature is increased to 200 F (density 0.06015
Ib) and the speed of the fan remains the same, what will be the static pressure and
power?
Static pressure - 1 X = °-80 in-
5. At constant pressure the speed, capacity and power vary inversely as the square
root of the density.
Example S. If the speed of the fan of Example 2 is increased so as to produce a static
pressure of 1 in. of water at the 200 F temperature, what will be the speed, capacity,
and power?
Speed - 400 xtf--- 446 rpm
2,000 X W °'
^1 0.
Capacity = 12,000 X W ' = 13,392 cfm (measured at 200 F)
0.06015
6. For a constant weight of air:
(a) The speed, capacity, and pressure vary inversely as the density.
(6) The horsepower varies inversely as the square of the density.
Example 4. If the speed of the fan of the previous examples is increased so as to
deliver the same weight of air at 200 F as at 70 F, what will be the speed, capacity,
static pressure, and power?
Speed-40oxSil=498rpin
0 074Q9
Capacity - 12,000 X -Q^jf - 14,945 cfm (measured at 200 F)
532
CHAPTER 27. FANS
Static pressure = 1 X Jgg = 1.25 in.
*
FAN EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a fan may be defined as the ratio of the horsepower
output to the horsepower input.
The horsepower output is expressed by the formula:
Air Horsepower* = cfm X total ^ nceS ° Wa (D
When the static pressure is used in the computation it is assumed that
this represents the useful pressure and that the velocity pressure is lost
in the piping system and in the air which leaves the system. Since in
most installations a higher velocity exists at the fan outlet than at the
point of delivery into the atmosphere, some of the velocity pressure at the
fan outlet may be utilized by conversion to static pressure within the
system, but owing to the uncertainty of friction losses which occur at
the places where changes in velocity take place, the amount of velocity
pressure which is actually utilized is seldom known, and the static pressure
alone may best represent the useful pressure.
The efficiency based upon static pressure is known as the static efficiency
and may be expressed as follows:
Cj_ . . „ . . cfm X static pressure in inches of water fty^
' StatlC efficiencyl -- 6356 X Horsepower input - (2)
Different fans may develop the same capacity against the same static
pressure and with the same power input, and therefore operate at the
same static efficiency, while maintaining different outlet velocities. Where
a high outlet velocity is desirable or can be utilized effectively, the static
efficiency fails to be a satisfactory measurement of the performance. In
many applications of propeller fans, air is circulated without encountering
resistance and no static pressure is developed. The static efficiency is
zero and its calculation is meaningless. Because of such situations where
the static efficiency fails to indicate the true performance, many engineers
prefer to base the calculation of efficiency upon the total or dynamic
pressure. This efficiency is variously known as the total, dynamic, or
mechanical efficiency, and may be expressed as follows:
_, , . , „, . - . . cfm X total pressure in inches of water ,,..
Mechanical or Total efficiency* = - 6356 X Horsepower input - (3)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
In the operation of a fan at a fixed speed the static and total efficiencies
vary with any change in the resistance which is imposed. With different
designs the peak of efficiency occurs when the fans deliver different per-
iSee Standard Test Code for Disc and Propeller Fans, Centrifugal Fans and Blowers, Edition of 1932.
533
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
centages of their wide-open capacity. Variations in efficiency accompany
variations in pressures and power consumption which are characteristic of
Se ^dividual designs and which are influenced particularly by the shape
and angularity of the blades. Such variations in pressure, power, and
efficiency are shown by characteristic curves.
Characteristic curves of fans are determined by tests performed m
accordance with the Standard Test Code for Disc and Propeller Fans,
Centrifugal Fans and Blowers2 as adopted by the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS and the National Association of
Fan Manufacturers. The results of tests are plotted in different ways : the
40 50 60
Per Cent of Wide Open Volume
70
80
FIG. 1. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AXIAL FLOW FAN
abscissae may be the ratio of delivery, assuming full open discharge as
100 per cent, and the ordinates may be static pressure, dynamic pressure,
horsepower and efficiency. Pressures may be expressed in per cent of the
maximum pressure in the manner shown in the illustrations in this
chapter, but in engineering calculations they are sometimes expressed in
proportion to the pressures due to the peripheral velocity i,
It should be noted that characteristic curves of fan performance are
plotted for a constant speed. Some variation in values of efficiency may
occur at different speeds but such variation is usually slight within a wide
range of speeds. Fans of similar design but of different size will also show
some difference in efficiency. Figs. 1 to 4 show characteristic curves for
different types of fans using blades of various shapes, but without reference
to the design of housing employed. The efficiency curves are therefore
not serviceable for making rigid comparisons of efficiencies obtainable
with blades of the various shapes but are intended merely to show reason-
able values and more particularly to show the manner in which variations
occur with changes in fan capacity.
3A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 29, 1923, p. 407. Amended June, 1931.
534
CHAPTER 27. FANS
Axial flow fan characteristics are indicated by Figs. 1 and 2. These
fans, when properly designed, have a satisfactory efficiency at low
resistance, comparing favorably in this respect with centrifugal fans.
They are low in cost and economical in operation and occupy relatively
little space. Although this type of fan can operate against considerable
resistance, the noise often becomes objectionable, so that it does not
always compare favorably with centrifugal fans for such service. With
most of the designs which employ blades of uniform thickness the power
increases rapidly with an increase in resistance.
The curves (Fig. 1) show the rapid reduction in capacity and increase in
power as the resistance increases. The low efficiency when overcoming
10
20
30 40 50 60 70
Per Cent of Wide Open Volume
80
90
100
FIG. 2. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF AN AIRPLANE PROPELLER FAN
heavy resistance is due to the low speed of the blades near the hub as
compared to the relatively high peripheral or tip speed. The air driven by
the blade area near the rim can pass back through the less effective blade
area at the hub more easily than it can overcome the duct resistance.
Fig. 2 shows the performance of the airplane propeller fan in which the
blades are similar in shape to those of an airplane propeller but of varying
number according to the pressure to be developed. This fan usually
operates at a higher speed than does the former type of propeller fan, and
with a different power characteristic, the power remaining fairly constant
throughout the range of pressures, being somewhat less at the higher than
at the lower pressures. The flatness of the horsepower curve indicates
the advantage of this type of fan in preventing overloading of motors
where fluctuations in pressure occur. Variations in the diameter, width,
pitch, camber, and the thickness of the blades provide a considerable
degree of flexibility in design, so that the peak of total efficiency may be
made to occur at wide-open volume or at various percentages of that
volume.
Another advantage of this type of axial flow fan is its low resistance to
air passage when standing still. There are some installations in which
such a characteristic is desirable.
535
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The straight blade (paddle-wheel) or partially backward Curved blade
type of fan is practically obsolete for ventilation. Its use is largely con-
fined to such applications as conveyors for material, or for gases con-
taining foreign material, fumes and vapors. The open construction and
the few large flat blades of these wheels render them resistant to corrosion
and tend to prevent material from collecting on the blades. This type of
fan has a good efficiency, but the power steadily increases as the static
pressure falls off, which requires that the motor be selected with a moder-
ate reserve in power to take care of possible error in calculation of duct
resistance.
40 50 60 70
Per Cent of Wide Open Volume
FIG. 3. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAN WITH BLADES CURVED FORWARD
The forward curved muUMade fan is the type most commonly used in
heating and ventilating work, as it has a low peripheral speed, a large
capacity, and is quiet in operation. The point of maximum efficiency for
this fan occurs near the point of maximum static pressure. ^ The static
pressure drops consistently from the point of maximum efficiency to full
open operation- The power curve rises continually from low to peak
capacity, but if reasonable care is exercised in figuring resistance there
is no danger of overloading the motor.
The outstanding characteristics of the full backward curve multiblade
type fan are the steep pressure curves, the non-overloading power curve,
and the high speed. (See Fig. 4.) This fan operates at a peripheral speed
of approximately 250 per cent of the forward curve multiblade type for
like results. The pressure curves begin to drop at very low capacity and
continue to fall rapidly to full outlet opening. The steep pressure curves
tend to produce constant capacity under changing pressures. Where
wide fluctuations in demand occur, this type of fan is desirable to prevent
overloading of motors. The maximum power requirement occurs at
about the maximum efficiency. Consequently a motor selected to carry
the load at this point will be of sufficient capacity to drive the fan over its
full range of capacities at a given speed. The high speed of this type
536
CHAPTER 27. FANS
makes it adaptable for direct connected electric motor drives. The high
speed may necessitate somewhat heavier construction and more operating
attention or service. The dimensional bulk for a given duty often is
150 per cent of that of a forward curve multiblade type fan.
Between the extremes of the forward and the full backward curve blade
type centrifugal fans a number of modified designs exist, differing in the
angularity or in the shape of the blades. Common among these designs
are the straight radial blade type, the radial tip type, and the double
curve blade type with a forward angle at the heel and a slight backward
angle at the tip of the blade. Characteristic curves of these types show
30 40 50 60 70
Per Cent of Wide Open Volume
FIG. 4. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAN WITH BLADES CURVED BACKWARD
varying degrees of resemblance to the curves of Figs. 3 and 4, according
to the degree of similarity to one or the other of the two designs of fan
considered.
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
A given fan performs as determined by the real characteristic of the
system to which it is attached. When a different performance of a fan is
desired, it is necessary to either change the speed of the fan (as A to B or
C to D in Fig. 5), or to change the system (as by moving a damper from A
to C in Fig. 5). If the speed of the fan is changed, the new point of opera-
tion is the intersection of the constant speed static pressure — cubic feet
per minute curve for the new speed with the system characteristic. If the
system is changed, the new point of operation is the intersection of the
constant speed static pressure, cubic feet per minute curve with the new
system characteristic.
Heating and ventilating systems follow the simple parabolic law quite
closely but other types of systems follow some other more or less complex
relation. The more complex systems can be separated into their com-
ponent parts whose individual characteristics are known and the sum-
mation of the characteristics of the several parts of a system will give the
composite characteristic of the system.
537
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SELECTION OF FANS
The following information is required to select the proper type of fan :
1. Cubic feet of air per minute to be moved.
2. Static pressure required to move the air through the system.
3. Type of motive power available.
4. Whether fans are to operate singly or in parallel on any one duct.
5. What degree of noise is permissible.
6. Nature of the load, such as variable air quantities or pressures.
1.4
PARABOLIC SYSTEM
CHARACTERISTICS
RESISTANCE oc C.F.M*
8 10 12 14
CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE IN 1000'S
FIG. 5. ILLUSTRATION OF OPERATING POINTS OF A GIVEN FAN AT Two SPEEDS
ON THE SAME AND DIFFERENT SYSTEMS
Knowing the requirements of the system, the main points to be con-
sidered for fan selection are (1) efficiency, (2) speed, (3) noise, (4) size and
weight, and (5) cost.
In order to facilitate the choice of apparatus, the various fan manu-
facturers supply fan tables or curves which usually show the following
factors for each size of fan operating against a wide range of static
pressures:
1. Volume of air in cubic feet per minute (68 F, 50 per cent relative humidity,
0.07488 Ib per cubic foot).
2. Outlet velocity.
3. Revolutions per minute.
4. Brake power.
5. Tip or peripheral speed.
6. Static pressure.
538
CHAPTER 27. FANS
The most efficient operating point of the fan is usually shown by either
bold-face or italicized figures in the capacity tables.
Fans for Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems
Two important factors in selecting fans for ventilating systems are
efficiency (which affects the cost of operation) and noise. First cost and
space available are secondary. The fans should be selected to operate
at maximum efficiency without noise. Because noise in a ventilating
system is irritating and a cause for complaint, fans must be selected of
proper size in order to reduce it to a minimum. Noise may be caused by
other factors than the fan, namely, high velocity in the duct work,
unsatisfactory location of the fan room, improper construction of floors
and walls, and poor installation. Where noise is chargeable directly to
the fan, it is caused either by excessive peripheral speeds, or the fan is of
insufficient size. It should be remembered, however, that the tip speed
TABLE 1.
GOOD OPERATING VELOCITIES AND TIP SPEEDS FOR FORWARD CURVED
MULTIBLADE VENTILATING FANS
STATIC PRESSURE
INCHES OF WATER
OTJTLET VELOCITY
FEET PEE MINUTE
TIP SPEED
FEET FOB Mnnrra
1A
1000-1100
1520-1700
1000-1100
1760-1900
%
1000-1200
1970-2150
%
1100-1300
2225-2450
%
1200-1400
2480-2700
%
1300-1600
2660-2910
l
1500-1800
2820-3120
1/4
1600-1900
3162-3450
lj^
1800-2100
3480-3810
1%
1900-2200
3760-4205
2
2000-2400
4000-4500
2J4
2200-2600
4250-4740
2H
2300-2600
4475-4970
3
2500-2800
4900-5365
required for a specified capacity and pressure varies with the type of
blade, and that a tip speed which may be excessive for the forward
curved type is not necessarily so for the backward or slightly backward
type. A noisy fan usually is one which is operated at a point considerably
beyond maximum efficiency.
For a given static pressure there is a corresponding outlet velocity and
peripheral speed wherein maximum efficiency is obtained. If a fan is
selected to operate at this point, the cost of operation and the noise can
be held within control.
To aid in selecting fans as near as possible to the point of maximum
efficiency, there are listed in Tables 1 and 2 for each static pressure cor-
responding outlet velocities and tip speeds which will give satisfactory
results. The proper tip speed for a given static pressure varies with the
design of wheel and with the number of blades or vanes in the wheel.
Lower outlet velocities than those listed in Table 1 may be employed,
but care must be exercised to avoid selecting a fan for operation below its
useful range. The useful range of the fans of Table 2 extends over the
full length of the performance curve.
539
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In exhaust ventilating systems where the air column moves toward the
fan, noise due to the higher tip speeds and outlet velocities will not be
so readily transmitted back through the air column to the building as
when the air column is moving toward the rooms. Therefore higher
outlet velocities may be used, but this will be at the expense of increased
horsepower.
Amply large fans should always be used for both exhaust and supply
systems, as there may be and usually is leakage despite the most careful
workmanship, necessitating the delivery of more air at the fans than is
exhausted from or supplied through the openings in the various rooms.
Long runs of distributing ducts, heaters, and air washers require
definite increments of the total pressure which a supply fan in a venti-
lating system must overcome. These static pressures should be con-
sidered when selecting the fan characteristics, speed, and power,
TABLE 2. GOOD OPERATING VELOCITIES AND TIP SPEEDS FOR MULTIBLADE VENTILATING
FANS WITH BACKWARD TIPPED AND DOUBLE CURVED BLADES
STATIC PEBSSURB
INCHES OP WA.TEB
OUTLET VELOCITY
FEET PEB MINTTTB
TIP SPEED
FEET PUB MINUTE
M
800-1100
2600-3100
%
800-1150
3000-3500
1^
900-1300
3400-4000
54
1000-1500
3800-4500
z/
1100-1650
4200-5000
Ji
1200-1750
4500-5300
1
1200-1900
4800-5750
1/4
1300-2100
5300-6350
1M
1400-2300
5750-6950
l?i
1500-2500
6200-7550
2
1600-2700
6650-8050
2M
1700-2800
7050-8550
2H
1800-2950
7450-9000
3
2000-3200
8200-9850
Fans picked within the limits of Table 1 will operate close to the point
of maximum efficiency. No attempt has been made to select these limits
for quiet operation, since this is a relative term and varies with the type
and location of the installation.
The connection of a fan to a metallic duct system should be made by
canvas or a similar flexible material so as to prevent the transmission of
fan vibration or noises. Where noise prevention is a factor the fan and its
driver should have floating foundations.
Fans for Drying
Both axial flow and centrifugal types of fans are used for drying work.
Propeller fans are well adapted to the removal of moisture-laden air when
operating against low resistance and when handling air at low tempera-
tures. Motors on these fans usually are of the fully-enclosed moisture-
proof types so that saturated air or air containing foreign material will
not injure the motors.
Unit heaters employing axial flow fans are widely used in the drying
540
CHAPTER 27. FANS
field. In drying, these fans may be used with unit heaters where jtiot
too much duct work is required and where air is to be delivered against
pressure, since the noise developed from the high peripheral speed of these
fans is not ordinarily objectionable in process work.
^ Centrifugal fans of the multiblade type generally are selected to supply
air for drying, as they are capable of delivering large volumes of air
against all pressures likely to be encountered.
^ Belt driven fans usually are to be preferred to direct-connected fans
since efficient motor speeds do not usually coincide with efficient fan
speeds. Replacement of a standard motor is quick and easy if it is belted.
Wherever drying is done throughout the year and where air require-
ments change as the drying conditions change, the drying can be speeded
up or reduced through* control of the fan capacity. This may be done by
changing the fan speed or by varying the outlet area with dampers. A
throttled outlet reduces the volume and reduces the power.
Due to the low speeds of forward curved multiblade or paddle-wheel
type fans, these can be direct-connected to reciprocating steam engines,
and the exhaust steam from the engines may be used in the heating
apparatus. In selecting engine driven fans for drying processes, where a
large quantity of exhaust steam is used in the heaters, a smaller fan and
greater power consumption may be used, because power economy is not
essential under this condition.
Where static pressure in a dryer varies, and where several fans must
operate in parallel, fans are to be preferred which have a continuously
rising pressure characteristic, such as is given by backward-curved or
double-curved blades. This type of fan is well adapted for direct-con-
nected motors of the higher speeds. (See Chapter 35 on Drying Systems.)
Fans for Dust Collecting and Conveying
The application of fans for handling refuse, dust, and fumes generated
by machine equipment is covered in Chapter 34. Information is given
regarding the methods for determining air quantities, the velocity required
for carrying various materials and the method of determining maintained
resistance or total static pressure at which the fan is to operate. The
selection of a proper size fan is at times governed by the future require-
ments of the plant. In many instances, additional future capacity is
anticipated and should be provided for.
Having determined the necessary volume of air and the maintained
resistance or static pressure required, the proper size fan may be selected
from the fan manufacturers' performance charts or capacity tables. The
fan chosen should be the size that will provide the required ultimate
quantities with the minimum power consumption.
FAN VOLUME CONTROL
Some method of volume control of fans usually is desirable. This may
be done by varying the peripheral velocity or by interposing resistance, as
by throttling-dampers. Both methods, since they reduce the volume of
air, reduce the power required. In many installations adjustments of
volume are desirable during varying hours of the day. In others an
541
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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CHAPTER 27. FANS
increased supply of air in summer over that needed for winter is demanded.
Experience is required in deciding whether speed-control or damper-
control shall be used for specific cases. Where noise is a factor, it may be
exceedingly desirable to reduce the speed at times, while on the other
hand, any fan which has its normal speed reduced as much as 50 per cent
without change in resistance will move only 50 per cent of the air.
FAN DESIGNATIONS
Facing the driving side of the fan, blower, or blast wheel, if the proper direction of
rotation is clockwise, the fan, blower, or blast wheel will be designated as clockwise.
If the proper direction of rotation is counter-clockwise, the designation will be counter-
clockwise. (The driving side of a single inlet fan is considered to be the side opposite
the inlet regardless of the actual location of the drive.)*
This method of designation will apply to all centrifugal fans, single or double width,
and single or double inlet. Do not use the word "hand," but specify "clockwise" or
1 ' counter-clockwise,"
The discharge of a fan will be determined by the direction of the line of air discharge
and its relation to the fan shaft, as follows:
Bottom horizontal: If the line of air discharge is horizontal and below the shaft
Top horizontal: If the line of air discharge is horizontal and above the shaft.
Up blast: If the line of air discharge is vertically up.
Down blast: If the line of air discharge is vertically down.
All intermediate discharges will be indicated as angular discharge as follows:
Either top or bottom angular up discharge or top or bottom angular down discharge,
the smallest angle made by the line of air discharge with the horizontal being specified.
In order to prevent misunderstandings, which cause delays and losses,
the arrangements of fan drives adopted by the National Association of
Fan Manufacturers and indicated in Fig. 6 are suggested.
If double width, double inlet fans are selected, care must be taken that
both inlets have the same free area. If one inlet of a fan is obstructed
more than the other, the fan will not operate properly, as one half of the
wheel will deliver more air than the other half. The backward curved and
double curved types with backward tip operate satisfactorily in double or
in parallel operation.
MOTIVE POWER
It is no easy matter to predetermine the exact resistance to be encoun-
tered by a fan or, having determined this resistance, to insure that no
changes in construction or operation shall ensue which may increase air
resistance, thus requiring more fan speed and power to deliver the required
volume, or which may reduce air resistance, thus causing delivery of more
air and a consequent increase of power even at constant speed.
It is recommended, therefore, for centrifugal type fans that the rated
power to be supplied shall exceed the rated fan power by a liberal margin,
when forward curved types are used. When backward or double curved
blade types are used, motors with ratings very close to that of the fan
horsepower demand can be employed, provided the fan has a limiting
horsepower characteristic.
^Recommendations adopted by the National Association of Fan Manufacturers.
543
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Justification for liberal power provision exists also in the possibility
of varying demand due to changes in ventilation requirements, intensity
of occupation, and weather conditions.
The motive power of fans should be determined in accordance with the
Standard Test Code for Disc and Propeller Fans, Centrifugal Fans and
Blowers, as adopted by the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTI-
LATING ENGINEERS and the National Association of Fan Manufacturers.
Fans may be driven by electric motors, steam engines (either horizontal
or vertical), gasoline or oil engines, and turbines, but as previously stated
the drive commonly used is the electric motor.
REFERENCES
Mine Ventilation, by J. J. Walsh (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 23, 1917, p, 659).
Fan Blower Design, by H. F. Hagen (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 28, 1922, p. 175).
The Specific Characteristics of Fans, by M. C. Stuart and J. B. Lusk (A.S H V.E.
JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, September, 1936, p. 507).
Non-Dimensional Fan Characteristics, by H. Carlton Moore (A.S H V.E. JOURNAL
SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, September, 1937, p. 580).
Section X, A.S.H.V.E. Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating and Venti-
lation of Buildings (Edition of 1929).
' Coal Miners Pocket Book.
Constructive Mechanism and the Centrifugal Fan, by George D. Beals.
Fans, by Theodore Baumeister, Jr.
Fan Engineering, Buffalo Forge Company.
Heating Ventilating and Air Conditioning, by Harding and Willard, Revised Edition,
1932.
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, by Kent.
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, by Lionel S. Marks.
The Centrifugal Fan, by Frank L. Busey.
The Fan, by Charles H. Innes.
The Theory and Performance of Axial-Flow Fans, by L. S. Marks and J. R. Weske.
Theories and Practices of Centrifugal Ventilating Machines, by D. Murgue, trans-
lated by A. L. Stevenson.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What information must be supplied to the manufacturer when ordering
a centrifugal fan?
a. Size of fan (catalog number).
b. Type of fan.
c. Width of fan (single or double) .
d. Number of inlets (single or double).
e. Fan performance and kind of application.
/. Direction of rotation (clockwise or counter-clockwise).
g. Direction of discharge (top horizontal, down blast, etc.).
h. Drive arrangement (see Fig. 6).
i. Style of housing (full, three-quarters, etc.).
544
CHAPTER 27. FANS
2 • In selecting fans for quiet operation in public buildings:
a. Should the outlet velocity of the fan be limited?
b. Should the tip speed of the fan be limited?
a. Because all commercial fans operating at pressures suitable for this class of work
would be considered noisy if the fan were to discharge directly into the room, and
because the duct system on the fan discharge is depended upon to absorb a reasonable
am?UtIlt noise> i1: is desirabk to have a moderate run of duct work with some bends
and elbows included as sound deadeners. Where this duct is of necessity very short, the
outlet velocity must be kept down to the lower limits recommended in this chapter or
else an efficient sound absorber must be used. The experience of the engineer must be
his guide in determining the allowable outlet velocity in each individual case.
6. Tip speed should not ordinarily be limited, because different types of fan blades have
entirely different allowable tip speeds for quiet operation. A fan having a backward
blade at the tip can run at much higher tip speed than can a forward curved or a straight
blade fan, with the same degree of quietness.
3 • Is a direct connected or a belted fan preferable in public building work?
Where space is at a premium, direct connection is best. Next in space economy is the
short V-belt drive. The flat belt drive fan requires the greatest floor space. In this
class of work, pressures are usually so low that even with the high speed fans the motor
cost is greater for direct connected units than for belt drive fans.
4 • a. What type fans are used in industrial work?
b. What outlet velocity is suitable?
a. All of the centrifugal types are suitable; the disc and propeller types are suitable for
low pressure work, or they are often used as exhausters.
b. The outlet velocities on fans for industrial work can be much higher than can those in
public building work, where quietness is essential. Fans should be selected with outlet
velocities as recommended in this chapter, using the upper limit of velocities.
5 • Are direct connected or belted fans preferred in industrial work?
In industrial applications, fans are often advantageously direct connected to motors.
The pressures are usually high enough to use standard motor speeds. The high speed
types of fans have limiting horsepower characteristics so that little margin in power must
be provided in^the driving motor. Belted fans may be used, but where high power is
required a special arrangement is often necessary for shaft and bearings on account of the
weight of the sheave and the belt pull.
6 • A forward curved multiblade fan which requires 5.4 bhp is delivering 22,800
cfm at 70 F against a resistance pressure of 1 in. of water at an outlet velocity
of 1440 fpm:
a. What is the static efficiency?
h. What is the total efficiency?
a. 66.3 per cent (see Equation 2).
b. 74.5 per cent (see Equation 3).
7 • If the above fan has a 54-in. diameter wheel and operates at 193 rpm,
will it be suitable for a ventilating installation where a minimum of noise is
desirable?
Yes. The tip speed will be 2720 fpm and this, together with the 1440 fpm outlet velocity,
falls within the limits given in Table 1 for 1-in. resistance pressure.
8 • What objectionable feature is inherent in the ordinary propeller fan when
it is operating at high resistance pressures?
It must operate at a high speed with consequent noise.
545
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
9 • At what point should a fan be selected for operation, and why?
At its point of maximum efficiency because the cost of operation and the noise produced
will be least.
10 Q In Fig. 3, a static pressure of 85 per cent of blocked tight pressure cor-
responds to three different volumes, namely 11 per cent, 30 per cent and 48 per
cent of wide open volume. What will determine which volume the fan delivers?
The fan can operate only at the intersection of its pressure-volume curve and the system
characteristic. The type of system, together with the specification of the volume at a
certain static pressure, completely defines the system characteristic.
As illustrated in Fig. 5, a given system characteristic will intersect the fan curve in only
one point.
If the 85 per cent value for static pressure is specified for the 48 per cent value of volume,
it is at once obvious that the same system will not have the same resistance at any other
volume.
546
Chapter 28
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Definitions, Grille Locations, Standards for Satisfactory Con-
ditions, Factors Affecting Distribution for Cooling and Heat-
ing, Air Outlet Noises, Selection of Supply Outlets, Balancing
System
CORRECT air distribution contributes as much or more to the success
V^i of a forced air heating, ventilating, cooling or air conditioning system
as does any other single factor. Supplying the proper amount of air is
one problem; properly distributing it from the point where it leaves the
fan is another. The distribution problem may be further divided into:
(a) distribution to the various spaces served by the system, (b) distribution
in these spaces. This discussion is primarily limited to division (b),
reference being made to the duct system only insofar as it affects the
performance of the air distribution outlets.
Definitions
In this discussion, the term air outlets or outlets will be used to designate
a cover for an opening, whether it is a grille or a register.
A register is denned as an outlet with a damper, and a grille is defined
as an outlet without a damper.
The perpendicular distance over which the air will satisfactorily carry
measured between the face of the outlet and the opposite wall is the
throw. In the case of directional flow outlets, this may be less than the
actual carry of the air.
The core area of the" outlet is the area of that portion of the grille
inside the frame through which the air can flow.
The ratio of width to height of the core area is termed the aspect ratio.
GRILLE LOCATIONS
The location of supply and exhaust outlets is extremely important if a
satisfactory installation is to be secured. Very frequently, however, the
room or building is planned and constructed with P^^1? ™ ^I
sideration of this problem. The engineer of today is more likely than not
to have as his problem a building that was constructed long before any
consideration whatever was given to air conditioning it Co W^Jto
the room shapes, the location of columns and beams, and other detai s ot
architecture frequently make it difficult to properly ^^^^
In general, for a cooling installation, the grilles should be located high
enourfi from the floor to prevent the discharge of air directly upon the
o^upants S the room, and far enough down from the ceiling to minimize
547
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FIG. 1.
PLAN VIEW LONG THROW
SUPPLY OUTLET
FIG. 2.
PLAN VIEW SHORT THROW
SUPPLY OUTLETS
the possibility of streaking, and to permit induction of air from all sides
of the stream. If the stream actually strikes the ceiling, but at a small
angle, the throw will be increased somewhat if the ceiling is smooth. If
the angle at which the stream hits the ceiling is 20 deg or more, or if the
flow along the ceiling is obstructed by panel mouldings or beams, air
velocity may be rapidly lost and a decreased throw result. The air stream
also should be so directed that it will not strike nearby columns or beams
in such a way as to cause misdirection of the air stream or drafts. Where
the room is of irregular shape, as an ell, or where it has an alcove in one
side, consideration should be given to obtaining satisfactory circulation
in these corners. Frequently this cannot be done except by the use of
multiple supply outlets. In using multiple outlets, care must be taken
that the several air streams do not interfere with each other, until
their velocities have been reduced to values which will not cause high
turbulence and a drafty condition. Beams and offsets in the ceiling will
cause little difficulty when substantially parallel to the direction of flow,
unless they are of considerable depth, but when positioned across the air
stream, may cause drafts and failure to secure satisfactory circulation in
that portion of the room farthest from the outlet. In the case of a
heating installation, down-drafts produced by such obstructions may not
be serious, because the air will rapidly lose its downward motion, but the
possibility of failure to obtain satisfactory circulation still exists.
The location of supply outlets should, if possible, be such as to take
advantage of the maximum velocity permissible from a noise standpoint.
For instance, the spaces illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2 may be satisfactorily
served by either arrangement. However, by taking advantage of the long
/
'
Y?
FIG. 3. ELEVATION VIEW CEILING SUPPLY
OUTLET WITH RETURN WALL OUTLET
V / 1
J
FIG. 4. ELEVATION VIEW CEILING
SUPPLY AND RETURN OUTLET
548
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
throw, to which the arrangement in Fig. 1 lends itself, fewer outlets are
required and additional savings are effected in the sheet metal work.
In solving the problem of properly conditioning a room of irregular
shape, where multiple wall supply grilles are objectionable, a ceiling out-
let of the type illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4 may very often be the best
solution.
In choosing the most desirable location for the return air grille, con-
sideration should be given to its effect on circulation of the air through
the room. It is generally true that the return air grille should be placed
on the same wall as the supply and near the floor level. This results in a
r
FIG. 5. ELEVATION VIEW CORRECTLY LOCATED RETURN OUTLET
FIG. 6. ELEVATION VIEW OF IMPROPERLY LOCATED RETURN OUTLET
U-shaped air path (Fig. 5) which covers the room thoroughly. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 6 should be avoided, because it tends to create
a stagnant section below the supply grille. What would otherwise be an
unsatisfactory dead spot in a room may in some instances be taken care
of by location of the return air grille near that area (Fig. 7).
STANDARDS FOR SATISFACTORY CONDITIONS
\
The most satisfactory air condition cannot be definitely stated for any
particular individual without conducting a series of tests with that
individual as subject; some persons are less sensitive than others to
variations in temperature, humidity, air velocity and noise. The best
549
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
that can be done is to attempt to set limiting conditions leaning toward
the values of these variables which produce a condition of comfort for the
greatest number of individuals. On a cooling installation, the allowable
deviation from average room temperature, that is, the temperature of
puffs of air which may strike a person momentarily, is a function of the
room temperature as well as the velocity of the air. For instance, in a
room controlled at 72 F, a puff of air at 70 F^might be uncomfortable to
an individual, even at relatively low velocities, whereas if the average
room temperature were 80 F, air at 78 F, even at moderate velocities,
might be very satisfactory. However, air at 78 F in an average room
temperature of 83 F would be cold. In general, other conditions being
equal, for the range of temperatures normally encountered in living
quarters on cooling installations, the permissible deviation from average
room temperature varies from approximately 1 F at the low end of the
range to about 3 F at the high end of the range. In this matter, it is
important to consider the particular problem in the light of the type of
occupancy. For instance, greater deviations from room temperature and
higher velocities may be permitted in a garage or a hotel hallway than
would be permissible in an office or living room. The velocity which may
be considered the permissible maximum differs with the temperature
deviation for a given installation, but an absolute maximum under any
conditions might be considered that which would produce a mechanical
disturbance, such as the movement of a person's hair or disturbance of
papers on a desk. Humidity is an important consideration in the deter-
mination of one's feeling of comfort; however, if the room generally is
assumed ^to be at a satisfactory value of relative humidity, the designer is
justified in neglecting this factor when considering permissible fluctuations
in temperature and velocity in the occupancy zone. This is true because
the maximum allowable temperature fluctuation results in an unnoticeable
humidity change.
The standards that might be set up for maximum allowable room
temperature deviation and air velocity would not be the same for both
heating and cooling installations. In the former case, any appreciable
temperature deviation is likely to be above rather than below the average
room temperature, whereas the reverse is most likely to be true on a
cooling installation. Further, because air movement has a cooling effect
in itself, the feeling of warmth due to temperatures above room tem-
perature is counteracted to a certain extent so that an individual may be
subjected to higher velocities of warm air without the feeling of dis-
comfort occasioned by the same velocities of cool air. In every case, it
should be the purpose of the designing engineer to keep the conditions
within the zone of occupancy as nearly uniform as possible, securing
minimum temperature deviations and low velocities. The air velocity
at all points in the room should be at least 25 fpm for good results.
.- - . satisfactory to measure velocity only, since on
cooling installations high velocities normally occur with low temperatures,
and on heating installations high velocities occur with high temperatures.
That is, in the former case, the chilled supply air loses its velocity and
undergoes an increase in temperature as it settles into the occupancy
550
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
zone, whereas in the latter case the heated-supply air loses its velocity and
undergoes a decrease in temperature during this process. Therefore, if the
average velocities within the occupancy zone are not excessive, one is
fairly safe in assuming that the temperature difference is also within
permissible limits.
The subject of sound control is covered in Chapter 30 and it is recom-
mended for detailed review before consideration of the problem of air
outlet noise. An understanding of the relation between sound intensity
and loudness level in decibels, as well as the effect of the presence of sound
absorbent materials in the room, is particularly necessary, A more
detailed discussion of the nature of this problem appears later; whereas
the following comments refer to what constitutes a satisfactory noise
condition.
Obviously, the nature of the conditioned space is important when con-
sidering the allowable outlet noise. In factories, press rooms, and similar
FIG. 7. PLAN VIEW CORRECTLY LOCATED RETURN OUTLET ELIMINATING
STAGNANT SPACE
spaces where the noise level is 65 db or higher, no complaints of grille
noise are likely to be made. On the other hand, some homes, offices,
hospitals, and, most of all, radio broadcasting and movie sound studios
present a real problem which must be intelligently attacked if a satis-
factory installation is to be made. In this chapter the noise of the air
outlets (and returns) only is considered, it being assumed that the noise or
sound level of the room without the outlet noise includes that which may
be contributed by fans, motors, duct work, and other items of conditioning
equipment. The control of noise from these sources is another problem
(see Chapter 30). Where sound control is important, the actual room
sound level without conditioning equipment should be known. If
feasible, the contribution of the conditioning equipment, less outlets,
should be estimated to secure the working sound level. If this correction
is not made, the use of the first value errs in the direction of safety.
It is evident that the point within the room which should concern the
designer in this problem is that at which the outlet noise is greatest. A
tentative standard listening point relative to the outlet is suggested later
in this discussion, and it is assumed that the outlet noise data are taken
551
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
with reference to this point. If it is desired that the outlet noise result in
an inaudible addition to the existing noise level, it is safe to assume the
total outlet noise to be 5 db below room level. This results in an increase
in total noise of slightly over 1 db, which is unnoticeable. If an increase
of 3 db is permissible, the outlet noise level may be equal to the room noise
level alone. All outlets in the room must be considered, as will appear
later, and the returns may be ignored only if they are so sized that the
velocity of air through them is much less than through the outlet.
DISTRIBUTION FACTORS IN ROOM COOLING
In attempting to design a satisfactory air distributing system, it is first
necessary to properly locate the grilles in accordance with the recom-
mendations already stated. Assuming that the best locations have been
selected, it then becomes necessary to choose the proper grille for that
location. The considerations involved are the amount of air to be
handled, the velocity permissible from- the standpoint of noise, and the
distance the air should carry. The distance it will carry, assuming no
obstructions, is affected by a number of factors which are listed below:
1. The temperature difference between incoming and room air.
2. Height of grille above floor.
3. Face velocity.
4. Core area.
5. Core aspect ratio.
6. Design of grille.
The manner in which the above factors affect throw may be generally
stated. All other things being constant, a lower temperature of incoming
air will result in shorter throw; a greater height above the floor will affect
a longer throw; a higher velocity will produce a longer throw; greater area
will give longer throw; larger aspect ratio will decrease throw. The
variation in throw with type of outlet will, of course, depend upon the
design characteristics of the oiitlet.
In consideration of what constitutes the possible throw of an outlet
under a given set of conditions, it is important to remember that the
throw may be unsatisfactory for any one of several reasons:
m 1. It may be so long that it will strike the far side of the room and come down the wall
with velocities higher than are permissible,
2. It may be so short that it will fail to carry the full length of the room, and short-
circuit to the return air outlet, or
3. It may spill into the center of the room.
In the first case, the system fails for lack of uniform distribution and the
presence of cold areas. In the second case, the standards as to velocity
and temperature difference in the zone of occupancy may be satisfactorily
met, but air distribution and circulation throughout the entire room is not
accomplished, with the result that the end of the room away from the
outlet would not be satisfactorily conditioned. In the third case, the
shortcomings of both case one and case two are present. It is evident,
therefore, that for a given outlet discharging air at a given velocity, there
is a maximum and a minimum length of room which can be satisfactorily
552
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
handled. In the latter, the velocity of the air down the far wall is Just
within the maximum permissible, while in the former, satisfactory circu-
lation is barely accomplished.
In general, the higher the outlet is above the floor, the greater may be
the difference between room air and incoming air temperatures.
Assuming that proper supply outlets for a given installation have been
selected, unsatisfactory performance may still result due to the con-
struction of the duct work immediately back of the outlets. Performance
data on the grilles and registers of various manufacturers should be based
upon results obtained with the air approaching the grille perpendicularly
and at uniform velocity over the entire duct cross-section. Where this
condition does not exist in practice, performance predictions based ^on
published data cannot be expected to be realized. Every precaution
should be taken to secure as nearly ideal conditions in the approaching air
stream as are possible.
FIG. 8. EFFECTS OF
EXPANDING DUCT
FIG. 9. UNEQUAL FACE
VELOCITIES
FIG. 10. EFFECT OF
TURNING MEMBER
In addition to disturbances due to the construction of the duct work
itself are those which may be created by dampers immediately behind the
grille. Where either multiple louvre or single blade dampers are used,
considerable deflection of the air stream may result, if it is throttled
appreciably by these means. This is particularly true when the fins of the
register core are perpendicular to the damper blades. If the core has
sufficient depth and the fins are parallel to the blades, there is a marked
tendency to straighten the air stream, although some deflection may still
result.
Any attempt to secure a low face velocity and high duct velocity by
the construction of any expanding chamber immediately behind the grille
is very likely to be unsuccessful. In order to expand from a small duct to
a larger one, and have the air stream fill the duct at the end of the diverg-
ing section without turbulence, angle A in Fig. 8 should be about 3 deg
for four-sided expansion and about 5 deg for two-sided expansion. From
this it is apparent that an attempt to secure equivalent results with a
short connection would be futile. What actually happens when this is
attempted is illustrated by the arrows in Fig. 8. When localized high
velocities through the outlet exist from this cause or any other, the noise
produced will naturally exceed that which the outlet area and average
face velocity would lead one to expect. This fact should be remembered
553
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
in considering the use of register dampers, particularly in those cases
where there must be considerable throttling with the damper to balance a
poorly designed system. Where reduction of noise is important, it is
recommended that balancing dampers be placed in the duct ahead of the
acoustic duct lining.
Similar unequal face velocities, aggravated by a deflection of the air
stream, are obtained with the arrangement shown in Fig. 9. The latter
may be corrected by inserting a turning member in the elbow back of the
outlet face as shown in Fig. 10. The importance of straightening the air
stream and affecting uniform distribution over the entire face of the outlet
cannot be over-emphasized.
DISTRIBUTION FACTORS IN ROOM HEATING
The problem in the case of a heating installation is substantially the
same as in cooling, with a few exceptions. Because the temperature of
the incoming air is above that of the room, there is no tendency 'for it to
drop and consequently the throw is not particularly affected by tem-
perature difference in a low ceiling room. In' general, the air should be
deflected downward where the grille is above the occupancy zone, and this
is particularly desirable where the ceiling is high. For the same reason,
that is, to keep the heat in the occupancy zone and to avoid excessive
temperature at the ceiling, it is desirable to have the grille comparatively
low on the wall, and just slightly above the occupancy zone. If the grille
is lower than this, it may create an unsatisfactory condition of very warm
air at quite high velocities where it can possibly strike the occupants of
the room. Where the velocities are very low, the grilles may even be
satisfactorily located below the 6 ft level, although the immediate vicinity
of the supply outlets will probably be useless for occupancy because of
high temperature. Essentially, the problem is to keep the incoming air
up for cooling, and down for heating, until it is thoroughly mixed with the
room air. Grilles and registers which are adjustable for deflection upward
and downward, either by moving the fins or inverting the grille, are in
general use.
AIR OUTLET NOISES
When air is introduced into a room through a grille or register at a
constant velocity, sound energy is being introduced into the enclosure at
a constant rate. Due to partial reflection at the boundaries of the en-
closure, the intensity of sound at any point in the space builds up to some
maximum value. . In a large room at a point remote from the source of
sound (the outlet) the intensity can be shown to be substantially pro-
portional to the rate at which sound energy is generated and inversely
proportional to the number of sound absorption units (sabins) in the
room. It would thus appear that doubling the sound absorption of the
room would halve the intensity and result in a noise level decrease of 3 db.
However, it is not satisfactory to consider the grille noise on this basis
(wherein the sound power received directly from the source is small
compared with that received by reflection) since in practice the occupants
of the room may be quite dose to the grille. The nearer the listener is to
554
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
the sound source, the greater the proportion of the sound intensity which
is due to direct transmission.
In the absence of generally accepted standards at this time it is sug-
gested that the loudness level 5 ft from the lower edge of the outlet,
measured downward at 45 deg in a plane perpendicular to the outlet at its
center, represents about the maximum within the zone of occupancy.
The cases where persons are nearer to the outlet than this are rare and are
ignored in the consideration of this problem. Although the effect of sound
absorbent material on the intensity at the 5 ft station is not nearly so great
as at more remote points in the room, it should not be ignored without
consideration of the error involved. An average living room may contain
100 sabins (absorption units). If this be decreased to 50 sabins, the
diffuse or reflected sound level would be increased 3 db. However, at the
5 ft station the increase would be less than 2 db. If the absorption of the
room be increased to 200 sabins, one might expect a reduction in diffuse
noise of 3 db; but at the 5 ft station the reduction would be less than
1% db. Furthermore, even though the absorption be increased without
limit (as in free space) the reduction would still be less than 2 db because
of proximity to the source.
In comparing sound ratings of various grilles, the following must be
known if the information is to be intelligently applied:
1. The threshold intensity on which the decibel ratings are based.
2. The distance from the grille at which data were taken.
3. If stated as loudness level versus velocity for a given grille, the core area (not
nominal area) must be known.
4. The sound absorbing characteristics of the test room.
5. Whether or not corrected for test room loudness level; if not, the room level
(without grille noise) must be known.
6. Methods used for recording data.
Data mentioned in this chapter are assumed to have been referred to
the following:
1. Threshold intensity = 1(H6 watts per square centimeter1.
2. Microphone location 5 ft from lower edge of outlet on a line downward at 45 deg
and in a plane bisecting the outlet perpendicularly,
3. Where data are given as loudness level versus velocity, the rating is per square foot
of core area.
4. The room is assumed to have 100 sabins absorption.
5. Plotted data are loudness levels of outlets only, correction having been made for
test room level.
6. Data taken with a direct reading sound-level meter with frequency weighting
network intended to approximate the response of the human ear.
If the published ratings are in terms of decibels per square foot, cor-
rection must be made for area to secure to total sound level of outlets of
more or less than one square foot area. This can be done by use of the
following formula:
Decibel Addition = 10 logio A (1)
American Tentative Standards for Noise Measurement, American Standards Association.
555
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
where: A = core area, square feet.
In practice the allowable total sound and the required air flow are
usually known, and it is desired to determine the maximum allowable
velocity. Since total loudness and air flow are both functions of velocity
and area, the solution of the problem by use of the previous analysis
implies a trial and error method. It- has been found possible to present
these data with sufficient practical accuracy as a family of uniform curves
as illustrated in Fig. 11. With this chart it is possible to find directly the
velocity in feet per minute which will give a predetermined total loudness
at a predetermined rate of flow expressed in cubic feet per minute. The
values used are arbitrarily chosen for the purpose of discussion and do not
necessarily represent data referring to any particular make of grille,
10000
Siooo-
100
10
100 1000
RATE OF FLOW, CFM
FIG. 11. AIR FLOW AND LOTJDNESS CHART
toooo
register or air outlet. It is assumed that Fig. 11 is based on a room having
100 sabins of sound absorption. In such a room the sound level due to
other sources may be 35 db. As previously stated an outlet having a noise
level of 30 db would be substantially inaudible in such a room.
If 1000 cfm are required with a total noise due to outlet of 30 db, a
velocity (Fig. 11) of about 675 fpm may be used. From this velocity and
the rate of flow, the core area can be computed. This determination was
on the basis of a room absorption of 100 sabins. If the absorption is
greater, the 675 fpm velocity is safe, since the loudness level will go down.
However, correction can be made if desired by the use of the chart of
Fig. 12. Thus, if the absorption is 200 sabins, a correction of +1.3 db
may be made and the permissible velocity becomes that corresponding to
a total loudness level of 31.3 decibels or approximately 750 fpm. If the
room is highly reflecting and has an absorption of less than 100, correction
is much more important. For instance, for 35 sabins a correction of — 3 db
556
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
must be made and the maximum velocity corresponding to 27 db total
loudness chosen; that is, approximately 550 fpm.
Where more than one outlet must be considered, the problem is more
complicated. If a similar outlet is added in a far corner of a highly
absorbent room, the change in noise level at the 5 ft station at the first
1000
ooo-
eoo-
TOO-
6OO-
600-
400-
3OO-
. 2OO-
1OO-
30-
80-
70-
60-
50-
40-
3O-
20-
1O-
t
-5 -4 -3 ~2 -1
DECIBELS CORRECTION
FIG. 12. ROOM ABSORPTION CORRECTION CHART
outlet is small; however, if the room is small, or highly reverberant <
both, the intensity at the 5 ft station may be almost doubled and tl
noise level increased nearly 3 db thereby. The simplest method of han<
ling this problem, and one which errs in the direction of safety, is to tre;
the room as though all the air were being supplied by one outlet; Thu
if two outlets, each supplying 1000 cfm are used, the value 2000 cf
557
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
should be used with Fig. 11* Although this method may place an un-
warranted limit on velocity when used in a large room, it is seldom that
such a room has a noise level low enough to make this penalty serious or to
justify a more complicated though more exact procedure.
In general, return grilles are selected for velocities about half the supply
velocity, and when this is done, they may be neglected in sound computa-
tions. However, if supply and return grilles are the same size, resulting in
the same face velocity, they must be treated as two supply outlets. That
is, if 1000 cfm is supplied and exhausted through grilles of the same area,
2000 cfm must be used in the solution with Fig. 11.
SELECTION OF SUPPLY OUTLETS
After the heating and cooling load calculations have been made
(Chapters 7 and 8), and, or a suitable supply air temperature selected, the
FIG. 13. PLAN VIEW TYPICAL GENERAL OFFICE
volume of air required for each space can be determined. The next step is
to determine the velocity at which the air may be introduced into the
space quietly and without creating objectionable drafts.
Present-day grille design coupled with the introduction of effective
acoustical treatment for minimizing fan and duct noises have made grille
face velocities in excess of 1500 fpm feasible, and 600 to 1200 fpm is
now used in practice. This range of velocities is approximately three
times higher than common practice values of a few years ago.
Since high velocities make for smaller ducts and outlets, and therefore
savings in space as well as greater flexibility in locating the duct work to
the best advantage, selection of design velocities is a very important step.
^ The selection of proper velocity requires that the designer have before
him reliable data applicable to the particular make of outlet he proposes
to use. Even^ under these circumstances, the problem is one of cut and try
because permissible velocity may be determined by either noise or throw.
A method for selecting supply outlets is outlined below in the form of a
sample cooling problem, using numerical values which have no reference
to any particular make of outlet.
55$
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
1. The load calculations have been made; a suitable temperature differential has been
selected (it is to be understood that the data referred to from this point on are based on
this temperature differential), and the volume of air required determined. Assume that
Fig. 13 represents a small general office having a noise level of 40 db and that 2500 cfm
must be supplied for proper conditioning.
2. Select a tentative location for the outlet or outlets, having in mind the type of
grille most likely to effect proper distribution. In this particular case, two outlets
having a wide spread appears to be a logical choice.
3. Data from which to determine velocity which corresponds to 2500 cfm and a noise
rating at least 5 db below the noise level of the office may be presented in a number of
forms, one of which is shown in Fig. 11. (Fig. 11 represents assumed values only. In
practice similar data should be obtained from the manufacturer whose outlets are being
considered. Several similar charts or tables may be necessary to cover any one manu-
facturer's complete line.) From Fig. 11 it will be noted that for 2500 cfm the type of
grille selected may be used at velocities up to 700 fpm without exceeding 35 db; that is,
5 db below the noise level of office.
4. Having determined the velocity, the core area becomes fixed at 3.57 sq ft or 257
sq in. per outlet. In this problem, the two grilles in question are so close together that
consideration of their combined area in determining the permissible velocity from the
standpoint of noise introduces little error.
5. The type grille selected has thus far been found satisfactory from a noise stand-
point, provided the face velocity does not exceed 700 fpm. The next consideration is
throw, which may be assumed to be 16 ft, and by reference to a manufacturer's catalogue
the proper correlative test data may be checked with the throw assumed. It is of course
evident that one or more types of grilles may satisfy the requirements, and that in any
one type there will be a choice of outlet proportions. It will also be evident that the
tentative selection of ^ an outlet having a wide spread may be unsatisfactory from the
standpoint of throw, in which event a second choice should be made and the procedure
repeated.
In. the case of a heating problem, the method of solution is the same,
but the manufacturer's data must, of course, be based on tests with air
above room temperature.
TYPES OF SUPPLY OUTLETS
Grille, registers or outlet design for attaining uniform distribution and
minimum air resistance consists of various fixed and adjustable arrange-
ments. Some types are designed with directing air blades, fins, bars,
louvres, or thin metal strips shaped'into a series of grooves or tubes, all of
which may be set into a suitable round, square or rectangular frame. In
order to attain desired long or short air throws, the emergence of air from
the outlet may be directed to straight, deflecting, converging or jet air
streams depending upon the outlet design. Designs which direct the air
stream to produce an ejector effect within the enclosed space tend to mix
the room air with the conditioned air to provide uniform distribution.
Centrally located Veiling or wall type outlets arranged for completely
diffusing the air consist of several round, hollow, cone-shaped flaring
members placed in the proper relationship to each other. The velocity of
emergence of the air from the unit can be made practically uniform over
the entire surface of the outlet, and the velocity in any direction may be
varied to any desired value by adjusting the position of the cones. One
or more of the smaller flaring members act as ejectors and injectors which
draw a small proportion of the room air into the air spreader where it
mixes with the conditioned air before it is discharged.
559
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
An idea for producing even distribution of air consists of a perforated
ceiling made of a suitable architectural surface and installed a small
distance below the normal ceiling level of the room. In the space provided
by this suspended ceiling a plenum chamber is formed into which the
conditioned air is introduced. From the plenum space the air is permitted
to diffuse through the large number of small ceiling openings into the
room.
Railroad Cars
The early practice of air conditioning railroad passenger cars consisted
of a system of bulkhead distribution for the conditioned air. The air was
discharged through an inlet opening at each end of the car toward the
middle with the flow parallel to the long dimension of the can This type
of installation resulted in drafts in the middle of the car and was con-
sidered unsatisfactory except for small sections that did not require large
quantities of air. Later designs incorporated a duct delivery system on
each side of the car roof directing the air through numerous inlet openings
toward the middle of the car where the two air streams come in contact
and deflect downward, gradually filtering into the aisle. At the present
time; several center duct air distribution systems are used in railroad car
applications. In some instances, square or circular ceiling outlets con-
nected to a center duct have been used, which distribute the air along the
ceiling in widening circles and at right angles to the inlet opening. Another
method consists of a continuous slot in the bottom of the duct to which is
attached a flat plate so that the air is deflected along the car ceiling.
There are also installations in which the ceiling of the car is constructed of
perforated metal through which the conditioned air flows through thou-
sands of openings from a plenum chamber. Extensive tests of all methods
of air distribution indicate that desirable results are obtained from an
inside center duct with a large number of openings.
Sleeping cars present a special problem in air distribution on account of
the^ berth curtains. In some cars, each lower berth is equipped with an
individual fan to draw in cooled air from the aisle, In other cars, small
individual ducts with adjustable air outlets deliver air from the central
supply system to each lower berth. Upper berths require no special
arrangement.
BALANCING SYSTEM
In designing an air conditioning system, it should be the aim of the
engineer to so proportion the duct system that proper distribution of air to
every outlet will be obtained. Since this is almost impossible to accom-
plish in practice, it becomes necessary to have means of balancing the
system to secure the desired amount of air in each space. There are a
number of ways in which this may be accomplished, some of which are
listed:
1. Dampers on the supply grilles.
2. Dampers on the return grilles.
3. Dampers in the supply ducts.
4. Dampers in the return ducts.
5. Reducing the effective area of some outlets by blank-offs.
6. Combinations of dampers in both supply and return air.
560
CHAPTER 28. AIR DISTRIBUTION
Dampers on the supply grilles themselves are objectionable because of
their effect on the air stream. Dampers on the return grilles are frequently
helpful in building up a static pressure in the room to prevent infiltration
of outside air, and at the same time reduce the volume of incoming air.
However, it is frequently impossible to sufficiently reduce the incoming
air by this method alone. A damper in the supply duct some distance
back of the outlet forms a very satisfactory means of regulating the flow
without disturbing distribution across the outlet face. A damper in the
return air duct has the advantage over one immediately behind the grille
in that it does not tend to create high localized velocities through the
grille as the latter might do if nearly closed. Blank-offs consisting of
pieces of sheet metal covering a portion of the outlet face can frequently
be used satisfactorily, although determination of just what is required is
a matter of experiment, and the balancing of the system is not nearly so
conveniently accomplished as with dampers. Dampers in both supply
and return air form the most flexible means of controlling the supply to the
room and the static pressure within the room. When feasible, these
dampers, particularly those in the supply ducts, should be a ^substantial
distance from the outlet, and ahead of the acoustic duct lining if used.
Due consideration should also be given to the use of the several volume
control and uniform distribution devices now available. See Catalog
Data Section.
REFERENCES
Methods of Air Distribution, by L. L. Lewis (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34,
1928, p. 491).
Air Supply, Distribution and Exhaust Systems, by S. R. Lewis (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 139).
Characteristics of Registers and Grilles, by J. H. Van Alsburg (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 41, 1935, p. 245).
The Noise Characteristics of Air Supply Outlets, by D. J, Stewart and G. F. Drake
(A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, January, 1937,
p. 65).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What important factors are involved in the correct distribution of air to an
enclosed space?
Not only is it important to distribute the air from the fan to the various spaces served
by the system, but also the air must be properly distributed within the enclosed space to
give complete satisfaction.
2 • Upon what basis should the selection of supply outlets be based?
If possible, the selection should take advantage of the maximum velocity permissible
from a noise standpoint.
3 • What factors in grille design effect the length of air throw?
a. The temperature difference between incoming and room air, &. height ^ of grille above
floor, c. face velocity, d. core area, e. core aspect ratio, and/, design of grille.
4 • How does the height of a supply outlet affect the temperature differential
within a room?
In general, the higher the outlet is above the floor, the greater may be the difference
between room air and incoming air temperatures.
561
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
5 • Under conditions prevalent in a large room, how does the intensity of sound
develop at an air outlet vary?
The intensity of sound energy is substantially proportional to the rate at which sound
energy is generated and inversely proportional to the number of sound absorption units
in the room.
6 • What are the essential differences between a high velocity long throw and
short throw grille?
Generally, a high velocity long throw grille is used where a large compact mass of air is
projected with a reduction in the periphery of the air stream whereas, with a short throw
grille design the periphery of the air stream is expanded as much as possible to increase
the scrubbing action between the incoming air stream and the stationary air.
7 • What type of system is generally used in a large continuously operated
theatre?
Most large continuously operated theatres are provided with a complete downward
system of air distribution. With this system a large number of outlet openings are
provided each of which discharges air in a thin horizontal stream at high velocity in
order that the cool air would be mixed with the area in the theatre before it reaches the
patrons. In this type of system the best distribution is obtained when a sufficient
number of exhaust openings are located under the seats.
8 • What means are available for balancing a system to secure the desired
amount of air in each space?
Ways in which this may be accomplished are by: a. dampers on supply and return grilles,
6. dampers in supply and return ducts, c. reduction of the effective area of some outlets
by blank-offs, and d. combination of dampers in both supply and return air duct systems.
Chapter 29
Affi DUCT DESIGN
Pressure Losses, Friction Losses, Friction Loss Chart, Propor-
tioning the Losses, Sizes of Ducts, General Rules, Procedure
for Duct Design, Air Velocities, Proportioning the Size for
Friction, Main Trunk Ducts, Equal Friction Method, Duct
Construction Details
THE flow of air due to large pressure differences is most accurately*
stated by thermodynamic formulae for air discharge under condi-
tions of adiabatic flow, but such formulae are complicated, and the error
occasioned by the assumption that the gas density remains constant
throughout the flow may be considered negligible when only such pressure
differences are involved as occur in ordinary heating and ventilating
practice.
In the development of the formulae, diagrams, and tables for the flow
of air, use is made of the following basic equation for the flow of fluids:
If Hv be the velocity head in feet of a fluid, and the velocity, V, be expressed in feet
per minute, the fundamental equation is
V « 60 W2£ Hv
The factor g is the acceleration due to gravity, or 32.16 ft per second per second.
It is usual to express the head in inches of water for ventilating work and, since the
heads are inversely proportional to the densities of the fluids,
#v = 62.4
hv d
12
or
therefore,
V - 1096.5 -t/-^- (1)
where
V — velocity in- feet per minute.
hv ?= velocity head or pressure in inches of water.
d — weight of air in pounds per cubic foot.
For standard air (70 F and 29.921 in. barometer) d = 0.07492 Ib per cubic foot. Sub-
stituting this value in Equation 1 :
V-*-
(2)
563
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
$40
JO IOO 160 tOO
C£tfTf& Lm RADIUS in PE&CENT OF PIPE
300
FIG. 1. CURVE SHOWING Loss OF PRESSURE IN ROUND ELBOWS
The drop in pressure in air distributing systems is due to the dynamic
losses and the friction losses. The friction losses are those due to the
friction of the air against the sides of the duct. The dynamic losses are
those due to the change in the direction or in the velocity of air flow.
Pressure Losses
Dynamic losses occur principally at the entrance to the piping, in the
elbows, and wherever a change in velocity occurs. The entrance loss is
the difference between the actual pressure required to produce flow and
the pressure corresponding to the flow produced; it may vary from 0.1 to
tro s ^ -r - - ~
^ ^T
S ^ i
J
wjjjjjj ["-••[•-[ • "^\ B
jlj
^^x^ \
1 M "
v*\ \ 1
jT"
/ ^ \
60 "f K
IE
T\
1 I
40 I.S
r •*!
»::::::::::::::::hs;:::
o i 1 M 1 1 1 1 1
0 JO fOO
/5<7 ^/j/3 ?crt
j<*:
-— » <.v/c/ c&u
-i!NE R.ADWS /N PERCENT OF PIPE WIDTH
FIG. 2. CURVE SHOWING Loss OF PRESSURE IN SQUARE ELBOWS
564
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
0.5 times the velocity head. The pressure loss in elbows must also be
allowed for in the design. It is customary to express dynamic losses in
terms of the percentage of the velocity head; in other words, the per-
centage of that pressure corresponding to the average velocity in the duct
which is expressed in terms of inches of water gage. Figs. 1 and 2 show
the effect of changing the radius of elbows of square and rectangular
section1. These charts are based on tests of pipe elbows of ordinary good
sheet metal construction. For example, a five-piece round pipe elbow
having a centerline radius of one diameter has a loss of about 25 per cent
of the velocity head. At a velocity of 2000 fpm the corresponding head
is 0.25 in. water gage, and at this velocity the elbow just referred to would
cause a pressure drop of 0.063 in. water gage. Experience has shown that
good results may be obtained when the radius to the center of the elbow
is 1% times the pipe diameter. T.he pressure drop will then be approxi-
mately 17 per cent of the velocity head for round ducts, and 9 per cent
for square ducts. Very little advantage is gained in making elbows with
a radius of more than two diameters2.
Friction Losses
Friction losses vary directly as the length of the duct, directly as the
square of the velocity, and inversely as the diameter. Since length is a
fixed quantity for any system, the factors subject to modification are the
area and the velocity, which determine the relation between the first cost
of the duct system and the cost of the power for overcoming friction.
The friction between the moving air and pipe surface causes a loss of
head which is numerically equal to the pressure required to maintain a
given velocity, and is expressed in ithe following modification of Fanning's
formula:
For round pipe and standard air (70 F and 29.921 in. barometer)
. L , L { V \2 • /m
- 3
For rectangular ducts
V
V4005
where
hL = loss of head, inches of water.
/zv = ( Zoos j = velocity kead,
V = velocity of air, feet per minute.
L = length of pipe 1
D = diameter of pipe f all in feet.
a, b s= sides of rectangular duct J
/ s= coefficient of friction.
C =-j = length of pipe in diameters for one head loss.
For all practical purposes C varies only with the nature of the pipe
surface: C = 60 for perfectly smooth pipe; = 55 for pipe as used in planning
1Loss of Pressure Due to Elbows in the Transmission of Air Through Pipes or Ducts, by F. L. Busey
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 19, 1913, p. 366).
Pressure Losses in Rectangular Elbows, by R. D. Madison and J. R. Parker (Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, July, p. 365, August, p. 427, September, p. 483, 1936).
565
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
800000
600000
500000
400 000
poo ooo
200 OQO
150000
P .
Fi-iction in Inches of W a temper 100 Ft.
FIG. 3. FRICTION OF AIR IN PIPES
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
mill exhaust systems; = 50 for heating and ventilating ducts; = 45 for
smooth and 40 for rough conduits of tile, brick or concrete. However,
Fritzsche states (and numerous tests check very closely) that / varies
inversely as the 2/7 power of the pipe diameter, and inversely as the 1/7
power of the velocity, or inversely as the 1/7 power of capacity, which is
the same thing. Thus Formula 3 may be revised as follows, based upon a
loss of one velocity head (at 2000 fpm) in a length equal to 50 diameters
of 24-in. galvanized swedged pipe:
The preceding formulae are based on standard air, and for other con-
ditions the friction varies directly as the air density and inversely (ap-
proximately) as the absolute temperature. The increase of friction due
to increase of air viscosity with increased temperature is small and is
generally neglected.
Friction Loss Chart
Fig. 3 is a convenient chart for determining the friction loss for various
air quantities in ducts of different sizes. The general form of this chart is
familiar, but it should be noted that it is corrected for changes ^ in
the coefficient of friction based on the rule that the coefficient of friction
varies inversely as the 2/7 power of the diameter, and inversely as the
1/7 power of the velocity. Fig. 3 is based on a loss of one velocity head
(at a velocity of 2000 fpm) in a length equal to 50 diameters of 24-in.
round galvanized-iron duct of the usual construction. Although this
chart is laid out for a value of C equivalent to 50, it may be used for other
values of C by varying the friction inversely as this constant. For ex-
ample, if a rougher pipe is used with 40 as the value of C, the friction loss
as read from the chart should be multiplied by T«.
Example 1 . Assume that it is desired to pass 10,000 cf m of air through 75 ft of 24-in.
diameter pipe. Find 10,000 cf m on the right scale of Fig. 3 and move horizontally left^to
the diagonal line marked 24 in The other intersecting diagonal shows that the velocity
in the pipe is 3200 fpm. Directly below the intersection it is found that the friction per
100 ft is 0.59 in. ; then for 75 ft the friction will be 0.75 X 0.59 ~ 0.44 in. In a like man-
ner any two variables may be determined by the intersection of the lines representing
the other two variables.
Proportioning the Losses
Other losses of pressure occur at the entrance to the duct, through the
heating units, and at the air washer. In ordinary practice in ventilation
work it is usual to keep the sum of the duct losses J£ to y% and the loss
through the heating units at less than ^ of the static pressure. The
remainder is then available for producing velocity. In the design of an
ideal duct system, all factors should be taken into consideration and the
air velocities proportioned so that the resistance will be practically equal
in all ducts regardless of length.
SIZES OF DUCTS
The sizes of ducts and flues for gravity or mechanical circulation of air
are usually based on the losses due to friction, and these losses must be
567
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
8
568
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
kept within the available pressure difference. This pressure difference in
mechanical ventilation is that derived from the fan, while in gravity
ventilation the aspirating effect due to the temperature and height of the
column of heated air causes the pressure difference.
General Rules
The general rules to be followed in the design of a duct system are:
1. The air should be conveyed as directly as possible at reasonable velocities to obtain
tne results desired with greatest economy of power, material and space.
2. Sharp elbows and bends should be avoided.
u 3*i Jhi? side-s °/ a11 ducts or flues should be as nearly equal as possible. (In no case
should the ratio between long and short sides be greater than 10 to 1.)
Procedure for Duct Design
The general procedure for designing a duct system is as follows:
1. Study the plan of the building and draw in roughly the most convenient system of
ducts, taking cognizance of the building construction, avoiding all obstructions in steel
work and equipment, and at the same time maintaining a simple design.
2. Arrange the positions of duct outlets to insure the proper distribution of heat.
3. Divide the building into zones and proportion the volume of ah- necessary to
supply the heat for each zone.
4. Determine the size of each outlet, based on the volume as obtained in the preceding
paragraph, for the proper outlet velocity.
5. Calculate the sizes of all main and branch ducts by either of the following two
methods:
the total loss found by adding together the losses of the various sections.
b. Friction Pressure Loss Method. Proportion the duct for equal friction pressure
loss per foot of length.
6. Calculate the friction for the duct offering the greatest resistance to the flow of
air, which resistance represents the static pressure which must be maintained in the fa*n
outlet or in the plenum space to insure distribution of air in the duct system. The duct
having the greatest resistance will usually be that having the longest run, although not
necessarily so.
Air Velocities
The following velocities of air are considered standard for public
buildings:
1. Through the outside air intakes, 1000 fpm.
2. Through connections to and from heating' unit, 1000 to 1200 fpm.
3. Through the main discharge duct, from 1200 to 1600 fpm.
4. In branch ducts, 600 to 1000, and in vertical flues, 400 to 800 fpm.
5. In registers or grilles, 200 to 400 fpm depending ^ upon the size and location. If
diffusers of proper design are used, 25 per cent higher air velocities are permissible.
These duct velocities may safely be increased 20 per cent if first class
construction is used to prevent any breathing, buckling, or vibration.
High velocities at one point in the system neutralize the effect of proper
design at all other points; hence the importance of splitters in elbows and
similar precautions. For industrial buildings noise is seldom considered,
and main duct velocities as high as 2800 or 3000 fpm may be used where
conditions will permit. For department stores and similar buildings,
569
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
§ 8
570
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
maximum velocities with good construction and design may be as high
as 2000 or 2200 fpm in main ducts, with suitable reduction in branches
and outlets. With these velocities first-class duct construction is essential.
Proportioning the Size for Friction
By means of Figs. 4 and 5 the diameter of branch pipes necessary to
carry a given percentage of the total air in the main pipe and to maintain
equal friction per foot of the length through the entire system may^be
determined. These charts, as well as Fig. 3, are based on the assumption
that the coefficient of friction varies inversely as the 1/7 power of the
capacity.
Example 2. Suppose a 60-in. main pipe is to be used, and it is desired to know the
size of branch pipe required to carry 50 per cent of the total air in the main. Find 50
per cent at the left of the chart, move right to the 60-in. diagonal line and note directly
above at the top of the chart that the branch pipe will be 46.5 in. in diameter.
Where rectangular ducts are used it is frequently desirable to know the
equivalent diameter of round pipe to carry the same capacity and have
the same friction per foot of length. Table 1 gives directly the circular
equivalents of rectangular ducts for equal friction and capacity, which
are based on values determined from Formula 6:
1.265
(a
(6)
where'
a — one side of rectangular pipe, feet or inches.
b = other side of rectangular pipe, feet or inches.
d = equivalent diameter of round pipe for equal friction per foot of length to carry
the same capacity, feet or inches.
To obtain the size of rectangular ducts for different capacities, but of the
same friction per foot of length, first obtain the equivalent round pipe for
equal friction. Thus, if a branch of sufficient size to carry 30 per cent oJ
a 12 x 36-in. pipe is desired, it is found from Table 1 that the main L<
equivalent to a 22.2-in. diameter round pipe. From Fig. 5, 30 per cent oJ
this is a pipe 14.3 in. in diameter, and referring again to Table 1, the
rectangular equivalent branch is a 12 x 14 in., 10 x 17J£ in., or any othe
desirable combination.
Multiplying or dividing the length of each side of a pipe by a constan
is the same as multiplying or dividing the equivalent round size by th
same constant. Thus, if the circular equivalent of an 80 x 24-in. duct i
required, it will be twice that of a 40 x 12-in. duct, or 2 X 23.3 = 46.6 ir
TABLE 1. CIRCULAR EQUIVALENTS OF RECTANGULAR DUCTS FOR EQUAL FRICTION
SIDE
RECTANGULAR
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
IS
15.5
16
DUCT
3
5.2
5.4
5.5
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.
3.5
5.7
5.9
6.0
6.2
6.3
6.5
6.6
6,7
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.
4
6.1
6.3
6.5
6.7
6.8
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.
4.5
6.5
6.7
6.9
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.7
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.9
9.
5
6.9
7.1
7,3
7.5
7.7
7.8
8.0
8.2
8.3
8.5
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.
5.5
7.3
7.5
7.7
7.8
8.1
8.3
8.5
8.6
8.8
9.0
9.2
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.8
9.9
10.
571
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
574
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
MAIN TRUNK DUCTS
A main duct with branches is generally used to convey tempered air
for ventilation purposes only. In place of individual ducts, a compara-
tively large main duct supplies air by branches to the room or rooms. The
velocities vary according to the nature of the installation and the degree of
quietness required. At the start of the run a velocity as high as 2000 fpm
may be used, but this is considered the maximum for public building
work, and is reduced to from 400 to 800 fpm in the risers. This duct system
may be designed so that the loss of pressure in the branches is equalized in
a manner similar to that previously described.
Equal Friction Method
Example 3. Fig. 6 shows a typical layout of an air distribution system which is
applicable for ventilation of hotel dining rooms and offices.
The volume of air in cubic feet per minute for the room is determined on the basis of
the number of air changes per hour required. In the example shown, the room ventilated
is a hotel dining room 135 ft x 85 ft x 15 ft. A 7 J^-minute air change (8 air changes per
hour) is assumed for proper ventilation, giving 22,935 cfm as the air required.
22 935
The clear area of the fresh air inlet is based on a velocity of 1000 fpm or ' n =
1UUU
22.94 sq ft. If the air washer is provided with automatic humidity control, the tempering
coil should raise the temperature of the entering air to 32 F. The washer with its auto-
matic control will then raise the temperature from 32 F to 42 F. If the washer is not
provided with automatic humidity control, the tempering coil must raise the temperature
of the entering air to at least 55 F to allow for some temperature drop in the washer due
to evaporation. The reheating coil is selected to raise the temperature of the air from
that leaving the air washer to 70 F. The air washer should have a maximum velocity of
500 fpm through the clear area, which, in this case, is 46 sq ft. For more detailed infor-
mation on tempering coil and air washer control, see Chapter 37.
Since the plan shows a moderately short run of main duct with^no risers near the fan
outlet, a fan should be selected which will have the required capacity of 22,935 cfm with
a maximum velocity through the fan outlet of 1400 fpm. The outlet area, therefore,
should be 16M sq ft.
The main pipe size should be selected to give a velocity equal to or less than the
velocity at the fan outlet. Choosing a 56-in. pipe with a cross-sectional area of 17.1 sq ft,
the velocity in the main pipe will be 1340 fpm. Using the friction pressure loss method
this 56-in. main pipe will be taken as the basis of calculation.
Fig. 6 shows the amount of air to be handled by each section of pipe. Expressing the
volume handled by each section as a percentage of the total volume and using the charts.
Figs. 4 and 5, the pipe sizes are as shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2. PIPE SIZES FOR EXAMPLE 3a
VOLTJIDB
OF Am
(OFM)
PBBCBNT
or TOTAL
VOLUME
DIAJOTEB or
PlPB
(INCHES)
EQUIVALENT Sizx or
RBCTANQULAE DUCT
(INCHES)
22,935
100.0
56
60x44
12,510
54.6
45
58x30
10,425
45.4
42
50x30
8,340
36.3
39
42x30
6,255
27.2
35
42x24
4,170
18.2
29M
30x24.
2,085
911
23
30x15
•Velocity through diffusers (not shown) to be approximately 300 fpm.
575
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The pressure at the outlets nearest the fan will be greater than at the pipes farther
along the run so that the former will tend to deliver more than the calculated amount of
air. To remedy this condition, volume regulating dampers should be located at the base
of each riser and adjusted for proper distribution. At points where branches leave the
main it may be advisable, depending upon the nature of the installation, to install
adjustable splitters similar to that shown in Fig. 6 where the main duct divides into the
58 in. X 30 in. and 50 in. X 30 in. branches.
^ The rectangular equivalents are selected from Table 1; the width^to depth proportion
will be determined by construction requirements and ease of fabrication. The calcu-
lation of the friction is as follows:
The longest run from the fan outlet to diffuser is 150 ft 0 in.; 150 ft of 56-in. pipe is
i *?n v 1 9
equivalent to * 32.2 dia.
oo
Two 45-in., 90-deg elbows (2 X S X 8.5) 13.7 dia.
OO
(Assume each elbow equivalent to 8.5 diameters of duct, Fig. 1.)
Two 23-in., 90-deg elbows (2 X ~ X 8.5) 7.0 dia.
oo
00
Two 23-in., 90-deg elbows in riser (2 X ~ X 30) 24.7 dia.
oo
(Two bad elbows in riser, each equivalent to 30 diameters of duct).
Total diameter of 56-in. pipe. 77.6
/1340\2
The velocity head corresponding to a velocity of 1340 fpm is ( ^~ ) = 0.112 in.
\4UOo /
77 fi
Taking 50 diameters as one head loss, then -=£- X 0.112 « 0.174 in. static loss in duct.
ou
Where the connection pieces are made with long easy slopes and the general work-
manship is good, a regain in static pressure may be deducted from the foregoing pressure
loss. This can be taken as approximately two-thirds the difference in velocity pressures
at the fan outlet and the last run of pipe. The velocity in the riser is 667 fpm with a
corresponding velocity pressure of 0.027 in. The fan outlet velocity is 1400 fpm with
a corresponding velocity pressure of 0.122 in. The regain equals % (0.122 — 0.027)
= 0.063 in.
The net static pressure loss in the duct is:
0.174 in. - 0.063 in 0.111 in.
Other friction losses are as follows:
(1) Fresh air intake 1000-fpm velocity (1% heads X 0.0625) 0.094 in.
(2) Tempering coil loss (from manufacturer's tables) . .....0.100 in.
(3) Air washer loss (from manufacturer's tables) 0.250 in.
(4) Reheating coil loss (from manufacturer's tables) 0.100 in.
(5) Allowance for regulating dampers and diffusers 0.100 in.
Static pressure loss of system _______________________________________________________________________ 0.755 in.
The fan should be selected from the manufacturer's ratings which, according to the
Standard Test Code for Disc and Propeller Fans, Centrifugal Fans and Blowers', will
deliver 22,935 cfm at a static pressure of 0.755 in. and which has an outlet area of
The method of design used in Example 3 is the equal friction method
described under the heading Procedure for Duct Design. This involves
iSee Chapters 27 and 45.
576
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
2.1
2,1
16,800 cfm
24x16
LL
\ Ilr550cfm J
9,450 cfirT"
St
48x38 A
46x30 40x30
Si
J4xl6g 3.150
8
FIG. 7. EXHAUST SYSTEM LAYOUT
the arbitrary reduction of velocity from the fan outlet to the point of
discharge to the room, and the friction is calculated by adding the pressure
losses of each section of duct. This method requires dampering in the
risers and supply branches in order that equalization of air flow can
be attained.
Example 4. Fig. 7 shows an exhaust system layout for exhausting from buildings of
the same type as in Example 3. Assume the air requirements based on the number of
air changes per hour to be 16,800 cfm. Using a velocity of 1400 fpm in the main duct at
the fan inlet, which is an average velocity for this type of system, the area of the main is
12 sq ft, which corresponds to a 47-in. pipe. Referring to Example 3, and using the
charts, Figs. 4 and 5, the pipe sizes are as indicated in Table 3 for both round and rec-
tangular ducts.
TABLE 3. PIPE SIZES FOR EXAMPLE 4s
VOLUME
OF AlB
(CFM)
PER CUNT
OF TOTAL
VOLTJMS
DZAMXTZR OF
PffB
(INCHES)
EQUIVALENT SIZE OF
RECTANGULAR DUCT
(INCHES)
16,800
100.0
47
38x48
11,550
68.8
41
30x46
9,450
56.2
38
30x40
5,250
31.3
31
24x34
4,200
25.0
28.5
24x28
3,150
18.8
25.3
16x34
2,100
12.5
21.6
16x24
aVelocity through intake grilles (not shown) to be approximately 400 fpm.
577
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FIG. 8. ISOMETRIC VIEW OFDUCT
SHOWING LOCATION OF STIFFENING
SEAMS ON TOP AND SIDE PANELS
OF DUCT
SECTION
p/Top sheet
7 Side sheet
^ ^-Bottom
-Bottom
sheet
. These crossbreaks are
-never shown on a plan
ELEVATION
Reinforced
cross seams
Seams between adjacent
panels or plain cross seams
I fl
\Ifli
k
FIG. 10.
FIG. 9. DETAILS OF SEAMS
METHOD OF INSTALLING
HEATING UNIT
FIG. 11. INSTALLATION OF EASEMENT
IN DUCT AROUND OBSTRUCTION
FIG. 12. FAN DISCHARGE CONNECTION
578
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
All risers will require dampering as in Example 3. The calculation of the friction
is as follows:
The longest run from the intake grille to fan inlet is 100 ft.
(1) Duct friction 100 ft of 47-in. pipe (10° * 12) ___________________________________________ 25.6 dia.
Two 28H-in., 90-deg elbows in riser ( 2 X 2^5 X 3Q ) ___________________________________ 36.4 dia.
(Two bad elbows in riser each equivalent to 30 diameters of duct).
One 28M-in., 90-deg elbow in horfcontal run f28*** 8'5^ ____ ........................... 5.2 dia.
\ 47 / _
Total diameter of 47-in. pipe. ________________________________________________________________ 67.2 dia.
/ 1 4-00 \ 2
Velocity head corresponding to 1400 f pm is f j^ ) - 0.122 in.
Taking 50 diameters as one head loss, then 67'2 * °'122 ____________________________ 0.164 in.
ou (
(2) Intake loss from grille (1J£ heads at a 400 fpm velocity 1J4 X 0.01) ______________ 0.015 in.
(3) Static pressure required to produce one velocity head at 1400 fpm ______________ 0.122 in.
(4) Loss occasioned by step-up of velocity (0.20 X 0.122) _________________ 0.024 in.
(This loss varies from 0.05 to 0.40 velocity head depending upon the nature of the change.
For average systems 0,20 velocity head is a close approximation.)
Static pressure loss on inlet side 0.325 in.
To this must be added the resistance on the discharge side of the fan. A fan outlet
velocity of approximately 1500 to 1600 fpm may be used. Assuming the fan outlet to
be equivalent in area to a 45-in. pipe, the velocity is 1525 fpm.
Loss on discharge (15 ft from fan outlet to discharge):
15 X 12
45
= 4 diameters of 45-in. pipe.
The velocity head corresponding to a velocity of 1525 fpm is 0.145 and the discharge-
side loss is ' g X « 0.012 in. The total static pressure loss of the system is then:
0.012 4- 0.325 = 0.337 in.
The fan will be selected to handle 16,800 cfm at a static pressure of 0.337 in. and
to have an outlet velocity of 1525 fpm. Outlet area 11 sq ft.
Where there are one or more ducts with branches, the velocity of air in
the ducts may be either chosen arbitrarily or calculated for friction losses.
When arbitrary values are assigned, a certain amount of dampering
should be provided for; this will be small when the method chosen permits
a drop in velocity as the quantity of air is reduced.
After the total air quantity and the size of fan are ascertained, the main
duct is usually fixed as being at least equal in area to the fan outlet, or
perhaps 10 per cent greater. From this main pipe all others are propor-
tioned. For example, if the main duct is 30 in. in diameter, a branch to
carry 10 per cent of the total capacity should be 12.7 in. in diameter (see
Fig. 4) in order to have the same friction per foot of length, while one
579
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
carrying one-half the total capacity of a 30-in. main with the same friction
loss per foot would be 23.4 in. in diameter. By this method of equalizing
friction it is unnecessary to consider the resistance of each section of pipe
independently, but only to know the distance from the fan outlet to the
end of the longest run of pipe, the number and size of elbows, and the
diameter and velocity in the largest pipe.
Example 5. If the greatest length of piping in a system is 130 ft with a 26-in. diameter
main pipe and one 20-in. elbow, the piping having been designed for equal friction per
foot of length, the friction would be the same as for 130 linear feet of 26-in. pipe, or
60 diameters. To this should be added the friction loss in elbows, in this case one 20-in.
elbow, which has a loss equivalent to 8.5 diameters of 20-in. pipe. This in turn is ~
Aft
X 8.5 = 6.6 diameters of 26-in. pipe. The total equivalent length of the system will
then be 60 + 6.6, or 66.6 diameters. Since 50 diameters is equivalent to one velocity
head, the loss is * = 1.33 times the velocity head. If the velocity is, for example,
2200 fpm, corresponding to 0.3-in. pressure, the friction loss of the system will be 1.33
X 0.3 - 0.399 in.
TABLE 4. SHEET METAL GAGES FOR RECTANGULAR DUCT CONSTRUCTION*
Gun
WIDTH or DUCT
fa.
REINFORCED
SflAlf
26
24
Up to 12 in.
13 in. to 30 in.
1
22
31 in. to 48 in.
1
22
49 in. to 60 in.
H in. x 1
^in.
20
61 in. to 90 in.
«l
H in. x 1
% in.
Frequently the prevention of sound in a heating or ventilating system
imposes more severe restrictions than the prevention of excessive pressure
drop. This question is highly involved and requires consideration of
many factors. The air velocities to be used will vary with the standard of
construction used in the ducts themselves as well as with the nature of the
occupancy and the construction of the building, In general, architects
and engineers who leave the details of duct construction to the contractor
must, of necessity, design for lower velocities than might be required for
quiet operation if proper construction details were always followed. The
contractor may be expected to build the ducts by the least expensive
methods, and the engineer must anticipate this. For further information
on noise reduction, see Chapter 30.
DUCT CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
If panel construction is used with standing seams or similar reinforce-
ment, and the panels are cross-broken to give rigidity, there is less like-
lihood of vibration due to air flow, or deflection due to air pressure.
Elbows made without splitters, and improperly shaped transformation
sections produce high local velocities which are the cause of noise in duct
work. ^The use of first-class duct construction with well-designed trans-
formation sections and splitters in elbows tends to maintain relatively
uniform velocities with decrease in turbulence and in the noise produced.
580
CHAPTER 29. AIR DUCT DESIGN
Figs. 8 to 12 show acceptable construction details for rectangular
ducts, elbows, and transformation pieces or connections. Other methods
are also acceptable, such as the use of angle iron stiffeners for large ducts.
Good construction is essential to the elimination of duct noises and for
the prevention of a flimsy installation.
^Fig.^ 8 is an isometric view of a duct showing the location of the
stiffening seams on the top and side panels. The cross seams should not
occur at the same place but should be staggered as indicated. Heating
units should be installed as shown in Fig. 10 with the duct connections
making an angle of not less than 45 deg, but preferably 60 deg. Fan dis-
charge connections should have a maximum slope of 1 in 7, as indicated in
Fig. 12. Whenever a pipe or other obstruction passes through a duct
an easement should be placed around the pipe as indicated in Fig. 11.
The recommended gages for rectangular sheet metal duct construction are
given in Table 4.
REFERENCES
Fan Engineering, Buffalo Forge Co.
Heat Power Engineering, by Barnard, Ellenwood, and Hirshfeld, Part III.
Mechanical Engineers' Handbook, by Lionel S. Marks, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
The Flow of Liquids, by W. H. McAdams (Refrigerating Engineering, February, 1925,
p. 279).
A Study of the Data on the Flow of Fluids in Pipes, by Emory Kemler (A.S.M.E.
Transactions, Hydraulics Section, August 31, 1933, p. 7).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Determine the equivalent number of diameters of straight pipe equivalent
to a 90 deg elbow haying center line radii of (a) 100 per cent, (b) 150 per cent, abd
(c) 200 per cent of the pipe diameter.
Assume 1 velocity head lost in 50 diameters.
From Fig. 1 the per cent of velocity head lost:
a. For 100 per cent radius is 25.5 per cent X 50 = 12.8 diameters straight pipe.
b. For 150 per cent radius is 17.0 per cent X 50 = 8.5 diameters straight pipe.
c. For 200 per cent radius is 14.5 per cent X 50 = 7.3 diameters straight pipe.
hy is it desirable to i
the pipe diameter?
times
Reference to Figs. 1 and 2 will show that while the loss of velocity head, as indicated by
the curves, shows considerable variation for elbows between the range of 50 and 150 per
cent radius, the line is practically straight after 150 per cent, indicating very little
variation in loss of head for elbows of larger radius.
3 • What is the best shape to use for ducts?
The shapes to be used in designing ducts, in the order of their preference, are round,
square, and rectangular.
4 • What determines which shape to use?
Structural and space conditions. Because ducts are as a rule part of the building or
structure, it is necessary to proportion their sizes to fit the spaces available.
581
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
5 • What is meant by "arbitrarily fix the velocity in the various sections?"
When using the velocity method as a basis for design, the maximum allowable velocity
is fixed for the main supply duct at the fan, and this velocity is gradually decreased as
each branch or outlet is taken off the main supply duct.
6 • Which system of duct design is to be preferred, the velocity method or the
friction pressure loss method?
The friction pressure loss method can be used to advantage where no structural or
building conditions limit the shape of the ducts. Where these limiting conditions exist
the velocity method is to be preferred.
7 • Are the grille sizes figured on the same basis as the outlets?
The free area through the grilles is figured the same as the outlets, and this area is
increased from 20 to 50 per cent, depending on the design of the grille, to allow for the
loss of area caused by the construction of the face of the grille.
8 • Where it is necessary to provide steel angle braces, how far apart should
they be spaced?
Angle braces for large ducts should be placed on 3-ft 0-in. centers.
9 • How much air will a 10-in. by 24-in. duct handle if it is part of a system
designed on a pressure drop of 0.1 in. per 100 feet of run?
1450 cfm (Table 1 and Fig. 3).
10 • How does a. splitter at a duct junction influence the volume of the air going
through each branch?
A splitter facing the direction of air flow cuts off the air and delivers the desired amount
to the branch.
11 • Why does a wide, shallow duct offer more resistance to the flow of ah- than
does a square duct of equal cross-sectional area?
The perimeter of the wide, flat duct is greater than that of the square-section duct, so the
former has the greater frictional area which increases the resistance and thus reduces the
volume at any given pressure.
12 • What methods are used to keep large ducts from vibrating because of air
pulsations, and from sagging because of their own weight?
External bracing, such as standing seams, or structural shapes, like tees or angles, should
be placed across the top and bottom. Exterior braces or cross buckling of metal sheets
in diagonal panels may be used for the sides of large ducts.
13 • What velocities of air flow should be used in the trunk ducts of a venti-
lating system in a public building?
From 1200 to 1600 fpm.
14 • In a ventilating system in a residence, what is the recommended air
velocity through supply registers and grilles?
400 fpm.
582
Chapter 30
SOUND CONTROL
Decibel Defined, Apparatus for Measuring Noise, Problem of
Sound Control, Acceptable Noise Levels, Controlling Vibration
from Machine Mountings, Controlling Noise through Room
Wall Surfaces, Noise Transmitted Through Ducts, Duct Lining
Factor
IN ventilating and air conditioning a building or a room, the effect of
the mechanical system employed must be considered on the acoustics
of the space conditioned. It is important to consider also that the use of
air conditioning often permits keeping the windows closed, thus giving
relief from certain external noises, but at the same time increasing the
necessity of providing adequate sound control.
It is not assumed that the ventilating and air conditioning engineer
will attempt to improve the acoustics of the space that is being con-
ditioned, but the designer should have at least enough fundamental
knowledge of the acoustical effects of the system which is being designed
to be sure that no damaging effects occur to the existing acoustical
properties. It is assumed that in a given space the architect and acoustical
engineer have produced a room or rooms which are satisfactory for
speech, music, or other uses. The ventilating engineer's sole function is
to ventilate and air condition these rooms properly so that they will be
physically comfortable without adding any acoustical hazards.
UNIT OF NOISE MEASUREMENT
In the United States and England the unit of noise measurement is
the decibel (db). In Germany this unit is called the phon. The decibel
is defined by the relation N = 10 log-p, where N is the number of decibels
by which the intensity flux I\ exceeds the intensity flux J0. The in-
tensity flux is the measure of the energy contained in a sound wave and
is defined in terms of microwatts per square centimeter of wave front in a
freely traveling plane wave. It is usually more convenient to select an
arbitrary reference intensity for J0 and express all other intensities in
terms of decibels above that level. For this purpose the threshold of
audibility for the average human ear at a frequency of 1000 cycles per
second has been selected. This reference threshold is 10"16 watts per
square centimeter or 10~10 microwatts per square centimeter. This
reference level also corresponds to a pressure of 0.0002 dynes per square
centimeter.
A stated sound level in decibels, unless otherwise defined, will thus be
related to a threshold of Kh16 watts. For example, a level of 60 db above
this reference threshold is 10~10 watts. In a similar manner, when sound
583
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
measurements are given in actual intensity or energy units, they can be
converted to decibels by this relation.
Since the decibel is a ratio, it can only be employed when related to a
reference threshold level as given. Noise levels, which vary with fre-
quency as well as intensity, must not only be related to this reference
threshold level, but also to a reference frequency, which is taken as 1000
cycles. These terms and procedures may be found in tentative standards1
published by the American Standards Association.
APPARATUS FOR MEASURING NOISE
Since the relative loudness to the ear, rather than the actual physical
intensity, is the quantity in which engineers are usually interested, it has
been found necessary to allow for the varying sensitivity of the ear at
different frequencies in designing noise measuring equipment. The most
satisfactory method of measuring noise is by means of a sound level meter
which usually consists of a microphone, a high gain audio-amplifier, and a
rectifying milliammeter which will read directly in decibels. This meter
is calibrated to give readings above the threshold of audibility and usually
contains a weighing network to make it less sensitive at those frequencies
where the ear is less sensitive. For complete specifications relative to the
approved type of sound level meters refer to the information2 published
by the American Standards Association.
GENERAL PROBLEM OF SOUND CONTROL
As previously stated, the function of the ventilating and air con-
ditioning engineer is to add no acoustical hazard to the conditions already
present in the room or building and the problem can be stated as:
a. To determine the noise level existing without the equipment.
% b. To ascertain the noise level which would exist if the equipment were installed
without sound control.
c. To provide as a part of the installation sufficient sound control appliances to
reduce the noise level substantially to that found in (a).
To accomplish this the engineer should have information of three kinds:
• 1- A knowledge of the noise levels currently considered acceptable in various rooms
in order that he may have a basis on which to proceed.
2 A knowledge of the nature and intensity of the noise created by the various parts
of the equipment.
3. Acknowledge of how, when necessary, to vary and control the noise level between
the equipment and the conditioned space.
In addition, the engineer should have information available to deal with
noises which may enter the room due to openings made into it to accom-
modate the equipment, such as cross talk between rooms connected with
common ducts and noise transmitted to portions of duct system outside
the conditioned space and through to its interior.
While the general problem may be logically outlined and the items of
'American Tentative Standards for Noise Measurement, American Standards Association
fsfciS^ ** ^ ^ Meters f°r ******** * Noise and Other Sounds,
584
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
knowledge necessary to its solution can be listed, the available infor-
mation at present is lacking in certain respects. However, attention may
be directed to that information which is currently available, and to
furthermore outline a solution of the noise problem based on these data.
ACCEPTABLE NOISE LEVELS
Measurements of noise levels have been observed by several investi-
gators in various rooms and locations. The information compiled in
Table 1 is based on these data, which represent the best opinion on the
TABLE 1. TYPICAL NOISE LEVELS
ROOMS
NOISE LB\BL IN DECIBELS
TO BE ANTICIPATED
Min.
Representative
Max.
Sound Film Studios 10
Radio Broadcasting Studios 10
Planetarium— 15
Residence, Apartments, etc 25
Theatres, Legitimate.- 25
Theatres, Motion Picture 30
Auditoriums, Concert Halls, etc 25
Churches 25
Executive Offices, Acoustically Treated Private Offices 25
Private Offices, Acoustically Untreated _ 35
General Offices. 45
Hospitals 25
Class Rooms 30
Libraries, Museums, Art Galleries.- 30
Public Building, Court Houses, Post Offices, etc 45
Small Stores— 40
Upper Floors Department Stores 40
Stores, General, Including Main Floor Dept. Stores 50
Hotel Dining Rooms 40
Restaurants and Cafeterias 50
Banking Rooms 50
Factories 60
Office Machine Rooms._ 60
VEHICLES
Railroad Coach 60*
Pullman Car 55a
Automobile 50
Vehicular Tunnel 75
Airplane 80
14
14
20
35
30
35
30
30
33
45
55
40
35
40
55
50
50
60
50
60
55
70
70
20
20
25
40
35
40
40
35
40
50
60
55
45
45
60
60
55
70
60
70
60
80
80
70
65
65
85
85
80
75
80
95
100
aFor train standing in station a level of about 45 db is the maximum which can ordinarily be tolerated.
subject now available. All levels are given in decibels above a reference
threshold of 10"16 watts (corresponding to a pressure of 0.0002 — dynes
per square centimeter). Minimum, representative, and maximum levels
are given for each application. These values are intended to indicate the
variation which may be expected in different locations of the same type,
but not the time variation which may be expected in each location.
The values shown in Table 1 are typical of those found currently in
585
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
existing spaces. They are, however, the noise levels of the room and not
the noise levels of the ventilating or air conditioning equipment. If the
noise level at the room of the equipment is kept at the levels shown in the
table the equipment will not add to the acoustical hazard existing without
it, provided the equipment noise is heard alone, but if both are heard
together the total noise level in the room will be increased about 3 db.
This is usually considered an acceptable result.
In some cases it is desirable to keep the equipment noise level at the
room at such a value that it actually will not increase the noise level in
the room to any measurable degree. This can usually be accomplished
if the equipment noise at the room can be kept 10 db below the noise
level shown in the table.
NOISE CREATED BY EQUIPMENT
Information concerning the noise levels created by ventilating and air
conditioning equipment such as fans, motors, air washers, and similar
items is not yet on a basis which permits tabular presentation although
certain manufacturers are prepared to offer such data and do state the
noise producing properties of their products.
Absence of this information makes it necessary to resort to indirect
means in solving certain problems and also prevents a direct logical
solution.
KINDS OF NOISE
To solve a sound problem of this type it is desirable to consider sepa-
rately the several means by which noise reaches the room. This avoids to
some extent the necessity of knowing the noise level at the source and
places the emphasis on ascertaining the level at the point where the sound
enters the room rather than on its point of origin.
The noise introduced into a room or building by ventilating or air
conditioning equipment may be divided into two kinds depending on
how it reaches the room as:
1. Noise transmitted through the building construction.
2. Noise transmitted through the ducts.
It is convenient to further subdivide these two methods of delivery as :
1. Noise transmitted through the building construction.
a. From machine mountings as vibration.
b. From equipment through room wall surfaces.
2. Noise transmitted through the ducts.
a. From equipment such as sprays, fans, etc.
&. From outside, and transmitted through duct walls into air stream.
c. From air current, including eddying noises.
d. Cross talk and cross noises between rooms connected by the same duct system.
^The next step in the solution of this problem is to present data and
discuss methods whereby solutions to the noise problem can be obtained
when the allowable room noise level and the path through which the
noise reaches the room are known.
586
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
NOISE THROUGH BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
It is impossible to select ventilating equipment which will operate
without producing some mechanical noise, and since the equipment must
be mounted in a building, it is probable that a part of this noise will be
transmitted to the building itself to such a degree as to make noisy con-
ditions in the rooms which are to be air conditioned. Much of this noise
may be transmitted by the duct if it is rigidly connected to the fan outlet,
It is common practice to make the connection between the fan and the
duct with a canvas sleeve which effectively restricts noise at this point,
Noise may also enter the building through the mounting of the motor and
the fan. Flexible mountings should be provided in all installations but
these mountings must be carefully designed so that they will actually
reduce the contact between the machinery and the supporting floor.
If a flexible material is used, it is desirable to investigate the installation
so that it is not short-circuited by through bolts which are improperly
insulated and by electrical conduit which is not properly broken and is
attached both to the equipment and to the building. The flexible mount-
ing, if it is improperly engineered, may actually increase the contact
between the equipment and the floor upon which it is supported. In
general, the flexible material should be loaded as heavily as possible
without impairing its load-carrying capacity.
Controlling Vibration from Machine Mountings
The theory of the insulation of vibration was first worked out by
Soderberg3. If a machine of mass m be supported by an elastic pad the
amount of vibratory force communicated by the machine to the floor or
foundation upon which it rests will be determined by the elastic and
viscous properties of the pad. The ratio of the vibratory force communi-
cated to the floor or foundation with the machine resting upon the pad,
and with the machine resting directly upon the floor, is given by the
following equation :
•v:
2 «
where
T' = the so-called transmissibility of the support.
c = the compliance (that is, the reciprocal of the force constant).
r = the mechanical resistance owing to the viscous forces within the support.
n = the frequency of vibration generated by the machine which is to be insulated,
such as the commutation frequency of a motor or the blade frequency of a fan,
m — the mass of the machine to be insulated.
It should be noted that not only must vibrations within the audible range of fre-
quencies be considered, but those in the sub-audible range as well, since these may cause
objectionable vibrations. All the possible frequencies should be considered in the calcu-
lation. Sometimes beat effects are introduced by slight irregularities of belts or pulleys
that have much lower frequencies than those of the rotating elements.
JC. R. Soderberg, The Electric Journal (January, 1924), and succeeding articles. See also V. O. Knudsen,
Physical Review, Vol. 32, 1928, p. 324, and A. L. Kimball, Journal Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 2,
1930, p. 297.
587
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
If r, the mechanical resistance, is very small, formula 1 may be written
where n0 is the natural frequency of the machine upon the elastic pad,
In most cases of design of resilient machine mounting the effect of
frictional resistance is small, and Equation 2 may be used. In such cases
it is only necessary to know the natural frequency of the elastic pad or
platform used under the desired loading and the transmissibility for any
vibrational frequency of the machine may be obtained. However, this
formula gives the theoretical maximum insulation which may be obtained
and should be used with a liberal factor of safety. (A factor of 2 is
common practice.)
If the pad is to be of any value in the prevention of solid-borne vibra-
tions, the value of T' must be considerably smaller than unity. If the
fundamental frequency of vibration generated by the machine happens to
coincide with the natural frequency of the mass of the machine resting on
the elastic pad, a condition of resonance will be established, and the
machine will exert a greater force upon the foundation than it would if
the pad were completely removed. It is necessary, therefore, that the
elastic support be sufficiently compliant, and the mass of the machine
sufficiently heavy, that the natural frequency of the mass m upon its
elastic support will be low in comparison with the frequencies which are
generated by the machine. Thus, if the principal vibrations in the
machine be of the order of 100 vibrations per second, the natural frequency
of the machine mounted on its elastic support should not exceed about
50 vibrations per second, and for best results preferably 20.
When the forced frequency is low, it is frequently impossible to insulate
for the fundamental forced frequency due to connecting pipe work and
other relevant factors. In cases of this kind an effective installation of
sound insulation may be obtained with a mounting which functions far
above the fundamental forced frequency. For example, a compressor
operating at 500 rpm has a forced frequency of 8.3 vibrations per second.
By designing a mounting having a natural frequency of 20 to 25 vibrations
per second, it is possible to isolate practically all of the noise.
If a slab of insulating material be placed under the entire foundation of
a machine, as is often done in practice, it may happen that the natural
frequency of ^ the machine on its elastic support will be nearly the same as
the frequencies which are to be insulated, in which case the elastic support
will be worse than nothing. In general, as Equation 1 shows, both m and
c should be as large as possible if the vibrations of the machine are to be
effectively insulated from the solid structure of the building.
The elastic support under the machine acts as a low-pass filter which
passes all frequencies below about two times the natural frequency of the
machine mounted on its elastic support, but prevents all frequencies
588
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
above about
from reaching the solid structure of the building. The
principal influence of the internal mechanical resistance r is to limit the
vibration at the resonant frequency. It is generally advisable, therefore,
to use materials which have an appreciable internal resistance.
The values of c and r can be determined for any specimen of flexible
material and, when known, can be used to determine the insulation value
of any particular set-up. The value of c can be obtained by making static
measurements^ the amount of displacement of the compressed support
for each additional unit of the compressing force. If this be done for a
specimen of the flexible material of a certain thickness and area of cross
section, the compliance can be determined for any other thickness or area
from the relation that c will be directly proportional to the thickness and
inversely proportional to the area of the flexible support. When the
internal resistance r is not too large, it can be determined by observing the
successive amplitudes of the free vibrations of a mass m which rests upon
a specimen of the flexible material, and solving for r by the usual log-
decrement method. Or, if the damping be so great that the free motion of
m is non-oscillatory, r can be obtained from measurements on the experi-
mentally-determined resonance curve of the forced vibrations of m, or
from measurements of the rate of return of m when it is given an initial
displacement.
If the resistance of a certain specimen of material, as cork, felt, or
rubber, has been determined by any of these methods, the resistance for
any other thickness or area of the material can be determined approxi-
TABLE 2. COMPLIANCE AND RESISTANCE DATA FOR TYPICAL SPECIMENS OF
FLEXIBLE MATERIALS51
The compliances and resistances given in the table are for specimens 1 in. thick
and 1 sq cm in cross-section
MATERIAL
DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIAL
APPROXIMATE UPPEB
SAFE LOADING IN
POUNDS PER SQUARE
INCH
COMPLIANCE c IN
CENTIMETERS PER
DYNE
KESISTANCE r IN
ABSOLUTE UNITS
Corkboard
Corkboard
Fiber Board
Fiber Board
Fiber Board
Fiber Board
Fiber Board
Anti-Vibro-Block
Sponge Rubber
Soft India Rubber
l.lOlbper
board foot
O.TOlbper
board foot
1.351bper
board foot
Carpet lining
Insulating
board
Insulating
board
Insulating
board
12 -
8
4 to 6
10
12
15
15
5
Ito3
3 to 6
0.25xlO-6
O.SOxlO-6
0.60x10-°
0.40xlO-6
0.18x10-6
0.16x10-6
0.12x10-6
0.60x10-6
3.0 xlO-6
1.2 xlO-6
0.15xl08
0.25xl05
0.50x10*
1.5x 106
25 Ib per
cubic foot
55 Ib per
cubic foot
aFrom Architectural Acoustics, by V. O. Knudsen, p. 278.
589
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
mately because the resistance will be inversely proportional to the thick-
ness and directly proportional to the area of cross-section of the flexible
support. Thus, if the values of c and r for a flexible material be known,
it is possible to calculate, by means of Equation 1, the amount of insu-
lation that will be obtained from the use of this material as a flexible
support for a piece of equipment having a mass m. For the routine
calculations in practice, r may be neglected with only a slight sacrifice
of accuracy. Table 2 gives the values of c and r for a number of com-
monly used flexible materials.
Example 1. A machine weighing 1000 Ib has a base area of 20 sq ft. Assume that the
principal vibration of the machine has a frequency of 100 cycles per second (most
machinery vibrations are less than 150 vibrations per second, and the assumed frequency
of 100 is quite representative of typical machines). Suppose that a 1-in. slab of cork-
board weighing 1.10 Ib per board foot be placed between the machine and the floor.
The loading on the cork will then be only 50 Ib per square foot, or slightly more than
H Ib per square inch. (It is assumed that the compliance c in centimeters per dyne for a
specimen 1 in. thick and 1 sq crn in cross-section is 0.25 X 10~8 and the resistance r in
mechanical ohms is 0.15 X 106.)
The transmissibility is calculated in the following manner:
Mass of machine in grams - 1000 X 454 = 4.54 X 108.
Area of base in square centimeters = 20 X 144 X 2.54 X 2.54 = 1.86 X 104.
Therefore, the compliance of the entire support, 1 in. thick and 20 sq ft in cross
section, is 0.25 X lO"6 X ., Q~ L in* " °-134 X 10"10 cm per dyne, and the resistance of
l.oo X 10*
the entire support is 0.15 X 106 X 1.86 X 10* = 0.28 X 109 mechanical ohms (or absolute
units). Therefore,
V
•v.
(0.28 X 109)2 +
4-r8 X 1002 X (0.134 X 10-10)2
(0.28 X 10')* + ((2, X 100 X 4.54 X 10') - 2, x 100 x (0.134 X 10-" >
1018
0.0784 X 1018 • '
41C2 X 102 X 0.018
(a
0.0784 X 10- + a, X 4.54 X 10' -
Consequently, it is seen that the transmissibility is nearly equal to unity, and that the
support therefore is not satisfactory for insulating 100 or fewer vibrations per second.
If the amount of cork be reduced so that it is loaded to 10 Ib per square inch, the total
area of the supporting cork will be only 100 sq in. or 645 sq cm. The compliance of the
entire support will now be 0.25 X 10"8 X TTT; = 0.39 X lO"9 cm per dyne, and the
resistance will be 0.15 X 105 X 645 = 0.97 X 107 mechanical ohms (or absolute units).
Therefore
(0.97 X 107)2 +
4X2 X 1002 X (0.39 X 10-8)2
(0.97 X 107)2 + ((2* X 100 X 4.54 X 106) -
2*: X 100 X (0.39 X HH),
101*
0.94 X 1014 + u
X 0.1521
0.94 X 1014 + (2* X 4.54 X 107 -
590
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
It is seen, therefore, that with the bearing surface on the cork reduced
to 100 sq in. (that is, with the cork loaded to 10 Ib per square inch), the
transmissibiUty is reduced to 0.0375, or the amplitude of vibration trans-
mitted to the floor will be only about 1/27 of what it would be if the
machine were mounted directly upon the floor. These two numerical
examples will serve to show not only the manner of making the calcu-
lations, but also the importance of selecting the proper type and design of
flexible supports for insulating the vibrations of a machine from the
rigid structure of a building.
Controlling Noise Through Room Wall Surfaces
The ventilating equipment is usually housed in a separate room where
the noise produced by the mechanical operation of the equipment can be
isolated from the rest of the building. If the vibration of the machinery
is absorbed by flexible mounting and is not transmitted to the building,
4" Bnck
" Plaster
4 Hollow Clay Tile
1B* 2" Furring Strips
Paper and Metal Lath
Insulation Value = 47 db
Plaster
Insulation Value = 52 db.
Absorptive Blanket
Fibre Board
•^Piaster
\Staggered Wood
Studs
Insulation Value
Greater than 50 db.
-Absorptive Blanket
t-Plaster on Lath
ilient Chairs
^Concrete Slab
Resilient Hangers
r- Plaster on Lath
Insulation Value = 50 db.
Insulation Value = 60 db., or more
FIG. 1. THREE WALL SECTIONS AND Two FLOOR AND CEILING SECTIONS WHICH
ARE SUITABLE FOR THE INSULATION OF EQUIPMENT ROOMS*
aAcouatical Problems in the Heating and Ventilating of Buildings, by V. O. Knudsen (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1932, p. 211).
the only noise to be eliminated by the walls of the room will be the air-
borne mechanical noise. Acoustical measurements on average brick,
tile, lath, and plaster walls indicate that the usual wall of these types is
sufficient to satisfactorily attenuate this air-borne mechanical noise.
Three wall sections and two floor and ceiling sections which are satis-
factory for the wall insulation of the equipment room are shown in Fig. 1.
Attention should be given to the equipment room door, since this door
may leak badly and allow sound to escape into parts of the building which
should be quiet. Where the equipment noise is particularly severe,
double doors should be used and in all cases, the doors of the equipment
room should be fitted with tight thresholds and weather-stripping. The
door itself may transmit considerable sound if it is thin but it will not
transmit a tenth as much as will be transmitted by a )£-in. crack between
the door and the threshold.
In cases where the equipment noise is extraordinarily high, it may be
591
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
necessary to treat acoustically the walls and ceiling of the equipment
room. If the equipment room is not entirely closed, partition walls
may be necessary.
NOISE TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE DUCTS
After noise reaches the air stream in the ducts it can be controlled by
lining the ducts on the inside with a sufficient quantity of sound absorbing
material. Lagging material of similar characteristics placed on the out-
side of ducts serves to prevent noise originating outside the ducts being
carried inside the ducts and into the air stream.
A case where outside lagging is desirable occurs when ducts originate
at the fan in the equipment room and pass through this room on the way
to the room being conditioned or ventilated. Unless the ducts are lined
some of the mechanical noise from the equipment room air may be trans-
mitted through the wall of the duct, thus reaching the air stream and be
carried into the room. In such cases, that portion of the duct which is
exposed to the sounds in the equipment room should be lagged with
material such as cork, pipe covering or other sound damping material to
prevent the sound from entering the duct at this point. Numerical data
are not available to permit a simple and practical calculating procedure
to determine thickness of covering which should be used for this purpose.
Inside lining material used in the case previously mentioned would
serve as an absorber of the sound transmitted through the duct walls, and
thus act as a means of preventing the transfer of noise into the air stream.
Inside lining may also be used in ducts to absorb noise which reaches
the air stream from equipment such as fans, sprays and coils; noise due to
eddying currents set up by elbows, dampers and similar obstructions; and
noise transmitted from room to room where there is a common duct
system.
To use the lining effectively it must be properly located, well installed
and be applied in sufficient quantity to reduce the noise level of the air
stream to the level desired.
At present there are no wholly rational or generally recognized methods
of calculating the amount of duct lining necessary to accomplish a given
reduction of noise level in the air travelling in a duct system; consequently
some empirical method has to be used. One empirical method is to use
direct trial and error. Another empirical method uses a duct lining factor
evaluated by experience. In the present state of the data on sound
control for^ ducts, the latter method is convenient for making estimates,
but attention is specifically called to its empirical nature and to the
necessity of exercising judgment in applying it.
Use of Duct Lining Factor
A duct lining factor (/) giving numerical values for use at various
equipment^ noise levels is shown in Fig. 2. When properly used with
Table 1 this chart (Fig. 2) provides a solution which may be both useful
and simple. It is important to understand that the levels referred to in
this^chart are the average noise levels set up in the room by the ventilating
or air conditioning equipment. In the case of a piece of equipment which
generates a noise level of 95 db, when the noise is measured immediately
592
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
next to the machine, there might be a reduction of 15 db in passing through
the duct, and a further difference of 15 db between the noise at the outlet
supply grille and the average level in the room, leaving an effective
level of 65 db in the room. Reductions of noise level ranging from 5 to
25 db through duct systems have been encountered without the use of
sound absorbing linings and the drop from supply opening to average
room level may vary from 5 to 20 db.
Duct lining
factor f
Equipment
Noisy
Average
Quiet
0
75
65
55
5
65
55
45
10
55
45
35
15
45
35
25
20
35
25
15
25
25
15
5
30
15
5
-5
FIG. 2. CHART FOR DETERMINING NOISE REDUCTION IN DECIBEL-
DUCT LINING FACTOR**
aValues for equipment noise are only general. Wherever possible substitute actual values as supplied
by equipment manufacturer or as measured.
To determine whether to use column 1, 2, or 3 in Fig. 2, in forming an
estimate of the relative amount of noise generated by the system, the
length of the untreated duct system and the number of bends or elbows or
splitters should be considered, since the longer and the more complex the
system, the more reduction of noise level will occur before the sound
reaches the room grilles. Also the sound absorbing power of the room
should be taken into account, since in rooms where there is a great deal of
absorptive material, such as rugs, draperies, curtains and furniture, there
will be a higher loss between the outlet grille noise and the average room
level. The ventilating engineer will have to judge whether the conditions
deviate from the typical.
Manufacturers ratings on equipment should be considered in con-
nection with the foregoing discussion. The quantity determined involves
593
HEATING VENTIIIATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the noise level which will be produced in the room and the manufacturer's
method of rating must be considered before allowances previously
mentioned are accepted.
To use Fig. 2, proceed by consulting Table 1 and determine the probable
noise level already existing in the room, and, as suggested, assume that
this level is satisfactory for current practice. This gives a noise level in
decibels and with this enter the chart of Fig. 2. Read across the chart and
determine the value of the duct lining factor (/) in the column at the left.
Then multiply the smallest cross sectional dimension (inches) of the duct
by this factor. The result will be the length of duct in inches to be lined
to attenuate an average fan noise. If circular ducts are used, the length
to be lined will be (/) X diameter of duct.
Example 2. A 7 x 30 in. duct is connected to a private office space in a quiet location.
Determine the length of lining necessary to attenuate a fan noise satisfactorily.
From Table 1 the noise level in this office will be 35 db.
Length to be lined for noisy equipment is 22 X 7 — 154 in.
Length to be lined for average equipment is 17 X 7 = 119 in.
Length to be lined for quiet equipment is 12 X 7 =• 84 in.
Case I
Case II
FIG. 3. DIAGRAM OF BRANCH DUCT CONNECTION
The sound absorbent properties of duct lining are extremely important
and materials which have coefficients as high as possible should be used.
This is particularly true of the coefficients at the low frequencies. Fig. 2
is based on materials having a noise quieting coefficient of 0.60 or more.
For materials which are less efficient a factor of safety should be added4.
Only certain sound absorbent materials among those listed in various
publications will be found to be suitable for duct lining. In addition to a
high sound absorbent coefficient a duct lining material should have a low
surface coefficient of friction, high resistance to moisture absorption and
should be fireproof and vermin proof. A number of building codes now
specify that any sound absorbent material used for duct lining shall
Have no fire hazard. There are no existing specifications on moisture
resistance but the manufacturer should be required to show that the
material will not absorb sufficient moisture to cause deterioration or to
decrease the sound absorbing efficiency.
Aerials see Bulletin
594
Manufacturers' A*
CHAPTER 30. SOUND CONTROL
If, as is often the case, the length of duct from the main duct to a grille
is shorter than the length of lining indicated by using the factor found,
this duct may be sub-divided5 into smaller ducts, so that the value found
may be used as shown in Fig. 3.
Example 8. Assume a branch duct, as shown in Fig. 3, is 24 in. wide by 12 in. high
and 42 in. long. Use a duct lining factor of 10.
Case /. (No splitters).
Length of lining = / X minimum dimension = 10 X 12 = 120 in.
In this case the duct should be lined for 120 in. which is obviously impossible.
Case II. (Two splitters).
Results in 3 ducts 24 in. wide and 4 in. high.
Length of lining = / X minimum dimension = 10 X 4 = 40 in.
This length of lining fulfills the space limitations of the branch duct which is 42 in. long.
General Suggestions
In some instances where high velocity air is used, a considerable amount
of whistle is generated at the grille. This noise is obviously produced after
the air leaves the duct and there is no treatment which can be installed in
the duct that will reduce this noise. The engineer must take into con-
sideration the type of grille which he intends to use and provide sufficient
grille area so that the velocity through the grille is reduced to a point
where the grille is not too noisy.
Ducts serving more than one room permit cross talk between the rooms
and should be lined with acoustical material. Where the rooms are close
together and the ducts short, the ducts should be sub-divided to provide
ample acoustical treatment.
Very often in ventilating duct work the engineer feels that it will not
be necessary to line ducts if the sound is travelling against the airflow,
This, however, is untrue since sound travels so much more rapidly than
does the air in even high velocity systems, that it will travel as easily
against the airflow as it does with it.
Sounds which are low in pitch are much harder to eliminate from a
duct system than sound which is high in pitch, consequently equipment
which produces low pitched sounds should be avoided as much as possible,
REFERENCES
How Sound is Controlled, by V. O. Knudsen (Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning
October 1931, p. 815).
The Nature of Noise in Ventilating Systems and Methods for Its Elimination, b]
J. S. Parkinson (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning
March, 1937, p. 183).
Effect of Humidity upon the Absorption of Sound in a Room, by V. O. Knudser
(Journal, Acoustical Society of America, July 1931). Also see report presented at th<
May 1933, meeting of A.S. of A.
Acoustics and Architecture, by P. E. Sabine.
Architectural Acoustics, by V. O. Knudsen.
Acoustical Engineering, by West.
Modern Acoustics, by Davis.
5Patents exist covering the sub-dividing of ducts for installing sound absorbent materials.
595
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Does a soft pad under the ventilating machinery prevent building vibration?
It may or it may not. In some cases a soft pad causes more vibration than no pad. A
flexible mounting should be carefully designed to be effective,
2 • Are especially designed walls necessary in an equipment room to keep
noise out of adjoining spaces?
Ordinarily good brick, tile, or concrete walls are satisfactory. Window and door openings
should be made as tight as possible with weather-stripping, etc.
3 • How should mechanical noise be eliminated from the duct system?
A flexible connection between the fan discharge and the duct should be used. The duct
should be lined from the fan end for a certain length, depending on the degree of quietness
desired.
4 • Given the choice of two types of equipment, one generating high-pitched
sounds and the other low-pitched sounds, which would you choose? Why?
The equipment generating the high-pitched noise should be chosen since high-pitched
sounds are more easily absorbed than are low-pitched sounds.
5 • In building an acoustic filter in a short duct 32 by 24 in. which direction
should the splitters run?
The splitters should be installed parallel to the longest dimension, since they will provide
more acoustical material per splitter.
6 • What should he the characteristics of a good duct-lining material?
a. High noise reduction. d. Fire resistance.
b. Physical strength. e. Cleanliness, absence of loose fibers or pieces.
c. Easy working and installation. /. Smooth surface to reduce air friction.
7 • Should a ventilating duct be lagged or covered on the outside?
Yes, in some locations, and particularly in the equipment room and where the duct runs
through noisy rooms to serve a quiet room. This lagging will prevent air-borne sounds
from entering the duct through its sides and causing annoying sound in the quiet room.
8 • How can cross- talk be eliminated when one duct serves two or more rooms?
Install proper filters adjacent to the grilles in each room, using splitters if the duct leads
to the rooms are short.
9 • Space limitations and maximum air velocities for the introduction of air
to a broadcasting studio restrict the size of duct to 30 by 16 in. and in addition
the length of branch duct which is suitable for lining with sound absorption
material is limited to 22 ft. Determine the length of duct lining necessary to
attenuate an average fan noise and establish a permissable room noise level.
Referring to Fig. 2 the noise level for broadcasting studio is 14 db and the corresponding
duct lining factor/ is 28. Minimum cross sectional dimension of duct = 16 in.
— j^ — ~ 37. 3 ft duct lining required.
Maximum length ^ of duct is 22 ft, therefore it is necessary to divide the duct with a
splitter, resulting in a minimum duct dimension — 8 in.
o v* 98
— j^ — ~ 18.7 ft duct lining required to attenuate an average fan noise.
596
Chapter 31
AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT
OF DISEASE
Operating Rooms, Reducing Explosion Hazards, Post- operative
Heat Stroke, Nurseries for Premature Infants, Fever Therapy,
Control of Allergic Disorders, Oxygen Therapy, General
Hospital Air Conditioning
IN the past few years air conditioning has made considerable progress
as an adjunct in the treatment of various diseases. Among the im-
portant applications are those in operating rooms, nurseries for premature
infants, maternity and delivery rooms, children's wards, clinics for
arthritic patients, in heat therapy, oxygen therapy, X-ray rooms, and in
the control of allergic disorders.
AIR CONDITIONING OPERATING ROOMS
The most wide application of air conditioning in hospitals is that in
operating rooms. Complete air conditioning of operating wards is not
only desirable but often necessary for reducing the risk of explosion of
modern anesthetic gases in dry winter atmospheres, and for the pro-
tection of the patient and operating personnel against excessive summer
heat.
Reducing Explosion Hazard
Explosion hazards in operating rooms have begun with the introduction
of modern anesthetic gases and anesthesia apparatus. Ether adminis-
tered by the old drop method is still regarded as comparatively safe; but
when mixed with pure oxygen or with nitrous oxide in certain concen-
trations (see Table 1) the explosion hazard may be as great as with
ethylene-oxygen mixtures.
During the course of ethylene anesthesia the mixture, usually 80 per
cent ethylene and 20 per cent oxygen, is so rich that the danger of ex-
plosion is slight, confined to an area in the immediate vicinity of the face
mask, where leakage of ethylene into the air may accumulate to the
lower explosion concentration (see Table 1). The most dangerous period
is at the end of the operation when the patients' lungs and apparatus are
customarily washed out with oxygen with or without the addition of
carbon dioxide. Even when this procedure is omitted, it is difficult in
practice to avoid dilution of the anesthetic gas with air during the normal
course of breathing following the administration of anesthesia. In either
case the mixture would pass through the explosion range and extra-
597
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ordinary precaution is necessary for the safety of the patient and opera-
ting personnel.
Copious ventilation, from 6 to 12 air changes per hour, is necessary to
preclude accumulation of explosive mixtures and to reduce the concen-
tration of anesthetics to below the physiologic threshold so that the
surgeon and his personnel will not be affected.
The most important cause of accidents is probably static sparks which
may result from accumulation of factional charges on the rubber surfaces
of the anesthesia apparatus, on woolen blankets, and on the^bpdies of the
operators as they walk on insulated floors, when the humidity is^ quite
low. Grounding the various parts of the anesthesia apparatus is not
entirely effective, so long as rubber remains in use in the conventional
equipment.
To prevent accumulation of static charges within the apparatus or on
persons coming near to it, the measures proposed1 are humidification of
air to between 55 and 60 per cent relative humidity, grounding the
TABLE 1. APPROXIMATE LIMITS OF INFLAMMABILITY OF ETHYLENE AND ETHER**
ETHT
LENS
ETB
OBR
MIXED WITH
Lower Limit
PerCent
Upper Limit
PerCent
Lower Limit
Per Cent
Upper Limit
Per Cent
Air_
3.0
30 ±
1.7
50-
Oxygen
3.0
80-
1.7
40 =*=
Nitrous Oxide
3.8
26*=
a-Limits of Inflammability of Gases and Vapors, H. F. Coward and G. W. Jones, U. S. Department
of Commerce, Bulletin No. 279, 1931.
apparatus and operating table, and using conducting floors and shoes so
that the operating staff and attendants will be always grounded as they
move about. The significant factor is the absolute humidity, rather
than the relative humidity, because upon it depends the electrical
conductivity of the atmosphere. The principal objection to artificial
humidification is the necessity of constant supervision to make sure
that the apparatus is functioning properly.
Artificial humidification in operating rooms during cold weather may
also prove beneficial in reducing evaporation from exposed tissues and
from the wet skin of the patient, and by allowing a lower room tempera-
ture.
Operating Room Conditions
Little is known about optimum air conditions that are necessary to
maintain a normal body temperature during the course of anesthesia
and in the immediate post-operative period.
Under the influence of anesthesia a patient is at a very low ebb. All
anesthetics, as a rule, produce dilation of the vessels in the skin and much
sweating, particularly in the case of ether anesthesia. The loss of body
heat is increased considerably, while the general metabolism may be
/ r 1The Hazard of Explosion of Anesthetics, by Y. Henderson. Report of the Committee on Anesthesia
(Journal American Medical Association, 94:1491, 1930).
598
CHAPTER 31. AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT or DISEASE
depressed. The organism loses ability to regulate its own body tem-
perature and becomes unusually sensitive to chilling and post-operative
complications. In order to maintain a normal body temperature, a high
air temperature is necessary, as high as 90 F or higher in the case of ether
anesthesia, judging from experiments on animals2.
Such high temperatures are obviously uncomfortable for the operating
personnel, and in order to alleviate the condition the room temperature
is usually kept between 72 and 80 F in cold weather with the patient
carefully guarded with blankets and hot water bottles during and for
some time after the operation.
Post-operative Heat Stroke: It would seem that surgeons have learned
to fear so much the occurrence of post-operative pneumonia and shock
that even in hot summer weather patients are sometimes needlessly
bundled up with detrimental consequences.
In 1916 several deaths were reported3 of heat stroke following surgical
operations, and a number of cases suffering from a mild isolation, often
recognized as post-operative reaction or shock. From these observations
it was concluded that all operating room activities should cease during
summer heat waves with the exception of urgent operations, when every
effort should be made to keep the patient cool and comfortable.
In cases of exophthalmic goitre, one investigator4 warns most em-
phatically against the performance of operations in extremely warm
weather, for under such conditions the risk in spite of all precautions
(prior to the introduction of summer cooling in operating rooms) is too
great. An analysis of several cases over a 10-year period shows a striking
rise of post-operative deaths in June, July, and August, resulting unex-
pectedly from extreme post-operative reaction passing onto acute
hyperthyroidism.
More recently four cases were reported5 of post-operative heat stroke
admitted 24 hours preceding operation and sheltered from direct sun rays.
All four were not ill and apparently were good risks. There occurred,
however, at the time of operation and for several days preceding it, a heat
wave with a moderately high temperature, a high relative humidity, and
no wind. In addition to warm weather, excessive loss of body fluids is
believed to have been a factor in the production of heat stroke in those
four cases.
Aside from the possibility of post-operative heat stroke in warm and
sultry weather, the surgeon is also concerned with the lowered recupera-
tive power of the patients, and with his own discomfort as well as the
discomfort of his team, which impairs the efficiency of the technic to the
disadvantage of the patient.
In view of this experience it is customary to defer major operations as
much as possible until the passing of heat waves, in hospitals not equipped
with cooling facilities. But there are exceptional cases, like acute appen-
»Heat Regulation and Water Exchange. The Influence of Ether in Dogs, by H. G. Barbour and W.
Bourne (American Journal Physiology, 67:399, 1924).
»Post^operative Heat Stroke, by A. V. Moschcowitz (Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 23:443, 1916).
*The Effect of Heat Upon Operations for Exophthalmic Goitre, by A. J. Walton (British Medical
Journal, 1:1045, 1923).
"Post-operative Heat Stroke, by T. M. Martin (Journal Missouri Medical Association, July, 1928.
Abstract Anesthesia and Analgesia, 8:23, 1929).
599
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
dicitis for instance, which sometimes come with summer heatwaves, and
develop dangerously unless promptly operated upon. Complete air con-
ditioning of operating rooms would therefore seem to be a necessity in
many sections of the United States.
Satisfactory Air Conditions: Although the comfortable air conditions
for the operatives are not identical with those of the patient, a compro-
mise is as a rule not difficult; with a relative humidity of 55 to 60 per cent,
a temperature of 80 F in warm weather and between 72 and 75 F in cold
weather will probably prove satisfactory. Additional heat may be
furnished to the patient locally or by suitable covering according to body
temperature in individual cases.
Central station air conditioning plants and individual unit air con-
ditioners proved satisfactory in operating rooms when producing between
8 and 15 air changes per hour of filtered and properly humidified air, with
full provision for summer cooling and dehumidincation and without
recirculation during the course of anesthesia. A separate exhaust fan
system is as a rule necessary in order to confine and remove the gases and
odors. Double windows are desirable and often necessary to prevent
condensation and frosting on the glass in cold weather and to minimize
drafts. The high air flow of 8 to 15 air changes in operating rooms is
desirable for three reasons: (a) to reduce the concentration of the anes-
thetic to well below the physiologic threshold in the vicinity of the
operating personnel, (6) to remove excessive amounts of heat and some-
times moisture from sterilizing equipment if inside the operating room,
from the powerful surgical lights, solar heat, and from the bodies of the
operatives, and (c) to provide extra capacity for quickly preparing the
room for emergency operations. Much can be gained by careful insu-
lation of sterilizing equipment and by thorough exhaust ventilation of
sterilizing rooms adjoining the operating rooms.
It is generally believed that in addition to operating rooms, an adjoining
ward should also be conditioned to provide for the treatment of post-
operative fever. Such a post-operative ward may also prove valuable in
treating patients with heat stroke, fevers, summer diarrhea and other
cases affected by high temperature, when the room is not used for any-
thing else.
Sterilization of Air in Operating Rooms: Of considerable significance
to^ operating rooms and contagious wards is the use of ultra-violet radi-
ation for sterlizing the air.6 Results reported7 would seem to indicate
that the post-operative temperature rise of patients during the first few
days is in most instances caused more by bacterial contamination of the
operative wound than by the absorption of blood and traumatized tissues.
Operating room infections, which were quite frequent before the instal-
lation of special ultra-violet lamps, are said to have practically disappeared.
NURSERIES FOR PREMATURE INFANTS
t One of the most important requirements in the care of premature
infants is the stabilization of body temperature. This is necessary because
5tir"B°me Infection and ^tary Air Control, by W. F. Wells (Journal Industrial Hygiene, 17:253,
°°m by Spedal Bacteric*al ^iant Energy, by Deryl
600
CHAPTER 31. AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT or DISEASE
their heat regulating system is not fully developed; the metabolism is
low and the infants generally exhibit marked inability to maintain a
normal body temperature by their own efforts. The resistance to infec-
tion is low and the mortality rate, very high.
Air Conditioning Requirements
The optimum air conditions for the growth and development of these
infants were determined by extensive research at the Infants Hospital,
Boston, Mass.,8 using four valid criteria, namely, stability of body tem-
perature, gain in weight, incidence of digestive syndromes, and mortality.
Wide variations were found in individual requirements for temperatures
from 72 to 100 F, according to the constitutional state of the infants and
body weights. The optimum relative humidity was about 65 per cent,
and the air movement less than 20 fpm.
A single nursery conditioned to 77 F temperature and 65 per cent
relative humidity was found to satisfactorily fulfill the requirements of
the majority of premature infants. Additional heat for weak or debili-
tated infants may be furnished in the cribs or by means of electric incu-
bators placed inside the conditioned nursery and the temperature adjusted
according to individual requirements. In this way multiplicity of
chambers and of air conditioning apparatus is obviated; the infants in
the heated beds derive the benefit of breathing cool humid air, and the
nurses and doctors need not expose themselves to extreme conditions.
Importance of Humidity: Although external heat is an ^ important
factor in the maintenance of normal body temperature, humidity appears
to be of equal or greater importance. When the premature nurseries at
the Infants Hospital were kept at relative humidity between 25 and 50
per cent for two weeks or longer, the body temperature became unstable,
gains in weight diminished, the incidence of gastro-intestinal disturbances
increased, and the mortality rose. On the other hand, continuous ex-
posure to air conditions with 55 to 65 per cent relative humidity gave
satisfactory results over a period of years.
The initial physiologic loss of body weight (loss occurring within
first four days of life) was found to vary inversely with the humidity.
In the old nurseries with natural humidity it averaged 12.4 per cent^of
the birth weight; in the conditioned nurseries it was 8.9 per cent with
25 to 49 per cent relative humidity, and 6.0 per cent with 50 to 75 per
cent relative humidity. The number of days required to regain the
birth weight was correspondingly maximum in the old ^ nursery, mini-
mum in the conditioned nurseries under high humidity, and inter-
mediate in the conditioned nurseries with low humidity.
Maximum gains in body weight occurred in the conditioned nurseries
under high humidity (55 to 65 per cent) in infants weighing less than 5 Ib.
The gains were less under low humidity (25 to 50 per cent) in the same
nurseries, and in the old nurseries prior to the installation of air condi-
tioning apparatus.
The incidence and severity of digestive syndromes, with diarrhea,
8The Premature Infant: A Study of the Effects of Atmospheric Conditions on Growth and on Develop-
ment by K D Blackfan, C. P. Yaglou and K. McKenzie (.American Journal Disease of Children, 46:1175.
1933)'.
601
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
persistent vomiting, diminishing gains or loss of body weight, and other
symptoms, were generally from two to three times as high under low
than under high humidity.
Finally, the mortality of premature infants was found to be greatly
affected by humidity. In Table 2 is given the net mortality according to
the humidity in which the derangement of body function began. In the
old nurseries, prior to the installation of the air conditioning system, the
death rate from acute and chronic infections was 26.5 per cent as com-
pared with 9.7 per cent in the conditioned nurseries under low humidity
and 0.0 per cent under high humidity.
Summarizing the conclusions of these studies, the best chances for life
in premature infants are created by maintaining a relative humidity of
TABLE 2. NET MORTALITY OF PREMATURE INFANTS ACCORDING TO HUMIDITY
Infants Hospital, Boston, Mass.
CATJSBS OF DEATH
UNCONDITIONED
NUESBRTBS
(1923-1925)
CONDITIONED NUBSIEHS
(1926-1929)
NATTJBAL BDnMrorrr
RJBJLA.TTVB HUMIDITY
25-49
Per Cent
50-75
Per Cent
Per Cent Mortality
Per Cent Mortality
Per Cent Mortality
Acute and chronic infections..
Congenital deformities—
Unclassified
26.5
1.2
1.2
9.7
0.0
4.8
0.0
0.7
0.0
All causes.™
28.9
14.5
0.7
•JtJlS^filf1?*?^? ^J1 'FJtfok congenital anomalies incompatible with life, and also deaths occurring
within 48 hours after admission to the hospital.
65 per cent in the nursery and by providing a uniform environmental
temperature just sufficiently high to keep the body temperature within
normal limits. Medical and nursing care are, of course, factors of equal
and sometimes of greater importance.
Air Conditioning Equipment: Most of the installations now in use are
of the central station type providing for filtration, for humidification and
heating m cold weather, and for cooling and dehumidification in hot
weather. A high ventilation rate, between 15 and 25 air changes, is
desirable to remove odors and maintain uniformity of temperatures in
extremes of weather. Recirculation is not used extensively in these wards
owing to odors and the possibility of infection.
AIR CONDITIONING IN FEVER THERAPY
Artificial production of fever in man is an imitation of nature's way of
overcoming invading pathogenic organisms. The action may be direct
and specific by obliteration or destruction of the invading organism within
the safe^limit of human fever temperature; or an indirect one in case of
heat resistant organisms, through general mobilization of the defensive
602
CHAPTER 31. AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE ,
mechanisms of the body, by means of which the activity of pathogenic
bacteria and their toxins may be retarded or neutralized.
The limits of induced systemic fever are usually between 104 and
107 F (rectal), and the duration from 3 to 6 hours at a time. The total
period of fever treatment varies with the type of the organism involved
from a few hours to 50 hours or more.
The diseases reported to respond favorably to artificial fever are:
gonorrhea, neurosyphilis, chorea, asthma, peripheral vascular diseases,
pccular gonorrhea and syphilis. There are a number of other conditions
in which the usefulness of artificial fever is not yet settled. The most
striking results are seen in gonorrhea in which various strains of organism
can be killed by artificial fever within the limits of tolerance of man.
Equipment for the Production of Systemic Fever
Various means have been tried for producing artificial fever, including
injections of various crystalloid or colloid substances; a number of physical
methods, such as hot baths, radiant heat, diathermy, radiothermy, and,
in the last few years, an air conditioned chamber. The relative ad-
vantages and disadvantages of these various methods were discussed
in recent papers.9 The results by the use of air conditioned cabinets have
not been fully explored, and it is therefore difficult to determine the ^ ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the value of air conditioning at this time.
Under certain conditions a combination of systemic fever and^additional
local heating by diathermy or other means is claimed to yield better
results than systemic fever alone by reducing considerably the killing
time of the organism and rendering the treatment less trying to both
patient and attendants.10
The air conditioned chamber11 consists of an insulated cabinet approxi-
mately 6 ft long, 3 ft wide, and 2.5 ft high, containing in a small rear
compartment, electric air heaters, a water pan for humidification, a
centrifugal fan, and controls. The nude patient lies on an air mattress
inside the front compartment with his head protruding outside the front
end through a rubber collar. Warmed air at 130 to 150 F and 30 to 50
per cent relative humidity is blown upon the body of the patient, and the
rectal temperature rises to 105 F usually in from^O to 60 min. The heat
is then turned low and adjusted so as to maintain the desired body tem-
perature in each individual case.
More recently a heat cabinet was described12 in which saturated
air between 100 and 120 F in temperature is used for elevating the pa-
tient's body temperature. This gives a rapid rise of body temperature
with a relatively low air temperature; it eliminates skin burns, and the
room in which the heat box is located is not overheated unduly.
'Fever Therapy for Gpnpcoccic Infections, by A. U. Desjardins, L. G. Stuhler and W. C. Popp (Journal
daf^^ by H. P. Doub (RoJAftw. 25:360, 1935).
"The Treatment of Gonorrheal Arthritis by Means of Systemic and Additional Focal Heating, by
W. Bierman and C. Levenson (American Journal Medical Science, 191:55, 1936).
"Artificial Fever Therapy of Syphilis, by W. M. Simpson (Journal American Medical Association,
105:2132, 1935).
"Fever Therapy Induced by Conditioned Air, by F. C. Houghten, M. B. Ferderber and Carl Gutberlet
(A.S.H.V.E: JOTONAI. SECTION, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, February, 1937, p. llo).
603
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Extensive research is now in progress to determine the usef ulness^ and
limitations of fever therapy on a wide variety of pathogenic conditions.
While this form of therapy is rapidly gaining wide recognition, its appli-
cation, according to the American Medical Association, should be strictly
a hospital procedure surrounded with the safeguards commonly employed
in a major operation and under the direction of skilled physicians.
CONTROL OF ALLERGIC DISORDERS
Although there is some division of opinion over the ultimate cause of
allergy, the prevailing belief is that it is due to an inherited or acquired
hypersensitiveness to foreign or pollen proteins in certain individuals who
react abnormally to the offending substance. The reaction may be
induced by inhalation, eating, or absorption of the allergens through the
skin. The clinical manifestations are hay fever, asthma, eczema, hives,
contact dermatitis, etc.
Symptoms of Hay Fever and Asthma
The respiratory tract is probably the most usual site of allergic mani-
festations, the so-called hay fevers and asthma. In hay fevers, the nose
and eyes are red and itchy, and there is considerable discharge. Nasal
obstruction is the most common and most distressing symptom. The
severity of the symptoms varies widely from day to day depending chiefly
on the amount of pollen in the air.
Seasonal asthma comes in attacks. The most popular theory con-
cerning the mechanism of action is that the offending substance irritates
the nerve endings in mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, causing
spasmodic contraction of the small bronchioles of the lungs, which
interferes with breathing, particularly with expiration. Non-seasonal
allergic disturbances are sometimes attributed to house or street dusts,
fungi, odors and irritating gases, and heat or cold, particularly sudden
temperature changes. It is often stated in the literature that heat reg-
ulation in asthmatic individuals is likely to be unstable, with a tendency
to subnormal body temperature. Many allergic cases who are apparently
well, develop their attacks when cold weather appears, or upon changing
from warm to cool outdoor air.
Air Conditioning Apparatus
In recent years considerable effort has been directed toward the elimi-
nation of the principal cause of allergy from the air of enclosures by
filtration or other air conditioning processes capable of removing pollens,
in the hope of providing relief to individuals who failed to respond to
medical treatment (desensitization or immunization) .
Paper or cloth filters, mounted in inexpensive window or floor units,
proved quite satisfactory in removing all but traces of pollen. Allergens
may also be removed by passing the air through a water spray, or over
cooling coils kept at a temperature low enough to cause condensation of
atmospheric moisture on the surface of the coils.
Although^ the chief remedial factor in the treatment by conditioned air
is the filtration of pollen, a certain amount of cooling and dehumidification
604
CHAPTER 31. AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE
appears to be desirable. A comfortable temperature between 75 and 82 F
in warm weather and a relative humidity well below 50 per cent proved
satisfactory.13 Direct drafts, overcooling or overheating are apt to
initiate or aggrevate the symptoms.
Limitations of Air Conditioning Methods
The results obtained with air filtration or other air conditioning pro-
cesses in the control of allergic conditions are fairly comparable to those
obtained by desensitization treatment so long as the patients remain in
the pollen free atmosphere. But while specific desensitization is preven-
tive and in a few instances curative for all practical purposes, filtration
gives only temporary relief. With rare exceptions, the symptoms recur
on exposure to pollen laden air. Moreover the usefulness of air condi-
tioning methods is limited because all cases are not caused by air-borne
substances. Cases of bacterial asthma do not respond at all to the treat-
ment with filtered air.
Despite these limitations air conditioning methods possess definite
advantages in the simplicity of treatment, convenience, and under certain
conditions almost immediate relief. Hay fever cases are usually relieved
of most of their symptoms within an hour or so after exposure to properly
filtered air. In pollen asthma cases relief comes more slowly, usually
after an exposure of from 1 to 12 days depending upon the severity of
asthma.
A pollen free atmosphere is especially valuable for patients in whom
desensitization has given little or no relief, and in instances in which
desensitization is not advisable owing to intercurrent illness. On the
whole, conditioning methods are considered to be a valuable adjunct in
medical diagnosis and treatment of allergic disorders.
AIR CONDITIONING IN OXYGEN THERAPY
Oxygen therapy is the principal measure employed for preventing and
relieving the distressing symptoms of anoxemia, which is a deficiency in
the oxygen content of the blood. Some of the more important conditions
in which oxygen treatment is believed to be beneficial are pneumonias,
anemia, heart affections, post-operative pulmonary disturbances, certain
mental disturbances, asphyxia, asthma and atelectasis in new-born
infants.
The necessity of air conditioning in oxygen therapy arises from the fact
that oxygen is too expensive a gas to waste in the ventilation of oxygen
tents and oxygen chambers. The oxygen rich atmosphere in these enclo-
sures is therefore reconditioned in a closed circuit by removal of excess
heat, moisture, and carbon dioxide given off from the occupants.
Oxygen Tents: In oxygen tents the air enriched with oxygen is usually
circulated by means of a small motor blower which sends the air over soda
lime to remove carbon dioxide and then over ice to remove excess heat
and moisture. The concentration of oxygen in the tent is regulated by
means of a pressure reducing valve and flow meter. In an inadequately
l*The Effect of Low Relative Humidity at Constant Temperature on Pollen Asthma, by B. Z. Rappaport,
T. Nelson and W. H. Welker (Journal Allergy, 6:111, 1935).
605
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
cooled oxygen tent, high temperatures and humidities are inevitable,
increasing die discomfort of the patient and imposing an added strain on
an already overburdened heart. Oxygen therapy under such conditions
may do more harm than good14. An ice melting rate of about 10 Ib per
hour gives satisfactory results in patients with fever in a medium size tent.
Oxygen tents are somewhat confining to the patient; the restless type
of person is difficult to control, and the delirious impossible to control.
Medical and nursing care is complicated, as the tent must be opened or
removed with attendant loss of oxygen. Oxygen concentrations of 50
per cent or more are difficult to maintain, and it is a problem to keep the
temperature and humidity low enough in hot weather. The direct
advantages are portability and low cost.
Oxygen Chambers: The conventional oxygen chamber is an air-tight
sheet metal enclosure of fire-proof construction, large enough to accom-
modate one or two patients. Trap doors or curtains are provided for the
personnel, food and service to avoid loss of oxygen. Glass windows in the
ceiling and walls admit light from electric fixtures outside the chamber.
The air conditioning system may be of the gravity type, or of the fan
type using mechanical refrigeration or silica gel for drying the air^ The
gravity system includes a bank of brine coils controlled thermostatically,
which dehumidify and cool the air. The cool air falls over trays at the
bottom of the coils, containing soda lime to remove the carbon dioxide
given off by the occupants. A heater at the base of the opposite wall
warms the air to the desired temperature. Ordinary industrial oxygen is
introduced from storage tanks outside the chamber and the concentration
is regulated according to the prescription of the physician. The only
change of air in the chamber is that taking place by leakage through trap
doors. :
The chief objections to the gravity circulation system are stratification
of cold air near the floor and accumulation of odors, which may require
the use of activated charcoal or an excess of oxygen for deliberate
aeriation.
The fan circulation systems include compact extended surface coolers,
heaters, and sometimes silica gel beds installed outside the chamber for
the removal of moisture. A spray dehumidifier is not suitable for this
purpose because it is often desired to cool the air below 32 F in order to
obtain low relative humidities.
The temperature and humidity requirements in oxygen therapy depend
primarily upon the physical condition of the patient, and secondarily upon
the type of disease. In pneumonias, the range of satisfactory conditions
is placed between 60 and 75 F with 20 to 50 per cent relative humidity,
depending on the condition of the patient.
Oxygen chambers are unquestionably more comfortable than oxygen
tents. The patients receive unhampered medical and nursing care, and
the oxygen concentration, the temperature and humidity can be ade-
quately controlled at any desired level. The chief disadvantage is high
initial and operating costs in comparison with oxygen tents or with the
nasal catheter method of oxygen administration. The nasal catheter
"General Measures Employed in the Treatment of the Pneumonias, by J. G. M. Ballowa (Health
Examiner 5:12, 1936).
606
CHAPTER 31. AIR CONDITIONING IN THE TREATMENT or DISEASE
method is the simplest and most inexpensive of all but it may cause con-
siderable discomfort to the patient and it is not satisfactory for continuous
administration and in restless or delirious patients. Moreover, oxygen
concentrations greater than 40 per cent in the inspired air are difficult
to obtain.
The chamber method is of value in large hospitals and for research and
experimental purposes, but for routine oxygen therapy alone it may prove
a liability rather than an asset in many hospitals.
GENERAL HOSPITAL AIR CONDITIONING
Complete conditioning of large hospitals involves a capital investment,
depreciation and running expense which may not be justified.
In clean and quiet districts, the requirements of almost all general and
Srivate wards during the cool season of the year can be satisfactorily
ilfilled by the use of rational heating in conjunction with window air
supply^and gravity or mechanical exhaust. Insulation against heat and
sound is much more important than humidification in winter; it will also
help considerably in keeping the building cool in warm weather. Exces-
sive outside noise and dust may require the use of silencers and air filters
in the window openings.
Cooling and dehumidification in warm weather are important. In new
hospitals particularly, the desirability of cooling certain sections of the
building should be given serious consideration. Financial reasons may
preclude the cooling of the entire hospital, but the needs of the average
hospital can be met by the use of built-in room coolers and a few portable
units which can be wheeled from ward to ward when needed.
In the North and certain sections of the Pacific Coast, cooling is needed
on but a few days during summer, while in the South, built-in room coolers
can be used to advantage from May to October, and in tropical climates
almost continuously throughout the year. Objectionable noise is an
important drawback to the use of self-contained units, but the difficulty
is gradually being overcome by improvements in design.
Aside from comfort and recuperative power of the patients, cooling is
of great assistance in the treatment of pyrexias in the new-born and in
post-operative cases, in enteric disorders, fevers, heat stroke, heart failure,
and in a variety of other ailments which often accompany summer
heat waves.
Considerable research is now in progress on the influence of air con-
ditioning upon a wide variety of diseases such as pneumonia, upper
respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, arthritis, nervous instability, hyper-
thyroidism, essential hypertension, skin diseases, vascular disorders, and
others. The field is a fruitful one having many possibilities.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Where has air conditioning in hospital wards proved itself of sufficient value
to justify the expense?
In nurseries for premature infants, anesthesia and operating rooms, oxygen therapy
chambers, heat therapy rooms or cabinets and allergic wards.
607
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
2 • What is the major problem in conditioning hospitals?
For general hospital wards, the major problem seems to be one of providing adequate
amounts of ventilation rather than air conditioning, with some provision for cooling
over-heated wards on unusually warm summer days.
3 • What are the usual requirements for ventilation of operating rooms?
To preclude the accumulation of explosive mixtures and to reduce the concentration of
anesthetics below the physiologic threshold, it is desirable that ventilation to the extent
of 6 to 12 air changes be provided.
4 • What are the optimum air conditions for premature infants?
The best chances for life in premature infants are created by maintaining a relative
humidity of 65 per cent and an environmental temperature sufficiently high to keep the
body temperature within normal limits.
5 • How does air conditioning assist in the treatment of allergic disorders?
In cases in which the individual fails to respond to medical treatment, air conditioning
may provide a valuable adjunct in relieving the symptoms. Although the chief remedial
factor in the treatment by conditioned air is the filtration of pollen, it has been found
that in warm weather temperatures between 75 and 82 F and relative humidities well
below 50 per cent are more conducive to comfort.
608
Chapter 32
RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
Passenger Car Ventilation, Quantity o£ Outside Air, Method
of Air Distribution, Air Cleaning, Steam or Vapor Heating
Equipment, Cooling Equipment, Humidity and Temperature
Control, Power Supply, Installation and Operating Costs
/TpHE general principles of air conditioning as applied to buildings also
JL apply to railway passenger cars, but due to space and weight limi-
tations and the severity of the service, equipment designed for stationary
work is seldom suitable for car installations. Equipment for railway use
must be safe, reliable, compact, light in weight, accessible for inspection
and repairs, automatic in operation and in addition, have low initial,
operating, and maintenance costs. To air condition a passenger car
properly, ventilating, filtering, heating, cooling, humidifying, and control
equipment must be provided together with an adequate power supply.
Air from the interior of the car is mixed with air from the outside and
passed through the air conditioning unit where it is heated or cooled,
humidified or dehumidified and delivered to the interior of the car through
suitable ducts and grilles.
PASSENGER CAR VENTILATION
One of the important problems in connection with air conditioning of
cars is that of ventilation. In non air-conditioned cars, ventilation is
accomplished by exhaust fans, roof ventilators and open doors and
windows. This practice provides an ample supply^of outside air but does
not prevent the entrance of smoke, cinders, and dirt.
Quantity of Outside Air
An average passenger car contains approximately 5000 cu ft of air and
may seat as many as 80 passengers. The occupants are continually
liberating heat, carbon dioxide, moisture, odors, and some organic matter
from their breath, skin and clothing. The heat and moisture can be
removed by cooling and dehumidification, but the other constituents can
be successfully handled only by proper ventilation and air cleansing. In
the average car from 2000 to 2500 cfm should be circulated by the air
conditioning unit. Some of this air may be ^circulated, but a portion of
it should always be brought in from the outside. The amount of outside
air required depends upon the type of car, number of passengers^ air
temperature, humidity, odors, and whether or not occupants are smoking,
and will vary from 15 to 90 per cent of the total air circulated. The per-
609
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
centage of outside air should be kept as low as possible to maintain the air
in the proper condition in order to minimize the heat or cooling load.
For normal conditions, 10 cfm of outside air per passenger is sufficient.
When smoking is permitted, 12 to 15 cfm per passenger should be ad-
mitted. Under exacting demands and adverse condition, it may be
necessary to increase the quantity to 20 cfm per passenger.
Method of Air Distribution
Various methods may be used to distribute the air delivered to the
interior of the car by the circulating fan or blower. The methods
commonly used are:
1. A duct lengthwise along the center of the car.
2. One or two side ducts built on the outside of monitor-roofed cars, or on the inside
of turtle-backed or arched-roofed cars.
3. Free discharge at the end bulkheads, or by free discharge from a unit placed
overhead in the center of the car, discharging toward the ends.
For details of air distribution and duct design, see Chapters 28 and 29.
Smoking rooms present a special problem. The cloud of smoke that
usually hangs near the ceiling can be broken up by having the incoming
air directed along the ceiling in all directions at a velocity somewhat
higher than that used for the rest of the car. The air should be exhausted
from the room by a fan or through a grille to the washroom or lavatory,
and then outside by a fan in a ventilator.
For compartments an adjustable supply duct outlet grille of suitable
size and design should be provided and provisions made in the door or
partition for the removal of the air to be recirculated.
The grille used for this purpose should be designed and arranged so as
to obstruct the vision of passengers, but still allow the air to pass from
the room to the recirculating grille at the air conditioning unit.
Lower berths in sleeping cars and office cars should be provided with an
adjustable air outlet which will discharge the amount of air desired at low
velocity in any direction so that the occupant can regulate the ventilation
to meet his own requirements.
In cars containing but one or two rooms or compartments, satisfactory
results may be obtained by discharging the air directly from the con-
ditioning unit into the upper part of the car. Care must be taken to have
a proper discharge velocity. If the velocity is too low, the air will drop
before reaching the end of the car and if too high it will discharge against
the end bulkhead and be reflected back. Care must be exercised to secure
proper circulation, otherwise objectionable drafts will be experienced.
The recirculating air grilles are usually of the straight flow type, and
should be located so that objectionable drafts will not be created by the
return air. The outside air intakes, located in the car vestibule, on the
side of the car, or on the roof of the car, depending upon the location of
the cooling ^coils, should be of ample size to permit the entrance of suf-
ficient outside air. On many of the recently air-conditioned cars, there
are no dampers or shutters at the outside air intakes, the percentage of
outside air being controlled by blocking the flow through the recircu-
lating grille.
610
CHAPTER 32. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
Air Cleaning
All of the air circulated by the blower is filtered before passing over the
cooling coils. In some cars the outside and recirculated air are filtered
separately before mixing, while on others the air from the two sources is
mixed before passing through a common filter. Filters in use are made of
metal, wool, cloth, spun glass, hemp, paper, hair, and wire screen. Most
filters have a viscous coating of oil for greater cleaning efficiency. Some
types may be cleaned, retreated, and returned to service while other
types are discarded when dirty*
STEAM OR VAPOR HEATING EQUIPMENT
The majority of cars in service are heated by circulating low pressure
steam or vapor through pipes located along the side walls near the floor.
When an air conditioning unit, using air from the outside, is installed it is
necessary to provide a heating coil to warm the air during cold weather.
Usually from 30 to 40 per cent of the heat required is supplied from the
air conditioning unit and the balance from the floor heating system.
It is necessary to have sufficient floor radiation to keep water lines in the
car from freezing while standing in the yard with the air conditioning unit
shut off. In new and some rebuilt cars, finned pipes are used for the floor
heat to provide greater radiation surface. ^ A few cars have the heating
pipes enclosed in a duct, through which air is forced by a fan, the warmed
air discharging through numerous openings along the floor. The amount
of heat required depends upon the type and construction of the car,
especially the amount and kind of insulation, outside temperature,^ wind
velocity and direction, train speed, number of passengers, and inside
temperature desired. In severe weather, with temperatures from — 10 to
-20 F, an average of approximately 200 Ib of steam per car per hour is
required. Pullmans require approximately 250 Ib per hour, coaches
150 to 175 Ib per hour and baggage cars 150 Ib per hour.
COOLING EQUIPMENT
Three general types of cooling or refrigerating equipment are being used
with satisfactory results. These are the ice-activated, the steam-ejector
and the mechanical compression systems. These systems when arranged
for car use, function the same as in stationary service, but must be more
compact and lighter in weight. See Chapter 24 for description of the
general principles of the various systems.
The mechanical compression systems are divided into three general
classes depending upon the type of drive for the compressor, namely, the
electro mechanical, the direct mechanical, and the internal combustion
engine mechanical. The compressor of an electro mechanical compression
system is driven by an electric motor, the power for which is supplied by a
generator and a storage battery. The generator is driven from the car
axle by a gear, belt, or other type of mechanical drive. The compressor
of a direct mechanical compression system is driven directly from the car
axle by means of a mechanical drive, the speed of the compressor being
regulated by an electric speed control which permits slippage at high
train speeds. The compressor of the third type of mechanical compression
611
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
system is driven by an internal combustion engine operating on propane.
Sufficient fuel for several days' operation is carried in drums mounted in
a rack under the car.
The refrigerant frequently used in the mechanical compression systems
is dichlorodifluoromethane. The condensers are cooled by blowing a
large quantity of outside air over the dry condenser coils, or over the coils
wet by a spray of water to obtain the benefits of evaporative cooling.
The latter method gives lower discharge pressures which is a distinct
advantage when operating at high outside temperatures. A device
gaining in popularity is a liquid subcooler by means of which the liquid
refrigerant is subcooled by evaporative cooling, producing more available
refrigeration at the air conditioning unit.
^ Another type of system which has been tried for railway passenger car
air conditioning uses dry ice as the refrigerant, the equipment being
essentially the same as for the water ice-activated system. Until an
adequate supply of dry ice can be assured at a stable and reasonable price,
this system will not be a serious competitor to the other three types now
in use.
The capacity required in the refrigerating system depends upon a
number of factors such as size and type of construction of car, thickness
and kind of insulation used, the amount of heat produced within the car
by motors, lights, and other appliances, the amount of outside air, the
intensity of solar radiation, the number of occupants, and the inside
temperature desired. The sun load on a bright day is about 1.2 tons.
For average cars on sunny days, with high outside temperatures and
humidities, from 65,000 to 80,000 Btu per hour will have to be removed
from, the interior of the car to maintain an inside effective temperature
within the comfort zone. This means that a refrigerating capacity of
from 5.5 to 7.0 tons will be required.
HUMIDITY CONTROL
The temperature to be maintained in a car depends upon the outside
temperature and the humidity desired inside the car. With a low hu-
midity it is necessary to maintain a higher temperature to establish a
desirable comfort condition. Little humidity control has been attempted
on cars up to the present time. A certain degree of automatic humidity
control is secured with cooling, but the relative humidity obtained depends
largely on the temperature of the evaporator, which should be below the
dew-point temperature of the air. With certain outside atmospheric
conditions it may not be possible to operate the conventional equipment
with a sufficiently low evaporator temperature to reduce the humidity
without dropping the temperature too low. One method has been
developed whereby the evaporator temperature is carried below the dew-
point a sufficient amount to insure dehumidification and then the cold air
is heated to the proper temperature by passing it over coils through which
part of the high temperature liquid from the condenser is by-passed . Such
a system is costly and has not been generally applied.
During the heating season humidification is desirable from a comfort
standpoint, but unless properly controlled, condensation will appear on
612
CHAPTER 32. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
the windows. A steam or water spray controlled by a humidistat will
provide the necessary moisture for humidification. There are several
cars with this feature now in use.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
The control of the air conditioning equipment should be simple and
automatic in order to eliminate the human element for the selection of
the control point. The use of a centralized panel for all switches, fuses,
relay, etc., will simplify the installation and operation. Generally,
separate thermostats are used for heating and cooling control. The best
location for the thermostats depends upon the car layout and method of
air distribution and can best be determined for any particular type of car
and equipment by careful consideration of the several factors involved.
The floor heat thermostats are usually located near the floor. The over-
head heat and cooling thermostats are placed in the upper part of the car,
sometimes in the air ducts or at the recirculating grille. All thermostats
should be located so that the air can circulate freely around them.
Maintenance of uniform comfort conditions for cooling, floor and over-
head heating, has been satisfactory with provisions for a high, a medium,
and a low thermostat setting and in some cases two settings have been
satisfactory for cooling. In many cars the following points have been
found to be satisfactory: 72, 74, and 76 F for cooling, and 60, 71 and 74 F
for floor and overhead heating.
A few cars are in operation in which the inside temperature is varied
dependent upon the outside temperature in order to prevent too high a
differential between inside and outside temperatures. The maximum
inside dry-bulb temperature permitted by these controls is usually 80F.
The heating and refrigerating equipment should be interlocked so that
they cannot both operate at the same time. While heating, the control
should be so arranged that in case of a steam failure the blower fan will
stop or the outside air intake should be closed to prevent cold outside air
from being introduced into the conditioned space.
POWER SUPPLY
One of the most important problems to be solved in connection with
railway car air conditioning is that of power supply. The majority of
non air-conditioned cars now in service are electrically lighted and
equipped with fans. Power is furnished by storage batteries and axle
generators of from 2 to 5 kw capacity.
Electric Power Requirements
When air conditioning is installed the electrical load is increased,
according to the type of system as indicated in Table 1. To furnish this
additional electric power, the capacity of the axle generators must be
increased to 4 to 20 kw, and the storage battery capacity increased, in
addition to that required by the car lighting system by 400 to 700 amp-hr
for the electro-mechanical system, by 150 to 300 amp-hr for the steam-
ejector and direct drive mechanical systems, and by 50 to 200 amp-hr for
the ice-activated and internal combustion engine mechanical systems.
613
HEATING VENTILATING- AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. ELECTRIC POWER REQUIRED TO OPERATE SYSTEM
SYSTEM
KILOWATTS
_, A/r T, • i
10.50
1.00
1.25
3.35
1.20
Internal Combustion Engine Mechanical
Total Power Requirements
In addition to the electric power requirements, for continuous operation
at average temperatures, the direct drive mechanical system requires
10.24 hp from the car axle and the steam-ejector system requires 230 Ib
steam per hour from the locomotive boiler for a 6-ton unit. The ice-
activated system requires 463 Ib of ice per hour and the internal com-
bustion engine drive mechanical requires 7.3 Ib propane per hour. This
power, with the exception of the ice and propane, as well as the power
required to move the extra weight of the equipment and the power
required to overcome the axle bearing friction, must be supplied by the
locomotive en route, and if a number of cars in the train are air condi-
tioned, the effect on train performance should not be overlooked. The
demand for power for cooling comes, however, at the time of ^ the year
when steam for heating is not required, and the demand for lighting is
at a minimum.
The total power required by the air conditioning systems will vary with
the speed of train operation because of the effect of speed upon the drive
efficiency and upon the resistance due to the added weight of the equip-
ment. Fig. 1 shows the effect of speed upon the efficiency of the direct
drive used with the direct mechanical system, and upon the average
efficiency of four mechanical drives and generators used for electric power
generation. The total increase in weight of passenger cars because of air
conditioning is approximately 9,600 Ib for the electro-mechanical,
8,600 Ib for the direct mechanical, 8,600 Ib for the internal combustion
engine drive mechanical, 11,300 Ib for the steam, and 8,500 Ib for the
ice-activated system.
The average refrigeration load has been found to be 3.3 tons, and the
average capacity of air conditioning systems is about 5.92 tons. The
relation of load to capacity, 3.3 -*- 5.92 = 0.56 or 56 per cent, is that
percentage of the time during the cooling season that the cooling equip-
ment will be in operation. The average drawbar horsepower demand
upon a locomotive, accordingly, consists of 56 per cent of the horsepower
required for continuous operation and 44 per cent of the horsepower
required for non-operation. Table 2 shows the drawbar horsepower that
must be supplied by the locomotive for each air-conditioned car for
continuous operation of the air conditioning system, for non-operation
of the equipment, and for an average condition when the air conditioning
equipment is operating continuously 56 per cent of the time and is not
operating 44 per cent of the time. It is important not to overlook the
horsepower demand on the locomotive when the air conditioning equip-
ment is not operating, which includes the horsepower required to operate
614
CHAPTER 32. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
the blower fan, to haul the weight of the equipment, to overcome drive
and generator friction, and to replace the losses occasioned by the re-
moval of current from the storage battery.
Fig. 2 shows the tractive resistance of a 75-ton passenger car with six
wheel trucks without an axle generator, with a 4 kw generator load, and,
for the same car with an increase in weight of 5 tons and a 20 kw axle
70
JfiO
--v
\
:L
• — *.
.
— •— .
- -.
si .
\
Average of four mechanical
drives with generators
\
5
J50
5
40
[_
— i
V
— — ..
-.^
-
Average of four mechanical
drives with generators and
compressor motors
\
\
\
\
Dir
ectdr
ours
ivewith42
>eed contro
miles
Isetti
>
par,-
X
30
h
ng
X
N
0 40 50 60 70 80 9(
CAR SPEED, MILES PER
FIG. 1. EFFICIENCIES OF DRIVE MECHANISMS FOR RAILWAY
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
1000
30 40 50 60
SPEED, MILES PER HOUR
FIG. 2. TRACTIVE RESISTANCE OF 75 TON PASSENGER
. CAR WITH Six WHEEL TRUCKS
generator load. The curve with the 4: kw generator is representative of a
car before air conditioning, and the curve with the 20 kw generator and
5 tons added weight is representative of a car after air conditioning.
At 50 mph, the tractive resistances of these two cars are 520 Ib and 745 Ib
respectively, or a difference of 225 lb. Then:
=29.7hp
is required due to a 16 kw load and 5 tons added weight. Ten cars with a
similar load would require 297 horsepower or roughly 10 per cent of the
capacity of a 3,000 hp passenger locomotive.
615
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Consideration must also be given to the power requirements for
refrigeration while the car is standing or running at slow speeds. The
electrical energy required for the ice-activated, steam, and internal
combustion engine drive mechanical systems is easily supplied from the
storage battery. Steam for the steam system can be supplied from the
locomotive or from a stationary plant. The majority of the electro-
mechanical systems are equipped with A. C. — D. C. motors. While
standing in the yards and stations the A. C. motor is connected to a
220-volt, 3-phase circuit. The majority of these equipments are so ar-
TABLE 2. LOCOMOTIVE POWER DEMANDS FOR DIFFERENT AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
SYSTEM
DRAWBAR HORSEPOWER PER CAB REQUIRED
AT TRAIN SPEEDS
30 MPH | SO MPH | 70 MPH | 90 MPH
For Continuous Operation
Electro-Mechanical
20 9
22 2
25.4
31 6
Direct Mechanical
16.8
19.5
29.5
42 6
Internal Combustion Engine Mechanical
Steam - Ej ectora
3.4
7 6
4.6
9.3
7.0
12 5
11.9
19 0
Ice-Activated
3.2
4.5
6.8
11 6
For Non-Operation
Electro-Mechanical—
5.0
6.4
9 0
14 4
Direct Mechanical
5 2
6 3
8 7
13 5
Internal Combustion Engine Mechanical
Steam-Ejector...
2.2
3 7
3.5
5 4
5.8
8 4
io!e
14 8
Ice-Activated..™
1 9
3 2
5 5
10 2
For Average Condition of 56 Per cent Continuous Operation and 44 Per cent Non-Operation
Electro-Mechanical.
13 9
15 2
18 2
24 0
Direct Mechanical
11 7
13 7
20 3
29 6
Internal Combustion Engine Mechanical
Steam-Ejectora
2.8
5 9
4.1
7 6
6.5
10 7
11.4
17 5
Ice-Activated
2 6
3 9
6 2
11 0
addition, steam is required from the locomotive to the extent of 230 Ib per hour during the time the
equipment is in operation.
ranged that, while operating on A. C. power, the D. C. motor may be
used as a generator for battery charging. If an auxiliary circuit is not
available the D. C. compressor motor may be operated from the storage
battery for short periods of time. The direct drive mechanical compres-
sion systems are, also, equipped with A. C. motors for operation from
auxiliary circuits^ As these equipments can only be operated when con-
nected to the auxiliary circuit or while the train is running above the cut
in speed of the drive, many cars are equipped with an auxiliary hold-over
system by which reserve cooling is available. Due to the characteristics
of the direct drive, the air conditioning system operates at reduced capac-
ity when the car is moving at speeds below 42 mph.
616
CHAPTER 32. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
COST OF RAILWAY Am CONDITIONING
The cost^ of railway air conditioning is usually expressed in terms of
1000 car-miles. The actual costs for the different systems, however, are
dependent upon a number of variables. Based upon a survey of the most
prominent railroads in air conditioning, and upon extensive tests, the
values given in Table 3 are indicative of the present costs of air con-
ditioning to the railroads.
TABLE 3. AIR CONDITIONING COSTS FOR RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
COSTS PBR 1000 CAR-MILES*
GROSS
SYSTEM
INSTALLATION
Fixed
Maintenance
Operation
Charges
Cost
Cost
Total
Electro-Mechanical
Direct Mechanical
$6,484.00
8,515.00
S 8.65
11.35
$3.33
2.33
$0.99
0.93
$12.97
14.61
Internal Combustion
Engine Mechanical
5,750.00
7.67
3.30
1.99
12.96
Steam-Ejector.
Ice- Activated
8,475.00
3,982.00
11.30
5.31
2.15
0.97
1.02
5.29
14.47
11.57
»For an average cooling season of 5 months, an average train speed of 50 mph and an average car
mileage of 150,000 miles per year.
Gross Installation Cost
The gross installation cost, from which the fixed charges are derived,
may be amortized on this basis:
1. Depreciation, at the rate of 12.5 per cent.
2. Interest, at the rate of 6 per cent.
3. Taxes and insurance at the rate of 1.5 per cent.
The fixed charges per 1000 car-miles for any type of system are:
PC =
(0.204)
(1)
where
FC = fixed charges, dollars per 1000 car-miles.
A — gross installation cost, dollars.
m = total number of car-miles traveled in one year.
Maintenance Cost
The average maintenance cost is based upon the experience of the
railroads in maintaining several hundred air conditioning units. The
maintenance cost per 1000 car-miles is :
MC
10005
(2)
where
MC — maintenance cost, dollars per 1000 car-miles.
B = total annual maintenance cost, dollars.
m = total number of car-miles traveled in one year.
617
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Operation Cost
The cost of operation is influenced by:
1. Speed of train operation.
2. Average drawbar horsepower required to operate air conditioning system.
3. Length of the cooling season.
4. Cost of power produced by the locomotive at $0.00493 per horsepower-hour.
5. Proportion of time the cooling equipment is operated during the cooling season
considered as 56 per cent.
6. Cost of additional necessities as: a. Ice in bunker, at $4.42 per ton, b. Propane
on the car, at $0.039 per pound, c. Steam at $0.021 per 100 pound.
Based on a 5 month cooling season
and an average train speed of
50 miles per hour
50000
'OTAl CAMPER YEA
FIG. 3. COMPARATIVE TOTAL COSTS FOR RAILWAY PASSENGER CARS
The operation cost in dollars per 1000 car-miles is:
OC =
1000 K
(DXE + 0.56 F X G) +
100° <&-
(H x
(3)
where
OC - operation cost, dollars per 1000 car-miles.
D = average drawbar horsepower demand on a locomotive at speed S.
E — cost per horsepower-hour, dollars.
F « additional necessities such as ice, steam or propane, pounds per hour.
G = cost of additional necessities, dollars per pound.
H — drawbar horsepower required when system is not operating.
5 = speed of train operation, miles per hour.
K — length of cooling season, months.
0.56 = Proportion of operation time to total time during the cooling season.
618
CHAPTER 32. RAILWAY AIR CONDITIONING
Total Cost of Air Conditioning
When the fixed charges, maintenance cost, and operation cost are each
expressed in terms of 1000 car-miles, addition of the three elements will
give the total cost of air conditioning on that basis.
Comparisons of the total cost per 1000 car-miles for the five methods of
air conditioning are shown in Fig. 3, representing costs for an average
condition, namely a cooling season of five months and an average speed
of 50 mph.
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS
The calculated heat gain for a railway passenger car is dependent on
several variables which may be determined from the basic data given
in Chapters 5, 6 and 8.
REFERENCES
Summary Report on Air Conditioning of Railroad Passenger Cars, by Division of
Equipment Research, Association of American Railroads, November 24, 1936.
Engineering Report on Air Conditioning of Railroad Passenger Cars, by Division of
Equipment Research, Association of American Railroads, April 15, 1937.
Report on Performance and Cost of Operation of 1937 Internal Combustion Engine
Mechanical Compression Equipment for Air Conditioning Railroad Passenger Cars, by
Division of Equipment Research, Association of American Railroads, May 1, 1937.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What item is the greatest among the cooling loads figured in the design of
a summer air conditioning system for a passenger car?
The heat from passengers.
2 • To what extent does bright sunshine increase the cooling requirements of
a passenger car?
About 1.2 tons of refrigeration.
3 • What is the total refrigerating capacity generally required in a passenger
car?
5.5 to 7 tons per car.
4 • What is the effect of train speed upon the cooling requirements of a car?
Requirements are slightly increased because of increased heat transmission.
5 • What is the fan capacity of the air conditioning unit in the average car?
2000 to 2500 cfm.
6 • When is it economical to take all air for car cooling from outdoors?
When the outdoor wet-bulb temperature is lower than that in the car.
7 • What various arrangements are used for distributing cooled air into cars?
Bulkhead delivery at center or ends of car, center duct, and side duct on one or both sides.
8 • What types of cooling systems are used?
Ice-activated, steam-ejector, and mechanical compression systems.
619
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
9 • What cooling medium is used for condensing the refrigerant in a railroad
air conditioning system?
Outdoor air, sometimes. with the aid of evaporative cooling.
10 ® How may adequate cooling of condensers be provided in hot desert regions?
By evaporative cooling with water sprays.
11 © How is the temperature controlled in railroad cooling systems?
By intermittent operation of the compressor, the steam jet or the ice water circulating
pump,
12 @ How much steam is required for car heating on the coldest days?
Pullmans 250 Ib per hour, coaches 150 to 175 Ib per hour, baggage cars 150 Ib per hour.
13 ® At present costs which is likely to be the greater, fixed charges or operating
costs?
The fixed charges for steam and mechanical compression systems, and operating costs
for ice systems.
14 ® What would be the annual operating cost for a car equipped with an ice-
activated system under the following conditions: a total mileage of 150,000
car-miles per year, a cooling season of 5 months, and an average train speed
of 50 mph?
SI, 705.00.
620
Chapter 33
INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
Atmospheric Conditions Required, General Requirements,
Classification o£ Problems, Control o£ Regain, Moisture Con-
tent and Regain, Conditioning and Drying, Control of Kate
o£ Chemical Reaction, Control o£ Rate of Biochemical Re-
actions, Control Rate of Crystallization
IN the application of air conditioning to industrial processes, too much
stress cannot be laid upon a thorough understanding by the air con-
ditioning engineer of the problems involved. A complete knowledge ol
these problems is necessary before a satisfactory design can be ^ made.
Individual processes and machines are changing rapidly and air con-
ditions must be constantly revised to meet the new conditions.
ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS REQUIRED
The most desirable relative humidity during processing depends upon
the product and the nature of the process. As far as the behavior ot the
material itself and its desired final condition are concerned, each material
and process presents a different problem. The best relative humidity may
range up to 100 per cent. Similarly the most desirable temperature may
range between wide limits for different materials and treatments. _ Ex-
tremes in either relative humidity or temperature require relatively
expensive equipment for maintaining these conditions automatically.
In departments where people are working, their health, comfort, and
productive efficiency must be considered and often a compromise between
the optimum conditions for processing and those required for the comtort
of the worker is desirable.
It is generally considered that relative humidities below 40 percent
are on the dry side, conducive to low regains, a brittle condition of fibrous
materials, prevalence of static electricity, and a ten dency toward dryness
of the skin and membranes of human beings. At the other end of the
scale, humidities above 80 per cent are relatively damp, conducive to
high regains, extreme softness, and pliability.
Table 1 lists desirable temperatures and humidities for industrial pro-
cessing. In using this table, care must be taken in qualifying the process.
In preparing many materials, conditions are not maintained constantly
but : different temperatures and humidities are held for varying lengths of
time.
621
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. DESIRABLE TEMPERATURES AND HUMIDITIES FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING
INDUSTRY
PROCESS
TEMPERATURE
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
PER CENT
A TTTOx/mwrr ft
Assembly line. —
65
40
Cake icing
70
50
75
65
Dough fermentation room
Loaf cooling
Make-up room 1
80
70
75 to 80
76 to 80
60 to 70
55 to 70
BAKING
Mixing room.
75 to 80
55 to 70
Paraffin paper wrapping
80
55
Proof boxes.-.
Storage of flour
80 to 90
70 to 80
80 to 95
60
Storage of yeast
28 to 40
60 to 75
BIOLOGICAL
Vaccines
below 32
PRODUCTS
Antitoxins -
38 to 42
Fermentation in vat room
44 to 50
50
BREWING
Storage of grains
60
30 to 45
Drying of auger machine brick
180 to 200
CERAMIC.-
Drying of refractory shapes
Molding room ~
110 to 150
80
50 to 60
60
Storage of clay.
60
35
n^KTifTrAT.
General storage
60 to 80
35 to 50
Chewing gum rolling
75
50
Chewing gum wrapping.
70
45
Chocolate covering
62 to 65
50 to 55
CONFECTIONERY
Hard candy making.
70 to 80
30 to 50
Packing
Starch room .
65
75 to 85
50
50
Storage
60 to 68
50 to 65
General manufacture.
60
45
DISTILLERY
Storage of grains
60
30 to 45
DRUG
Storage of powders and tablets
70 to 80
30 to 35
ELECTRICAL
Insulation winding
Manufacture of cotton covered wire
Manufacture of electrical windings
Storage of electrical goods
104
60 to 80
60 to 80
60 to 80
5
60 to 70
35 to 50
35 to 50
Butter making
60
60
Dairy chill room
Preparation of cereals
40
60 to 70
60
38
Preparation of macaroni...
70 to 80
38
Ripening of meats
40
80
FOOD
Slicing of bacon
60
45
Storage of apples
31 to 34
75 to 85
Storage of citrus fruit
Storage of eggs in shell "..
32
30
80
80
Storage of meats....
0 to 10
50
Storage of sugar.-
80
35
FUR.
Drying of furs..
Storage of furs
110
28 to 40
25 to 40
622
CHAPTER 33. INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
TABLE 1. DESIRABLE TEMPERATURES AND HUMIDITIES FOR INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING
(Continued)
INDUSTRY
PROCESS
TlMPBBATUEB
DEGREES
RMJ.HTI
HTJMIDICT
PERCENT
INCUBATORS
Chicken
99 to 102
55 to 75
LABORATORY
General analytical and physical
Storage of materials
60 to 70
60 to 70
60 to 70
35 to 50
LEATHER
Drying of hides
90
LIBRARY
Book storage (see discussion in this chapter)
65 to 70
38 to 50
LINOLEUM
Printing _. . .
80
40
Manufacturing
72 to 74
50
MATCHES
Storage of matches
60
MUNITIONS
Puse loading.
70
55
PAINT
Air drying lacquers
Baking lacquers ^.
Air drying of oil paints
70 to 90
180 to 300
60 to 90
25 to 50
25 to 50
PAPER.
Binding, cutting, drying, folding, gluing..
Storage of paper
60 to 80
60 to 80
25 to 50
35 to 45
Development of film
70 to 75
60
PHOTOGRAPHIC....
Drvincr
zT ,J "»&•—————• ——————— — —
Printing—
Cutting
75 to 80
70
72
50
70
65
Binding
Folding .. —
70
77
45
65
PRINTING
Press room (general) ~
Press room (lithographic)
Storage of rollers
75
60 to 75
60 to 80
60 to 78
20 to 60
35 to 45
Manufacturing ..
90
RUBBER
Dipping of surgical rubber articles
75 to 80
25 to 30
Standard laboratory tests.
80 to 84
42 to 48
SOAP
Drying
110
70
Cotton — carding —
combing
rovine . -
75 to 80
75 to 80
75 to 80
50
60 to 65
50 to 60
. 9
SDinninff
60 to 80
60 to 70
weaving
68 to 75
70 to 80
Ravon — soinninar .... „
70
85
TEXTILE
twisting
Silk— dressing
SDinninsr
70
75 to 80
75 to 80
65
60 to 65
65 to 70
*^ * O " — — • ' -
throwing _
weaving
75 to 80
75 to 80
65 to 70
60 to 70
Wool — carding
soinninar
f " o"~—"""*"" "~
weavmsr . — — —
^*** *"^-«-— — — — —
75 to 80
75 to 80
75 to 80
65 to 70
55 to 60
50 to 55
TOBACCO
Cigar and cigarette making
Softening.
70 to 75
90
55 to 65
85 -
Stemming or stripping
75 to 85
70
623
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
In general, air conditioning apparatus for industrial purposes must be
capable of absorbing heat from various sources such as machinery power,
electric lights, people, sunlight and chemical reaction; of warming or
cooling to any desired temperature, and of providing ample air supply at
all times. Refrigeration may or may not be required, depending ^ upon
natural conditions, the required relative humidity and the maximum
permissible temperature. Washing, purifying and recirculating of the air
may be desirable. Good distribution is essential for the control of air
motion and for the prevention of uneven conditions. Accurate, sensitive
and reliable automatic control of humidity or temperature, or both, is
vital in most cases.
Ordinarily, outside weather conditions and the ventilation required for
workers are of secondary importance in relation to the total work to be
done by the air conditioning system. In extreme cases of high concentra-
tion of industrial heat from machinery and ovens the error of entirely
omitting the heat gain through the building structure would not be
serious. At the other extreme, where low temperatures must be produced
with refrigeration and where comparatively little power is used for driving
the machinery, the heat gain through the building structure will become
the major factor in determining the size of equipment and in this case the
ventilation requirement assumes a normal degree of importance.
Buildings which are to be air conditioned should therefore be designed
with careful consideration of over-all cost and efficiency. Condensation
resulting from high humidities must be prevented by suitable materials
and construction, or else collected and drained to prevent loss of product
or quick deterioration of the structure. Air leakage or filtration may add
greatly to operating costs or make the maintenance of low humidities
(relative or absolute) wholly impossible. Low temperatures require good
insulation.
It is apparent that the subject of air conditioning for industrial processes
is extensive and greatly involved, and that a detailed treatment is there-
fore beyond the scope of this book. A few of the salient points of the
general subject are covered in this chapter.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROBLEMS
In general, any industrial air conditioning problem may be listed under
one or more of the following four classes :
1. Control of Regain.
2. Control of Rate of Chemical Reactions.
3. Control of Rate of Biochemical Reactions.
4. Control of Rate of Crystallization.
CONTROL OF REGAIN
In the manufacture or processing of hygroscopic materials such as
textiles, paper, wood, leather, tobacco and foodstuffs, the temperature
and relative humidity of the air have a marked influence upon the rate of
production and upon the weight, strength, appearance and general
624
CHAPTER 33. INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
quality of the product. This influence is due to the fact that the moisture
content of materials having a vegetable or animal origin, and to a lesser
extent minerals in certain forms, come to equilibrium with the moisture
of the surrounding air.
In industries where the physical properties of a product affect its value,
the^ percentage of moisture is of special importance. With increase in
moisture content, hygroscopic materials ordinarily become softer and
more pliable. Standards of regain are firmly fixed in trade with fair
penalties for excesses. Deficiencies result in loss of revenue to seller and
loss of desirable quality to buyer.
Manufacturing economy therefore requires that the moisture content
be maintained at a percentage favorable to rapid and satisfactory manipu-
lation and to a minimum loss of material through breakage. A uniform
condition is desirable in order that high speed machinery may be adjusted
permanently for the desired production with a minimum loss from delays,
wastage of raw material and defective product.
In the processing of hygroscopic materials, it is usually necessary to
secure a final moisture content suitable for the goods as shipped. Where
the goods are sold by weight, it is proper that they contain a normal or
standard moisture content.
MOISTURE CONTENT AND REGAIN
The terms moisture content and regain refer to the amount of moisture
in hygroscopic materials. Moisture content is the more general term and
refers either to free moisture (as in a sponge) or to hygroscopic moisture
(which varies with atmospheric conditions) . It is usually expressed as a
percentage of the total weight of material. Regain is more specific and
refers only to hygroscopic moisture. It is expressed as a percentage of the
bone-dry weight of material. For example, if a sample of cloth weighing
100.0 grains is dried to a constant weight of 93.0 grains, the loss in weight,
or 7.0 grains, represents the weight of moisture originally contained. This
expressed as a percentage of the total weight (100.0 grains) gives the
moisture content or 7 per cent. The regain, which is expressed as a per-
7 o
centage of the bone-dry weight, is -=^-r or 7.5 per cent.
yo.u
The use of the term regain does not imply that the material as a whole
has been completely dried out and has re-absorbed moisture. During the
processing of certain textiles, for instance, complete drying during manu-
facturing is avoided as it might appreciably reduce the ability of the
material to re-absorb moisture. A basis for calculating the regain of
textiles is obtained by drying under standard conditions a sample from
the lot and the dry weight thus obtained is used as a basis in the calcu-
lations to determine the regain.
The moisture content of an hygroscopic material at any time depends
upon the nature of the material and upon the temperature and especially
the relative humidity of the air to which it has been exposed. Not only
do different materials acquire different percentages of moisture after
prolonged exposure to a given atmosphere, but the rate of absorption or
drying out varies with the nature of the material, its thickness and
density.
625
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. REGAIN OF HYGROSCOPIC MATERIALS
Moisture Content Expressed in Per Cent of Dry Weight of the Substance at
Various Relative Humidities — Temperature, 75 F
CLASSI-
FICATION
MATERIAL
DESCRIPTION
RELATIVE HTJMEDITT— PBR CENT
AUTHOBTTT
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
11.5
90
Natural
Textile
Fibres
Cotton
Sea island— roving
2.5
3.7
4.6
5.5
6.6
7.9
9.5
14.1
Hartshorne
Cotton
American- cloth
2.6
3.7
4.4
5.2
5.9
6.8
8.1
10.0
14.3
Schloesing
Cotton
Absorbent
4.8
9.0
12.5
15.7
18.5
20.8
22.8
24.3
25.8
Fuwa
Wool
Australian merino— skein
4.7
7.0
8.9
10.8
12.8
14.9
17.2
19.9
23.4
Hartshorne
Silk
Raw ehevennes— skein
3.2
5.5
6.9
8.0
8.9
10.2
11.9
14.3
18.8
SJchloesing
Linen
Table cloth
1.9
2.9
3.6
4.3
5.1
6.1
7.0
8.4
10.2
Atkinson
Linen
Dry spun — yarn
3.6
5.4
6.5
7.3
8.1
8.9
9.8
11.2
13.8
Sonuner
Jute
Average of several grades
3.1
5.2
6.9
8.5
10.2
12.2
14.4
17.1
20.2
Storch •
Hemp
Manila and sisal— rope
2.7
4.7
6.0
7.2
8.5
9.9
11.6
13.6
15.7
ftiwa
Rayons
Viscose Nitrocellu-
lose Cupramonhim
Average skein
4.0
5.7
6.8
7.9
9.2
10.8
12.4
14.2
16.0
Robertson
Cellulose Acetate
Fibre
0.8
1.1
1.4
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.3
5.3
Robertson
Paper
M. F. Newsprint
Wood pulp— 24% ash
2.1
3.2
4.0
4.7
5.3
6.1
7.2
8.7
10.6
U.S.B.ofS.
H. M. F. Writing
Wood pulp— 3% ash
3.0
4.2
5.2
6.2
7.2
8.3
9.9
11.9
14.2
U.S.B,ofS.
White Bond
Bag-1% ash
2.4
3.7
4.7
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.8
0.8
13.2
U.S.B.ofS.
Com. Ledger
75% rag— 1% ash
3.2
4.2
5.0
5.6
6.2
7.6
6.9
8.1
0.3
3.9
u.aB.ofs.
Kraft Wrapping
Coniferous
3.2
4.6
5.7
6.6
8.9
0.5
2.6
4.9
TT.S.B.ofS.
Miso.
Organic
Materials
Leather
Sole oak— tanned
5.0
8.5
11.2
3.6
6.0
8.3
0.6
4.0
9.2
Phelps
Catgut
Racquet strings
4.6
7.2
8.6
0.2
2.0
4.3
7J
9.8
1.7
Fuwa
Glue
Hide
3.4
4.8
5.8
6.6
7.6
9.0
0.7
1.8
2.5
Fuwa
Rubber
Solid tire
0.11
0.21
0.32
0.44
0.54
0.66
1.3
0.76
0.88
0.99
Fuwa
Wood
Timber (average)
3.0
4.4
5.9
7.6
9.3
4.0
7.5
2.0
Forest P. Lab.
Soap •
White
1.9
3.8
5.7
7.6
0.0
2.9
6.1
9.8
23.8
Fuwa
Tobacco
Cigarette
5.4
8.6
1.0
3.3
4.5
6.0
6.2
9.5
8.5
5.0
3.5
0.0
Ford
Food-
rtufffl
White Bread
0.5
1.7
3.1
3.3
1.1
4.5
9.0
Atkinson
Crackers
2.1
2.8
3.9
5.0
6.5
8.3
0.9
4,9
Atkinson
dacaroni
5.1
7.4
8.8
0.2
1.7
3.7
6.2
9.0
2.1
Atkinson
Flour
2.6
4.1
5.3
6.5
8.0
9.9
2.4
5.4
9.1
ailey
taroh
2.2
3.8
5.2
6.4
7.4
8.3
9.2
0.6
2.7
tkinson
Gelatin
0.7
0.16
1.6
2.8
3,8
4.9
6.1
7.6
9.3
1.4
tkinson .
Misc.
Inorganic
Materials
Asbestos Fibre
Finely divides!
0.24
0.26
0.32
0.41
0.51
0.62
0.73
0.84
Fuwa ;
ilica Gel
.7
9.8
2.7
5.2
7.2
8.8
0.2
1.5
1.67
2.6
Fuwa
Domestic Coke
.20
0.40
0.61
0.81
1.03
1.24
1.46
1.89
fclvig
ctivated Charcoal £
Steam activated
.1
4.3
2.8
6.2
8.3
9.2
0.0
1.1
2.7
FWa
Sulphuric Acid 1
7lS04
.0
.0
7.5
2.5
7.0
1.5
7.0
3.5
2.5
Viason
626
CHAPTER 33. INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
Table 2 shows the regain or hygroscopic moisture content of several
organic and inorganic materials when in equilibrium at a dry-bulb tem-
perature of 75 F and various relative humidities. The effect of relative
humidity on regain of hygroscopic substances is clearly indicated. The
effect of temperature is comparatively unimportant. In the case of
cotton, for instance, an increase in temperature of 10 deg has the same
effect on regain as a decrease in relative humidity of one percent. Changes
in temperature do, however, affect the rate of absorption or drying.
Sudden changes in temperature cause temporary fluctuations in regain
even when the relative humidity remains stationary.
The regain or moisture content affects the physical properties of textiles
to a marked degree, changing the strength, pliability and elasticity.
The fact that the regain of textiles will come into equilibrium with the
conditions of the surrounding air and vary with its temperature and
relative humidity is the fundamental basis for the control of physical
qualities during manufacture. During the preparation processes in a
cotton mill, the cotton fibers should be in a condition to be easily carded.
These preliminary processes are carried out best in a relative humidity
of 50 to 55 per cent. As the cotton fiber comes to the spinning operation,
more flexibility is needed and the relative humidity is increased in this
department. For many years, 65 per cent relative humidity was con-
sidered the optimum. To offset the extra work performed on the fiber
as the spindle speed is increased, many cotton mills now carry 70 per cent
relative humidity in the spinning rooms.1 Winding, warping and weaving
are all processes calling for great flexibility and a consequent need for
higher humidity.
Other textile fibers, due to their different natural characteristics, are
processed under relative humidities and temperatures applicable to each.
Rayons, on account of great loss of strength with the higher regains,
should be processed in a relative humidity of 57 per cent. Acetate silk,
another chemical fiber, with approximately 50 per cent of the regain of
rayon, may be processed between 60 and 65 per cent relative humidity.
All hygroscopic materials release sensible heat equivalent to the latent
heat of the moisture absorbed by the material, all of which may account
for a large percentage of the total heat load.
CONDITIONING AND DRYING
In general, the exposure of materials to desirable conditions for treat-
ment may be coincidental with the manufacture or processing of the
materials, or they may be treated separately in special ^enclosures. This
latter treatment may be classified as conditioning or drying. The purpose
of conditioning or drying is usually to establish a desired condition of
moisture content and to regulate the physical properties of the material.
When the final moisture content is lower than the initial one, the term
drying is applied. If the final moisture content is to be higher, the process
is termed conditioning. In the case of some textile products and tobacco,
^he Present Status of Textile Regain Data, by A. E. Stacey, Jr. " (National Association of Cotton
Manufacturers, 1927).
627
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
for example, drying and conditioning may be combined in one process for
the dual purpose of removing undesirable moisture and accurately regu-
lating the final moisture content. Either _ conditioning ^ or ^ drying are
frequently made continuous processes in which the material is conveyed
through an elongated compartment by suitable means and subjected
to controlled atmospheric conditions.
CONTROL OF RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION
A typical example of the second general classification, that is, the
control of the rate of chemical reactions, occurs in the manufacture of
rayon. The pulp sheets are conditioned, cut to size^and passed through
a mercerizing process. It is essential that during this process close con-
trol of both temperature and relative humidity should be maintained.
Temperature controls the rate of reaction directly, while the relative
humidity maintains a constant rate of evaporation from the surface of
the solution and gives a solution of known strength throughout the
mercerizing period.
Another well-known example of this class is the drying of varnish
which is an oxidizing process dependent upon temperature. High relative
humidities have a retarding action on the rate of oxidization at the
surface and allow the gases to escape as the chemical oxidizers cure the
varnish film from the bottom. This produces a surface free from bubbles
and a film homogeneous throughout.
Desirable temperatures for drying varnish vary with the quality. A
relative humidity of 65 per cent is beneficial for obtaining the best
processing results.
CONTROL OF RATE OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
In the field of biochemical control, industrial air conditioning has been
applied to many different and well-known products. All problems
involving fermentation are classed under this heading. As biochemistry
is a subdivision of chemistry, subject to the same laws, the rate of reaction
may be controlled by temperature. An example of this is the dough room
of the modern bakery. Yeast develops best at a temperature of 80 F.
A relative humidity of 65 per cent is maintained so as to hold the surface
of the dough open to allow the COz gases formed by the fermentation to
pass through and produce a loaf of bread, when baked, of even, fine
texture without large voids.
Another example of a similar process is found in the curing of maca-
roni. The flour and water mixture is fermented and dried. As it is
necessary to have a definite amount of water present to carry on a fer-
mentation process, the moisture must be removed in a relatively short
period to stop fermentation and prevent souring and in such a manner as to
avoid setting up internal strains in the mixture. Best results are obtained
with the correct cycles of both temperature and humidity.
The curing of fruits, such as bananas and lemons, also come under this
classification. ^ Bananas are treated somewhat differently and to accom-
plish the required results, a cycle of temperatures and relative humidities
is used. The starches in the pulp of the fruit must be changed and the
628
CHAPTER 33. INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
skin cured and colored, after which the fruit is cooled to maintain as slow
a rate of metabolism as possible. Ideal conditions range between 55 to
57 F and in no case should the temperature go below 49 F, as the starches
then become fixed and are indigestible.
The curing of lemons is an entirely different problem. Bananas are
cured for a quick market, while lemons are held for a future market. The
process, therefore, varies in the temperature used. Temperatures from
54 to 59 F have been found to be best suited for this process. A high
relative humidity of 88 to 90 per cent is necessary to hold shrinkage to a
minimum and, at the same time, develop the rind so it will be sufficiently
tough to permit handling.
Tobacco from the field to the finished cigar, cigarette, plug or pipe
tobacco, offers another interesting example of what may be done by
industrial air conditioning in the control of color, texture and flavor.
In the processing of tobacco, the first three classifications of air con-
ditioning are involved, and only through close atmospheric control can
the best quality of the leaf be developed.
CONTROL RATE OF CRYSTALLIZATION
The rate of cooling of a saturated solution determines the size of the
crystals formed. Both temperature and relative humidity are of im-
portance, as the one controls the rate of cooling, while the other, through
evaporation, changes the density of the solution.
In the coating pans for pills,, gum and nuts, a heavy sugar solution is
added to the tumbling mass. As the water evaporates, each separate
piece is covered with crystals of sugar. A smooth, opaque coating is only
accomplished by blowing into the kettle the proper amount of air at the
right temperature and relative humidity. If the cooling and drying is
too slow, the coating will be rough and semi-translucent, and the ap-
pearance unsightly; if too fast, the coating will chip through to the
interior. Only by balancing temperature, relative humidity, and volume
of air to the sugar solution, can the proper rate be obtained and a perfect
coating assured.
The foregoing is presented as typical of a few of the problems met with
in applying air conditioning to various industrial processes. They are far
from complete but with the help of a few natural laws may assist in solving
others where similar basic principles are involved.
CALCULATIONS
The methods for determining the proper heating and cooling loads for
the various industrial processes are similar to those outlined in Chapters
7 and 8. Because of the large number of motors and heat processing units
usually prevalent in an industrial application, it is particularly important
that operating allowances for the latent and sensible heat loads be
definitely ascertained and used in the calculations to determine the total
equivalent design load.
629
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
REFERENCES
Effect of Air Conditioning upon Munitions, by J. I. Lyle (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 23, 1917, p. 383).
Air Conditioning for Sausage Manufacturing Plants, by M. G. Harbula (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 28, 1922, p. 343).
Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Large Bakeries, by W. L. Fleisher (Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, December, 1929, p. 621; January, 1930, p. 24).
Air Conditioning for Textile Plants Making and Using Synthetic Yarns, by L. L.
Lewis (Rayon Textile Monthly, July, August, September, 1930).
Air Conditioning in the Bakery, by W. L. Fleisher (Heating, Piping and Air Con-
ditioning, February, 1931, p. 158).
Air Conditioning in Industrial Processes (Match Factory), by W. L. Fleisher (Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, March, 1931, p. 196).
Air Conditioning of Press Rooms, by I. C. Baker (Heating, Piping and Air Con-
ditioning, July, 1931, p. 553),
Pre-Cooling Fruits and Vegetables with Circulating Air, by C. E. Baker (Heating,
Piping and Air Conditioning, January, 1932, p. 42).
Air Conditioning Maintains Quality of Fruits and Vegetables, by C. E. Baker (Heat-
ing, Piping and Air Conditioning, August, 1935, p. <0floN
Air Condition the Bakery Throughout, by W. W. Reece (Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, August, 1936, p. 149).
Air Conditioning as Applied in Theatres and Film Laboratories, by D. C. Lindsay
(Transactions Society of Motion Picture Engineers, April, 1927, Vol. XI, No. 30, p. 335-
365).
Air Conditioning Requirements of Multicolor Offset Printing, by C. G. Weber
(Refrigerating Engineering, December, 1936, p. 6).
Banana Ripening Manual, Circular No. 14, Equipment Department, Fruit Dispatch
Co., New York, N. Y.
The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables and Florists' Stocks, by D. H. Rose,
R. C. Wright and T.M. Whiteman (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Circular No. 278).
Reactions of Lithographic Papers to Variations in Humidity and Temperature, by
C, G. Weber and L. W. Snyder ( C/. S> Bureau Standards Journal Research, January, 1934)
Relation of Air Conditions to Tobacco Curing, by J. Johnson and W. B. Ogden
(Wisconsin Agricultural Research Bureau 110: 1-48, 1931).
Temperature Studies of Some Tomato Pathogens, by Alice A. Nightingale and G. W.
Ramsey (U. S. Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin No. 520, August, 1936).
The Treatment of Offset Papers for Optimum Register, by C. G. Weber and M. N. Y.
Geib (U. S. Bureau Standards Journal Research, February, 1936).
Summary Report of National Bureau of Standards Research on Preservation of
Records, by A. E. Kimberly and B. W. Scribner (17. S. Bureau of Standards Miscel-
laneous Publication, 154, March 16, 1937).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Why is air conditioning required for some industrial processes?
To control the physical properties of the materials being processed.
Example In the manufacture of chewing gum, it is rolled into slabs and scored. The
. scored slab must then be broken at the score marks to form the sticks. If the slab is too
warm, breaking is impossible, if the slab is too cold or too dry, it becomes brittle and
shatters, thereby producing much material to be reworked.
630
CHAPTER 33. INDUSTRIAL AIR CONDITIONING
2 « Why is it necessary to control the physical properties of the material being
processed?
To permit permanent adjustment of machinery.
Example. In the manufacture of cigarettes, the amount of tobacco fed upon the paper
tape is determined by pressure against springs. When the tobacco is over-moist and,
therefore, over-soft, a great excess will go into the finished cigarette; when the tobacco is
too dry and, therefore, harsh, too little goes into the finished cigarette.
3 • A condition of 75 F dry -bulb temperature and 55 per cent relative humidity
is being maintained in a cigarette manufacturing department. What will be
the regain and moisture content of the tobacco?
The regain, from Table 2 = 17.75 per cent.
17 7s) v inn
The moisture content » :'" , *™ - 15.1 per cent.
IUU ~p I/ ./O
4 • A 1-lb sample taken from a 100-lb batch of material is found to have a bone-
dry weight of 0.89 Ib. This material is to he processed under atmospheric
conditions which should produce a regain of 15 per cent. Compute the finished
weight for each original 100-lb batch.
Let W equal the number of pounds of moisture in a finished batch.
g0 - regain = 15 per cent = ^
W = 13.35
89 + 13-35 = 102.35 Ib finished weight.
5 • A bundle of sea island cotton Is found to have a bone-dry weight of 9.26 Ib.
What is the proper relative humidity at 75 F to produce a weight of 10 Ib at
equilibrium?
Desired conditioned weight = 10.00 Ib
Bone-dry weight = 9.26 Ib
Weight of moisture required = 0.74 Ib
Regain = ^ X 100 = 7.9 per cent.
From Table 2, the proper relative humidity required is 60 per cent.
6 • Compute the bone-dry weight of 1000 Ib of manila rope which has been
stored for a considerable period of time in a conditioned room at 75 F dry-bulb
temperature and 50 per cent relative humidity.
Assuming that this material has come to equilibrium under the atmospheric conditions
given, Table 2 shows a regain of 8.5 per cent.
Let W equal the total weight of moisture in pounds.
1000 — W — bone-dry weight in pounds.
W -OK .8.5
.
per Cent
1000 - W ' 100
W = 78.3 Ib moisture
1000 - 78.3 - 921.7 Ib bone-dry weight.
7 • An egg evaporating plant wishes to dry 2000 Ib of egg whites (85 per cent
water) to crystalline form each 24 hours. The maximum permissible air de-
livery temperature hi the dryer Is 140 F. What air volume will be required,
assuming that outside air is at 95 F dry-bulb and 78 F wet-bulb and that air
leaves the dryer 70 per cent saturated?
Moisture to be removed = 2000 X 0.85 = 1700 Ib. Using psychrometric chart and
starting at the intersection of the vertical 95 F dry-bulb temperature line and the 46 per
631
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
cent humidity line, move horizontally to the right to the intersection with the 140 ]
vertical temperature line at 13 per cent relative humidity; then move along the constan
heat (or wet-bulb line) to its intersection with the 70 per cent relative humidity curv<
and read 97.5 F dry-bulb, which will be the temperature of the air leaving the dryer.
Moisture per cubic foot at 97.5 F and 70 per cent relative humidity =13.2 grains
Moisture per cubic foot at 95 F and 78 F wet-bulb = 8.3 grains
Moisture added per cubic foot of air handled = 4.9 grains
1700 X 7000 1flRKrffn
24X60X4.9 =1685cfm'
No allowance is made for heat lost in the transmission to and from the dryer or for the
heat required to raise the product from its entering temperature to that maintained in the
dryer. This would necessitate a trial and error solution common to all drying problems.
632
Chapter 34
INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Classification of Systems, Design Procedure, Requirements for
Suction and Velocity, Hoods, Design of Duct Systems, Col-
lectors, Resistance of Systems, Efficiency of Exhaust Systems,
Selection of Fans and Motors, Corrosion
IN almost every industry some type of exhaust or collecting system is
essential to achieve efficient and economical control of dusts and
fumes. General design information is included in this chapter which is
intended to relate primarily to factory exhaust systems.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
There are two general arrangements, the central and the group systems.
In the central system a single or double fan is located near the center of
the shop with a piping system radiating to the various machines to be
served. In the group system, which is sometimes employed where the
machines to be served are widely scattered, small individual exhaust fans
are located at the center of the machine groups. The group arrangement
has the advantage of flexibility.
Exhaust systems are also classified by the means employed to collect
dust or other material handled. The dust or refuse may be collected and
controlled by enclosing hoods, open hoods, inward air leakage, or by
exhausting the general air of the room.
With some classes of machinery it is not feasible to closely hood the
machines and in these cases open hoods over or adjacent to the machines
are provided to collect as much as possible of the dust and fumes. ^ This
class includes such machines as rubber mills, package filling machinery,
sand blast, crushers, forges, pickling tanks, melting furnaces, and the
unloading points of various types of conveyors.
The open hoods should be placed as close to the source of dust or fumes
as possible, with due regard to the movements of the operator. When the
hood must be placed at some distance above the machine it should be
large enough to encompass an area of considerable extent as diffusion is
usually quite rapid.
Consideration must also be given to the natural movement of the
fumes. For those that are lighter than air the hood should be over or
above the machine and where a heavy vapor or dust-laden air at ordinary
temperature is to be removed, horizontal or floor connections are required.
If it is attempted to remove heavy dust such as lead oxides by an over-
head hood the conditions may be worse than if no exhaust were used at
all, owing to the rising air current carrying the dust up through the
633
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
breathing zones. The objective to keep in mind in all cases is to tak<
advantage of the natural tendency of the material to move upward o:
downward.
In another class of operation the main objective is to prevent the escape
of dust into the surrounding atmosphere, the removal of some dust frprr
the machine or enclosure being merely incidental. The dust-creating
apparatus is enclosed within a housing which is made as tight as prac-
ticable, and sufficient suction is applied to the enclosure to maintain ar
inward air leakage, thus preventing escape of the dust. While the exhausl
system is required to handle only the air which leaks in ^ through the
crevices and openings in the enclosure, yet in many installations leakages
are very high and great care is required to obtain satisfactory results
with a system of this kind. The inward-leakage principle is utilized foi
controlling dust in the operating of tumbling barrels, grinding, screening,
elevating, and similar processes.
Certain dust and fume producing operations are best carried on by
isolating the process in a separate compartment or room and then apply-
ing general ventilation to this space. The compartment or room in which
the work is performed should be as small as is consistent with convenience
in handling the work. The ventilating system should be designed so
that a strong current of clean air is drawn across the operator, and away
from him toward the work, where the dust is picked up and carried
from the room.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The first step in the design of an exhaust system is to determine the
number and size of the hoods and their connections. No general rules,
however, can be given since hood and duct dimensions are determined by
the characteristics of the operations to which they are applied. When a
tentative decision regarding the set-up has been made, it is then necessary
to obtain the suction and air velocities required to effect control. At this
point the designer must rely upon the prevailing practice and on such
physical^ data relating to hoods, duct systems and collectors as are avail-
able. Finally, in choosing the fan, the area of the intake should be equal
to or greater than the sum of the areas of the branch ducts. The speed, of
course, must be sufficient to maintain the estimated suction and air
velocities in the system. In general, the most important requirements of
an efficient exhaust and collecting system are as follows1:
1. Hoods, ducts, fans and collectors should be of adequate size.
2. The air velocities should be sufficient to control and convey the materials collected.
3. The hoods and ducts should not interfere with the operation of a machine or any
working part.
4. The system should do the required work with a minimum power consumption.
5. When inflammable dusts and fumes are conveyed, the piping should be provided
with an automatic damper in passing through a fire-wall.
6. Ducts and all metal parts should be grounded to reduce the danger of dust ex-
plosions by static electricity.
7. The design of an exhaust system should afford easy access to parts for inspection
and care.
iFor more detailed requirements see Safe Practice Pamphlets Nbs. 32 and 37, published by the National
Louncit, Chicago.
634
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCTION AND VELOCITY
The removal of dust or waste by means of an exhaust hood requires a
movement of air at the point of origin sufficient to carry it to a col-
lecting system. The air velocities necessary to accomplish this depend
upon the physical properties of the material to be eliminated and the
TABLE 1. SIZE OF CONNECTIONS FOR WOOD- WORKING MACHINERY
TYPE OF MACHINE
DIAMETER OF
CONNECTIONS n*
INCHES
Circular saws, 12-in. diam
Circular saws, 12-24-in. diam
Circular saws, 24-40-in. diam
Band saws, blade under 2 in. wide-
Band saws, blade 2-3 in. wide.
Band saws, blade 3-4 in. wide
Band saws, blade 4-5 in. wide.
Band saws, blade 5-6 in. wide.
Small mortisers.-
Single end tenoners
Double end tenoners
Double end, double head tenoners —
Planers, matchers, moulders, stickers, jointers, etc.-
With knives, 6-10 in
With knives, 10-20 in
With knives, 20-30 i
Shapers, light work....
Shapers, heavy work....,
Belt sander, belt less than 6 in. wide
Belt sander, belt 6-10 in. wide
Belt sander, belt 10-14 in. wide.
Drum sander, 24 in.._
Drum sander, 30 in...
Drum sander, 36 in...
Drum sander, 48 in. .
Drum sander, over 48 in. —
Disc sander, 24 in. diam
Disc sander, 26-36 in. diam...
Disc sander, 36-48 in. diam
Arm sander
4
5
6
4
5
6
7
.8
6
6
7
10
5-6
6-8
6-10
4-5
8
5
6
• 7
5
6
7
8
10
5
6
7
4
direction and speed with which it is thrown off. If the dust to be removed
is already in motion, as is the case with high-speed grinding wheels, the
hood should be installed in the path of the particles so that a minimum
air volume may be used effectively. It is always desirable to design and
locate a hood so that the volume of air necessary to produce results is as
small as possible.
The static suction at the throat of a hood is frequently used in practice
as a measure of the effectiveness of control. This is of considerable value
where exhaust systems adapted to particular operations have been
standardized by practice. Tables 1 and 2 present the duct sizes usually
employed for standard wood-working machinery and for grinding and
buffing wheels. Static pressures which in practice have been found
necessary to control and convey various materials, are given in Table 3.
It must be remembered, however, that the suction is merely a rough
635
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 2. SIZE OF CONNECTIONS FOR GRINDING AND BUFFING WHEELS
DIAMETER OF WHEELS
MAX.
MINT. DIAM.
GRINDING
SURFACE
OF BRANCH
PIPES IN
SQ IN.
INCHES
Grinding —
6 in. or less, not over 1 in. thick.
19
3
7 in. to 9 in., inclusive, not over 1J
^ in. thick
43
10 in. to 16 in., « « « 2
in. «
101
4
17 in. to 19 in., « * « 3
in. " .
180
20 in. to 24 in., " u « 4
in. a
302
5
25 in. to 30 in., a " « 5
in. « ......
472
6
Buffing —
6 in. or less, not over 1 in. thick.
19
gi/
7 in. to 12 in., inclusive, not over \1/
% in. thick
57
4
13 in. to 16 in., « « « 2
in. "
101
17 in. to 20 in., « " « 3
in. « _..._
189
5
21 in. to 27 in., « « « 4
in. u
338
6
27 in. to 33 in., " " • 5
in. « .
518
7
measure of the air volume handled and consequently of the air velocity at
the opening of the hood. The elimination of any dusty condition requires
added information concerning the shape, size and location of the hood
used with regard to the operation in question.
In some states grinding, polishing and buffing wheels are subject to
regulation by codes. The static suction requirements, which range from
IK to 5 in; water displacement in a 27-tube, should be followed although
in several instances they may appear to be excessive. Frequently, in
these operations, a large part of the wheel must be exposed and the dust-
laden air within the hood is thrown outward by the centrifugal action of
the wheel, thus counteracting useful inward draft. This tendency may
be diminished by locating the connecting duct so as to create an air flow
of not less than 200 fpm about the lower rim of the wheel.
Exact determinations of hood control velocities are not available, but
it is safe to assume that for most dusty operations they should not be less
TABLE 3. SUCTION PRESSURES REQUIRED AT HOODS
Tm OP iNSTAIiATION
Exhausting from grinding and buffing wheels
Exhausting from tumbling barrels
Exhausting from wood-
Exhausting from wood- working machinery — heavy duty..
Shoe machinery exhaust ________________________ _
Exhausting from rubber manufacturing proce
Exhausting from pottery processes ___ ™~
Lead dust and fume exhaust _________________ ~!
Fur and felt machinery exhaust ____ !!"™1._"".
Exhausting from textile machinery. _____ ~ZZI~
Exhausting from elevating and crushing madhSery
Conveying bulky and heavy materials _
STATIC SUCTION isr
INCHES OF WATER
2
2
2-4
2-3
2
2
2
2-4
2-3
2-3
2
3-5
636
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
than 200 fpm at the point of origin. For granite dust generated by
pneumatic devices, Hatch et al2 give velocities from 150 to 200 fpm,
depending on the type of hood used, as sufficient for safe control. Con-
sidering the character of the industry, air velocities of this order may be
extended to similar dusty operations. The method for approximately
determining these velocities in terms of the velocity at the hood opening
is given below.
HOODS
No set rule can be given regarding the shape of a hood for a particular
operation, but it is well to remember that its essential function is to create
an adequate velocity distribution. The fact that the zone of greatest
effectiveness does not extend laterally from the edges of the opening may
frequently be utilized in estimating the size of hood required. ^ Where
complete enclosure of a dusty operation is contemplated, it is desirable to
leave enough free space to equal the area of the connecting duct. Hoods
for grinding, polishing and buffing should fit closely, but at the same time
should provide an easy means for changing the wheels. It is advisable to
design these hoods with a removable hopper at the base to capture the
heavy dusts and articles dropped by the operator. Such provisions are of
assistance in keeping the ducts clear. Air volumes used to control many
dust discharges may often be reduced by effective baffling or partial
enclosure of an operation. This procedure is strongly urged where dusts
are directed beyond the zone of influence of the hood.
Axial Velocity Formula for Hoods
When the normal flow of air into a hood is unobstructed, the following
formula may be used to determine the air velocity at any point along
the axis3 :
_ 0.1 Q (1)
v x* + 0.1 A V '
where
V = velocity at point, feet per minute.
A - area of opening, square feet.
x = distance along axis, feet.
Q = volume of air handled, cubic feet per minute.
Velocity Contours
It is possible by use of a specially constructed pitot-tube4 to map
contours of equal velocity in any axial plane located in the field of in-
fluence. It has been found that the positions of these contours for any
hood can be expressed as percentages of the velocity at the hood opening
and are purely functions of the shape of the hood5.
'Control of the Silicosis Hazard in the Hard Rock Industries. I A Laboratory Study of the Design of
Dust ConSol Systems for Use with Pneumatic Granite Cutting Tools by Theodore : Hatch, Philip Drinker
and Sarah P. Choate. (Journal of Industrial Hygiene, Vol. XII, No. 3, March, 1930).
•The Control of Industrial Dust, by J. M. DallaValle (Mechanical Engineering. Vol. 55, No. 10, October
'Studies in the Design of Local Exhaust Hoods, by J. M. DallaValle and Theodore Hatch (A.S.M.E.
Transactions, Vol. 54, 1932).
"Velocity Characteristics of Hoods under Suction, by J. M. DallaValle (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 38, 1932, p. 387).
637
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Further, the velocity contours are identical for similar hood shapes
when the hoods are reduced to the same basis of comparison. These facts
are applicable to all hood problems so that when the velocity contour
distribution is known, the air flow required can be determined. Fig. 1
shows the contour distribution in two axial planes perpendicular to the
sides of a rectangular hood with a side ratio of one-half. The distribu-
tion shown is identical for all openings with a similar side ratio provided
the mapping is as shown in the figure. The contours, of course, are
expressed as percentages of the velocity at the opening.
FIG. 1. VELOCITY CONTOURS FOR A RECTANGULAR OPENING WITH A SIDE RATIO OF
ONE-HALF. CONTOURS ARE EXPRESSED AS PERCENTAGES OF THE
VELOCITY AT THE OPENING
Air Flow from Static Readings
The volume of air flow through any hood may be determined from the
following equation :
Q = 4005/4 V^T (2)
where
Q = volume of air flow, cubic feet per minute.
A *= area of connecting duct, square feet.
ht = static suction at throat of hood, inches of water.
/ = orifice or restriction coefficient which varies from 0.6 to 0.9 depending on the
shape of the hood.
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
An average value of /is 0.71, although for a well-shaped opening a value
of 0.8 may be used. The factor/ is determined from the equation :
(3)
where h? is the velocity head in the connecting duct.
The term static suction is not a good measure of the effectiveness of a
hood unless the area of the opening and the location of the operation with
respect to the hood are known. This is clearly indicated by Equation 1
which shows that the velocity at any point along the axis varies inversely
as the area of the opening and the square of the distance. However, this
formula coupled with Equation 2 should serve to indicate the velocity
conditions to be expected when operations are conducted external to the
hood opening.
Large Open Hoods
Large hoods, such as are used for electroplating and pickling tanks,
should be subdivided so the area of the connecting duct is not less than
one-fifteenth of the open area of the hood. Frequently, it will be found
necessary to branch the main duct in order to obtain a uniform distri-
bution of flow. Canopy hoods should extend 6 in. laterally from the tank
for every 12-in. elevation, and wherever possible they should have side
and rear aprons so as to prevent short circuiting of air from spaces not
directly over the vats or tanks. In most cases, hoods of this type take
advantage of the natural tendency of the vapors to rise, and air velocities
may be kept low. Cross drafts from open doors or windows disturb the
rise of the vapors and therefore provision must be made for them. The
air velocities required also depend upon the character of the vapors given
off, cyanide fumes, for example, requiring an air velocity of approxi-
mately 75 fpm on the surface of the tank and acid and steam vapors
requiring velocities as low as 25 to 50 fpm. The total volume of air flow
necessary to obtain these velocities may be approximately determined
from the following simple formula:
Q = 1.4PDV (4)
where
Q = total volume of air handled by hood, cubic feet per minute.
P *= perimeter of the tank, feet.
D = distance between tank and hood opening, feet.
V >= air velocity desired along edges and surface of tank, feet per minute.
Lateral Exhaust Systems
The lateral exhaust method, as developed for chromium plating6, is
applicable in many instances in preference to the canopy type hoods.
The method makes use of drawing air and fumes laterally across the top
of vats or tanks into slotted ducts at the top and extending fully along
one or more sides of the tanks. The slots are 2 in. wide and for effective
'Health Hazards in Chromium Plating, by J. J. Bloomfield and Wm. Blum (U. S. Public Health
Report, Vol. 43, No. 26, September 7, 1928).
639
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ventilation a 2,000 fpm exhaust air velocity at the slot face is advisable.
In addition, the duct should not be required to draw the air laterally for
a distance of more than 18 in. and the level of the solution should be kept
6 to 8 in. below the top of the tanks.
Flexible Exhaust Systems
The flexible exhaust tube method may be advantageously used for
removing dust or fumes. Flexible tubes having one end connected to an
exhaust system and a slotted hood attached to the other end may be
shaped at will to fit in with industrial processes without affecting the ease
of operation. Efficient dust or fume removal may be had with use of
relatively small exhaust volumes. This type of system may be used on
swing grinders, portable grinding wheels, soldering operations, stone
cutting, rock drilling, etc.
Spray Booths
In the design of an efficient spray booth, it is essential to maintain an
even distribution of air flow through the opening and about the object
being sprayed. While in many instances spraying operations can be
performed mechanically in wholly enclosed Jbooths, the volatile vapors
may reach injurious or explosive concentrations. At all times the con-
centrations of these vapors, and particularly those containing benzol,
should be kept below 100 parts per million. Spray booth vapors are
dangerous to the health of the worker and care should be taken to mini-
mize exposure to them.
It is recommended in the design of spray booths that the exhaust duct
be located in a horizontal position slightly below the object sprayed.
Stagnant regions within the booth should be carefully avoided or should
be provided with exhaust. The air volume should be sufficient to main-
tain a velocity of 150 to 200 fpm over the open area of the booth, and the
vapors may be discharged through a suitable stack to permit dilution, but
it is better practice to pass the fumes or vapors through baffle type
washers or scrubbers designed for efficient spray fume removal7.
Hoods for Chemical Laboratories
Hoods used in chemical laboratories are generally provided with
sliding windows which permit positive control of the fumes and vapors
evolved by the apparatus. Their design should offer easy access for the
installation of chemical equipment and should be well lighted. Air
velocities should exceed 50 fpm when the window is opened to its maxi-
mum height.
DUCT SYSTEM DESIGN
The duct system should be large enough to transport the fumes or
material without causing serious obstruction to the air flow. It is good
practice to proportion the ducts to obtain the desired velocities and
suction pressures at the hoods, although in many cases only an approxi-
mation to an ideal design is possible. Many exhaust hoods, and par-
'For a discussion of spray booths, see Special Bulletin No. 16, Spray Painting in Pennsylvania, Depart-
ment of Labor and Industry, 1926, Harrisburg, Pa.
640
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
ticularly ^ those used in^ buffing and polishing, are connected by short
branch pipes to the main duct which renders proportioning impractical.
Construction
The ducts leading from the hoods to the exhaust fan should be con-
structed of sheet metal not lighter than is shown in Table 4. The piping
should be free from dents, fins and projections on which refuse might
catch.
All permanent circular joints should be lap-jointed, riveted and sol-
dered, and all longitudinal joints either grooved and locked or riveted
and soldered. Circular laps should be in the direction of the flow, and
piping installed out-of-doors should not have the longitudinal laps at the
bottom. Every change in pipe size should be made with an eccentric
taper flat on the bottom, the taper to be at least 5 in. long for each inch
change in diameter. All pipes passing through roofs should be equipped
with collars so arranged as to prevent water leaking into the building.
The main trunks and branch pipes should be as short and straight as
possible, strongly supported, and with the dead ends capped to permit
inspection and cleaning. All branch pipes should join the main at an
TABLE 4. GAGE OF SHEET METAL TO BE USED FOR VARIOUS DUCT DIAMETERS
DDLMETER OF DUCT
GAGE OF METAL
8 in. or less
24
22
20
18
9 to 18 in
19 to 25 in
26 in. or more
acute angle, the junction being at the side or top and never at the bottom
of the main. Branch pipes should not join the main pipes at points where
the material from one branch would tend to enter the branch on the
opposite side of the main.
Cleanout openings having suitable covers should be placed in the main
and branch pipes so that every part of the system can be easily reached in
case the system clogs. Either a large cleanout door should be placed
in the main suction pipe near the fan inlet, or a detachable section of
pipe, held in place by lug bands, may be provided.
Elbows should be made at least two gages heavier than straight pipe
of the same diameter, the better to enable them to withstand the addi-
tional wear caused by changing the direction of flow. They should pref-
erably have a throat radius of at least one and one-half times the diameter
of the pipe.
Every pipe should be kept open and unobstructed throughout its entire
length, and no fixed screen should be placed in it, although the use of
a trap at the junction of the hood and branch pipe is permissible, provided
it is not allowed to fill up completely.
The passing of pipes through fire-walls should be avoided wherever
possible, and sweep-up connections should be so arranged that foreign
material cannot be easily introduced into them.
641
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 5. AIR SPEEDS IN DUCTS NECESSARY TO CONVEY VARIOUS MATERIALS
MATERIAL
Am VELOCITIES
(FTPM)
Grain dust
2000
Wood chips and shavings
Sawdust — — - -
3000
2000
Jute dust....
Rubber dust.
2000
2000
Lint. -
1500
Metal dust (firindinffs) ~
2200
Lead dusts -
5000
Brass turnings (fine)
4000
4000
At the point of entrance of a branch pipe with the main duct, there
should be an increase in the latter equal to their sum. Some state codes
specify that the combined area be increased by 25 per cent. While this
is not always necessary and is frequently done at the expense of a reduced
air velocity, 'it is none the less advisable where future expansion of the
exhaust system is contemplated.
Air Velocities in Ducts
When the static suction has been fixed for a given hood, the air velocity
in the duct may be determined from Equation 2. Air velocities for
conveying a material should be moderate. Table 5 gives the velocities
generally employed for conveying various substances. Equations 5a and 5b
may be used as tests to determine the conveying efficiency of a system8.
Velocities determined from these formulae should be increased by at least
25 per cent since they represent the minimum at which a stated size and
density of material can be transported.
For vertical ducts: V - 13,300 — ^ d°-*7 (5a)
s ~|- i
For horizontal ducts: V - 6000 -~i d*'W (6b)
where
V = air velocity in duct, feet per minute.
^ = specific gravity of particles.
d = average diameter of largest particles conveyed, inches.
Example 8. Granular material, the largest size of which is approximately 0.37 in. in
diameter, with a specific gravity of 1.40 is to be conveyed in a vertical pipe the velocity
of the air in which is 4100 fpm; find whether the material can be transported at this
velocity.
Substitute data in Equation 5a and multiply by 1.25:
V - 1.25 X 13,300 X ^| X 0.370-'7
Antilog (0.57 X log 0.37) - 0.568; the required velocity is, therefore, 5500 fpm.
ermining Minimum Air Velocities for Exhaust Systems, by J. M. DallaValle (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL
r. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, September, 1932, p. 639).
642
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
TABLE 6. Loss THROUGH 90- DEC ELBOWS
ELBOW CENTER LINE RADIUS IN PER CENT
OF PIPE DIAMETER
Loss IN PEB CENT or VELOCITY HEAD
50
100
150
200 to 300
75
26
17
14
Hence, the duct velocity must be increased either by speeding up the fan or decreasing
the diameter of the duct, or both.
Duct Resistance
The resistance to flow in any galvanized duct riveted and soldered at
the joints may be obtained from Fig. 3, Chapter 29. The pressure drop
through elbows depends upon the radius of the bend. For elbows whose
centerline radii vary from 50 to 300 per cent of pipe diameter, the loss may
be estimated from Table 6. It is sometimes convenient to express the
resistance of an elbow in terms of an equivalent length of duct of the same
diameter. Thus with a throat radius equal to the pipe diameter the
resistance is equivalent to a section of straight pipe approximately 10
diameters long, while with a throat diameter radius 1}^ times the dia-
meter, the resistance is about the same as that of seven diameters of
straight pipe.
COLLECTORS
The most common method of separating the dust and other materials
from the air is to pass the mixture through a centrifugal or cyclone
collector. In this type of collector the mixture of the air and material
is introduced on a tangent, near the cylindrical top of the collector, and
the whirling motion sets up a centrifugal action causing the compara-
tively heavy materials suspended in the air to be thrown against the side
of the separator, from which position they spiral down to the tail piece,
while the air escapes through the stack at the center of the collector.
The diameter of the cyclone should be at least 3J^ times the diameter
of the fan discharge duct. When two or more separate ducts enter a
cyclone, gates should be provided to prevent any back draft through a
system which may not be operating. Cyclones working in conjunction
with two or more fans should be designed to operate efficiently at two-
thirds capacity rating. The following formula is useful in computing the
loss through a cyclone when the velocity of the air in the fan discharge
duct is known :
where
hc = the pressure drop through the cyclone, inches of water,
V — the air velocity in the fan discharge duct, feet per minute.
If a cyclone is used to collect light dusts such as buffing wheel dusts,
643
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
feathers and lint, the exhaust vent should be large enough to permit an
air velocity of 200 to 500 fpm. This will, of course, require a cyclone 'of
larger dimensions than given for the foregoing general case.
When a high collection efficiency is desired, or the material is very fine,
multicyclones may be used. These are merely small cyclones arranged in
parallel which utilize the principle of high centrifugal velocity to attain
separation. The capacities and characteristics of this type of separator
should be obtained from the manufacturers.
Cloth Enters
Filters are used when the material collected by an exhaust system is
valuable or cannot be separated efficiently from the air with an ordinary
cyclone. They are also employed when it is desirable to recirculate the
air drawn from a room by the exhaust system, which otherwise might
entail considerable loss in heat. Bag filters which are properly housed
may be operated under suction. Bag houses used in the manufacture of
zinc oxide and other chemical products are operated on the positive
side of the fan.
Wool, cotton and asbestos cloths are commonly used as filtering
mediums. When woolen cloths are employed, the filtering capacities vary
from % to 10 cfm per square foot of filtering surface, depending on the
character of the material collected. The rates for cotton and asbestos
cloths are lower. The type of filter cloth and the rates of filtration
depend, of course, on the material to be collected and the fan capacity.
The time increase of resistance varies with the amount of material per-
mitted to build up on the surface of the filter and can be determined only
by experiment. The limits of the increase may be regulated by adjust-
ment of the shaking or cleaning mechanism. These limits may be
regulated further according to the capacity of the fan and the effective
performance of the hoods and the duct system.
For additional information on Dust and Cinders, see Chapter 26,
Air Cleaning Devices.
RESISTANCE OF SYSTEM
The maintained resistance of the exhaust system is composed of three
factors: (1) loss through the hoods, (2) collector drop, and (3) friction
drop in the pipes.
The loss through the hoods is usually assumed to be equal to the suction
maintained at the hoods. The collector drop in inches of water is given
approximately by Equation 6, but where possible the resistance of the
particular collector to be used should be ascertained from the manu-
facturer.
Friction drop in the pipes must be computed for each section where
there is a change in area or in velocity. Find the velocities in each section
of pipe starting with the branch most remote from the fan. The friction
drop for these sections can be determined by reference to Table 6. Total
friction loss in the piping system is the friction drop in the most remote
branch plus the drop in the various sections of the main, plus the drop
in the discharge pipe.
644
CHAPTER 34. INDUSTRIAL EXHAUST SYSTEMS
EFFICIENCY OF EXHAUST SYSTEMS
The efficiency of an exhaust system depends upon its effectiveness in
reducing the concentration of dusts, fumes, vapors and gases below the
safe or threshold limits9.
Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the necessity of testing exhaust
systems frequently by determining the concentration of atmospheric con-
tamination at the worker's breathing level. Commonly accepted values
of threshold limits for the usual gases and vapors are given in Table 7.
SELECTION OF FANS AND MOTORS
Manufacturers generally provide special fans for the collection of
various industrial wastes. These are available for the collection of coal
dust, wood shavings, wool, cotton and many other substances. For
TABLE 7. THRESHOLD LIMITS OF COMMON VAPORS AND GASEsa
SUBSTANCE
SPEC. GRAY.
OF GAB OR
VAPOE (Am 1)
INFLAMMABLE
LIMITS
(%)
PHYSIOLOGICAL
ACTION
MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE
CONCENTRATION
(PPM)
Chlorine
Ozone
Hydrogen chloride
2.486
5.5
1.2678
non-inflamm,
do
do
irritant
do
do
0.35
0.80
10.0
Sulphur dioxide.
Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen sulphide
Benzene...
2.2638
0.9671
1.190
2.73
do
12.5-74
4.3-46
1.4r-7.0
do.
asphyxiant
do
anesthetic
10.0
100.0
85-130
100.0
Methanol
1.1
7.5-26.5
do
100.0
Carbon tetrachloride
5.3
non-inflamm.
do
100.0
aThe Prevention of Occupational Diseases, by R. R. Sayers and J. M. DallaValle (Mechanical Engi-
neering, Vol. 57, No. 4, April, 1935).
particular features concerning special fans, consult the Catalog Data
Section of THE GUIDE and manufacturers' data. When substances
having an abrasive character are conveyed, the fan blades and housing
should be protected from wear. This may be accomplished by placing a
collector on the negative side of the fan or by lining the housing and
blades with rubber.
If no future expansion of an exhaust system is contemplated, the fan
motor should be chosen to provide the calculated air volume. Should,
however, the exhaust system be required to handle more air jn the
future, the motor should be adequate for the maximum load anticipated.
Further information regarding the choice of fans and motors is given in
Chapters 27 and 38.
PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION
The removal of gases and fumes in many chemical plants requires that
metals used in tie construction of the exhaust system be resistant to
'Criteria for Industrial Exhaust Systems, by J. J. Bloomfield (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 40,
1934, p. 353).
645
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 8. MATERIALS TO BE USED FOR THE PROTECTION OF
EXHAUST SYSTEMS AGAINST CORROSION*
TYPE or FTJMB CONTETBD
PROTECTIVE MATERIAL TO BB USED
Chlorine.
Rubber lining or chrome-nickel alloys
Aluminum coated iron, aluminum, high chrome-nickel alloys
Iron or steel
High chrome-nickel alloys
Rubber lining, chrome-nickel alloys
Nickel-chrome alloys
Hydrogen sulphide
Ammonia
Sulphurous gases
Hydrochloric acid
Nitrous gases
•Condensed from data given by Chilton and Huey (Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 24, 1932) .
chemical corrosion. A list of the materials which may be used to resist
the action of certain fumes is given in Table 8. Hoods and ducts when
short, may frequently be constructed of wood and be quite effective.
Rubberized paints are available and may be applied as protective coatings
in handling such gases and fumes as chlorine and hydrochloric acid.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the most common method of reducing total air volumes handled
in cases employing large hoods over apparatus covering a large area?
The use^of the petticoats on large hoods which permits a comparatively high air velocity
at the rim of the hood and controllably small velocities in the center.
2 • Why is it not permissible to connect up emery wheels and buffing wheels to
the same exhaust system?
Emery wheels and buffing wheels should be handled by separate systems because of the
fire hazard, as it is possible for sparks from the emery wheels to ignite the lint and dust
from the buffing wheels when both are carried through the same system.
3 • A tank, 4 ft by 8 ft, contains a fluid which gives off injurious vapors. A
large hood is located 30 in. above the top of the tank and extends slightly over
its edges. Assuming that a velocity of 60 fpm is required to adequately control
the vapors near the edges of the tank, calculate the air now required.
Using Equation 4, P - 2 X 4 + 2 X 8 - 24 ft; D = 30 in. = 2.5 ft; V - 60 fpm.
Hence, Q - 1.4 X 24 X 2.5 X 60 = 5040 cfm.
40 Silica dust with a specific gravity of 2.65 is being conveyed in a duct system.
The velocity measured in a vertical portion of the system is found to be 2700
fpm. What is the maximum diameter particle transported at this velocity?
Using Equation 5a, 2700 - 13,300 X -|4f X
O.OO
from which
d - (0.28^» = 0.11 in.
5 • What special materials may be used to resist chemical corrosion in a
system exhausting gases and fumes?
Various protective materials are available for exhaust systems depending largely upon
the type of fumes conveyed. Nickel-chrome alloys, aluminum coated metals and rubber
linings are extensively used. Also protective rubberized paints are available which may
be applied for conveying chlorine and hydrochloric acid fumes.
646
Chapter 35
DRYING SYSTEMS
Drying Methods, Driers, Mechanism of Drying, Moisture,
General Rules for Drying, Equipment, Humidity Chart,
Combustion, Design, Estimating Methods
DRYING, in its broader sense, refers to the removal of water, or other
volatile liquid from either a gaseous, liquid, or solid material. In
practice, the process of direct drying gaseous material is referred to
generally ^ as dehumidifying, or condensing, and in some cases chemicals
are used in the adsorption or absorption of moisture. Drying a liquid is
called evaporation or distillation. The common usage of the word drying
refers to the removal of water or other liquid, such as a solvent, by evapo-
ration from a solid material.
When the solid to be dried contains large amounts of free water, the
actual drying process is frequently preceded by the removal of part of the
water by some mechanical means, such as filtration, settling, pressing or
centrifuging. Removal of as much water as possible by such methods is
usually advisable, as the cost of these operations, per pound of water
removed, is generally much less than by evaporation.
DRYING METHODS
Drying may be accomplished in any one or combination of the following
methods:
1. Radiation.
2. Conduction, or direct contact.
3. Convection.
Radiation
The source of heat for radiation may be either the sun, or heated
surfaces. Sun drying -is practiced where danger frorn rain is slight, and
where sufficient time can be allowed. Where a strict adherence to a
schedule is necessary, or where dusty atmosphere is present, this method
is not in favor. Fruits are often dried in the sun.
Radiation from hot surfaces (heated by steam, electricity, or other
means) furnishes generally, from one-third to one-half the total heat
required for evaporation. Convection currents set up by these hot
surfaces and the cooler materials carry the balance of the heat.
647
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
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CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
Conduction or Direct Contact Drying
This method of drying is advantageous where the material can be
flowed on to the drying surface and the dried material scraped off, or
where^ the material to be dried can be handled in a sheet, and where
there is no danger of subjecting the product to the full temperature of the
heating medium. The. source of heat for this method may be steam,
electricity, hot oil or hot water.
Convection
The circulation of heated air or other gases about the material to be
dried is generally termed convection drying. The convection may be
either natural or forced. With forced circulation, the temperature of the
*M under curve and above oven temperature
represents useful heat
**a between oven and room temperature
represents heat m vented air
Example
When air is supplied to oven at temperature C
0 GH
c
.D
Useful heat equals area BC
DE BGHJ
Vented heat equals area A 8
EF ABJK
Temperature deg F
f MM
3
""^^^ H
1
J """--Oven temperature
K ^-Roor
n temperature
A
*l
F
PEn CENT WATEtl. PRY I'-SIS
FIG. 1. RELATION BETWEEN USEFUL
AND TOTAL HEAT SUPPLIED
FIG. 2. RATE OF DRYING OF
WHITING SLAB
drier is more uniform and the rate of drying is much higher than with
natural circulation. Where humidity is used, the control is much easier,
and more accurate.
The source of heat for a convection drier may be steam, electricity,
hot water, oil-fired heater, gas-fired heater, or coal furnace.* Where either
oil, gas or coal is used, the type of heater may be direct or indirect; i.e.,
the products of combustion may be used (direct), or the circulated air
may be heated through an interchanger (indirect).
Where the direct type is used, there is naturally a higher thermal
efficiency, but it can only be used where the odor, soot, or the chemical
elements of the products of combustion do not affect the material being
dried. When heat economy is an important consideration this method
(Fig. 1) may be used, permitting a small amount of air to be circulated, if
a sacrifice of accurate control of temperature and humidity can be
justified.
DRIERS
The term adiabatic drier is applied to a drier in which all the heat is
supplied by air externally heated. The temperature of the air in the
649
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
drier decreases as a transfer of heat to the material being dried takes place.
Where part or all of the heat is supplied by steam coils or other means,
within the drier itself, the drier is known as a constant temperature drier.
Driers using little air for heating medium with a high temperature drop,
are difficult to hold at uniform temperatures; the more air used, the easier
it is to secure accurate control of temperature and humidity. Driers may
be classified as shown in Table 1.
MECHANISM OF DRYING
The modern theory of drying may be summed up as follows : Assuming
uniform velocity and distribution of air at a constant temperature and
humidity over the surface to be dried, the drying cycle will be divided into
two distinct stages :
1. Constant rate period.
2. Falling rate period.
The constant rate period occurs while the material being dried is still
very wet, and continues as long as the water in the material comes to the
surface so rapidly that the surface remains thoroughly wet, and evapora-
tion proceeds at a constant rate, precisely as from a free water surface.
The material assumes a temperature corresponding to the wet-bulb
temperature of the surrounding air, or slightly higher, due to radiation
and conduction from dry surfaces adjoining the material. The constant
rate period continues until a time when the moisture no longer comes to
the surface as fast as it is evaporated. This point is called the critical
moisture content.
As the drying proceeds, a period of uniform falling rate is entered.
During this period, the surface of the material is gradually drying out, and
the rate of drying falls as the remaining wet surface decreases in area.
This period is also known as unsaturated surface drying.
As drying continues, the surface is completely dry and the water from
the interior evaporates and comes through the surface as vapor. As the
plane of water recedes, the diffusion of the vapor becomes more difficult
and hence the period is known as varying falling rate period, or sub-surf ace
drying.
As drying progresses another point called equilibrium moisture content
is reached, where the vapor pressure of the moisture in the air and the
vapor pressure of the moisture in the material are equal, and drying
ceases. The drying of a slab of whiting is shown in Fig. 2 and illustrates
the principles pointed out above. The factors affecting the variations of
drying rates during the above periods are pointed out in Table 2.
Omissions in the Cycle
Many solids, such as lumber, are so dry at the beginning of the drying
operation that the constant rate period of free surface evaporation does
not occur. Frequently the surface of the material is dry enough so that
no surface drying ^can take place, in which case only the final stage of sub-
surface drying is involved. In other instances, the critical moisture con-
tent of a wet solid is sufficiently low that sub-surface drying starts almost
immediately after the conclusion of the constant rate period. Thus the
650
CHAPCER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
intermediate state of unsaturated surface drying does not occur and the
drying is of the sub-surface type during practically the whole of the
falling rate period. With other kinds of material, particularly thin sheets,
such as newsprint paper, sub-surface drying may occur at such a low
moisture content that it is not encountered in commercial work, the
TABLE 2. FACTORS INFLUENCING DRYING
FACTOR
DRYING PERIOD
Constant Rate, Unsaturated Surface
Sab-Surface
Temperature
Increase in temperature increases
drying rate
Increase in temperature in-
creases drying rate, because
with decreased viscosity, dif-
fusion increases
Humidity
Drying rate increases as humidity
is decreased
No effect until equilibrium con-
tent is reached; drying then
ceases
Air Velocity
Drying rate varies approximately as
the 0.6 power of the velocity
No effect
Air direction
Drying rate increases the more
nearly the air blows perpendicular
to surface; for dead air film becomes
thinner
No effect
Thickness of
Material
Drying rate is not affected by the
thickness
Drying rate varies inversely as
the square of the thickness
falling rate period being confined solely in practice, to unsaturated surface
drying.
MOISTURE
Moisture in the solid may be in either of two forms :
1. Capillary or free.
2. Hygroscopic or chemically combined.
Free moisture is contained in the capillary spaces between the particles
or fibers of the materials. The loss of this moisture changes only the
weight of the material. Chemically combined or hygroscopic moisture^is
intimately associated with the physical nature of the material and^its
removal changes both the physical characteristics as well as the chemical
properties. The amount of hygroscopic moisture a material can contain
is limited. This limit is called the fiber saturation point. When material
is dried below this point, care must be exercised to avoid physical changes
in the material, such as shrinkage, hardening, etc. All hygroscopic
materials have definite equilibrium moisture contents dependent on
temperature and humidity. Materials are frequently dried to a lower
moisture content than those of equilibrium conditions in use, and allowed
to regain the necessary moisture after leaving the drier to equalize the
moisture in the material. Fig. 31 shows the equilibrium moisture content
of wood.
7. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin, No. 1136.
651
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
GENERAL RULES FOR DRYING
Temperature
The highest temperature possible should be used because of fasl
drying and smaller requirements for ventilation. The amount of moisti
that can be carried by a pound of air increases rapidly with rise in tei
perature as shown in the humidity chart of Fig. 4. ^ Too high a temper
ture may cause spoilage of materials; many materials calcine or chan
their chemical properties if heated too hot; gypsum and glauber salts lo
some of the chemically combined water, fall apart, and change the
chemical properties. Too high or rapid rise in temperatures in dryij
lumber or ceramics may create a liquid vapor tension within the materi
so high that the cells explode, causing permanent injury to the fiber,
too high a temperature is used on some chemicals, they begin to rea
§30
S
>20
0 20 40 60 80 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN ATMOSPHERE, PER CENT
FIG. 3. RELATION or EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT IN WOOD
TO THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF SURROUNDING AIR
exothermally; a temperature rise and chemical action from within wi
burn the materials, e.£.,bakelite products, gunpowder, etc. During th
constant rate period of drying, the material heats only to the wet-bull
temperature of the surrounding air, consequently high temperatures wil
not injure the material in this stage.
Humidity
Moisture in the drying air may be very important. Many material
tend to case-harden, dry on the outside, forming a skin which retards th<
moisture flow from the inside to the surface, or stops it completely, and s<
increases the drying time very much or causes a change of the physica
properties of the material. It is often necessary to add humidity to th<
air in ^the initial stage of drying. Lumber case-hardens, cracks, anc
warps if the outside is dried too fast. Ceramics crack if not heated through
before drying commences. Elastic materials warp while others crack ii
not evenly dried. Many paints case-harden if not dried under higt
humidity.
On the other hand, in the case of those materials whose physical 01
chemical properties require that they be dried at relatively low tem-
peratures high humidity tends to retard drying in the first stage and may
even stop it altogether in the final stage. Where drying temperatures
652
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
below 120 to 140 F are used the drying rate may be highly dependent on
atmospheric humidity conditions. In such instances it is often desirable
to dehumidify the air entering the drier during periods of high atmos-
pheric humidity; where a high degree of uniformity is required it is often
possible to secure complete independence of atmospheric conditions by
recirculating the air in a closed system which includes a suitable dehu-
midifier. For this purpose absorptive dehumidifying systems have the
advantage of accomplishing the desired reduction of humidity without
appreciably elevating or lowering the dry-bulb temperature of the air;
for this reason after-cooling is not required, and reheating is reduced to a
minimum. Complete descriptions, of such dehumidifying systems are
given in Chapter 24 on Cooling and Dehumidification Methods.
Air Circulation
As noted under Mechanism of Drying, air velocity is more important
in the first two stages of drying than in the last, and for this reason zone
drying in continuous driers is frequently considered. It permits accurate
regulation of temperature, humidity, and velocity in the different zones.
High velocity results in more rapid drying, more even distribution of
temperature and consequently more even drying in the first period. Too
high a velocity may be detrimental because of excessive power needed for
creating it, or because the material may blow away if it is light and fluffy.
In the drying of paints, varnishes, and enamels, high velocity or improper
distribution of the air even with the use of filters, may cause dust already
in the drier, to be blown .against the material, ruining the finish. Table 3
presents data on drying of various materials.
EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING
Equipment for drying may be divided into the following classes:
1. Heat and humidity supply.
2. Methods of handling.
3. Ovens.
The heat and humidity supply for low temperature work up to 250 F
is often steam; steam coils either in the oven or outside, heat the air used
for drying. Circulation of heated oil is used to a limited extent, but the
danger of leaks is serious, for if the oil is hotter than the flash point, a
fire may start if the oil is released to the atmosphere. In many cases where
steam is not available, direct or indirect fired heaters are used with gas or
oil as fuel. Indirect heaters should be carefully selected from a standpoint
of long life and efficiency. The heat exchange surface should be adequate
in area and easily accessible for cleaning and removal. For extremely
high temperatures, alloy surface may be used. With direct-fired equip-
ment care must be used in the selection of burners and sufficient com-
bustion space allowed to insure complete combustion of fuel. Humidity
can be obtained in driers by the use of steam spray, humidifiers, or
recirculation.
Methods of handling of material have been indicated in Table 1.
For low temperature work up to 200 F ovens and driers are commonly
built of two thicknesses of insulating board (fireproof preferred), with air
space between. As the temperature increases materials better able to
653
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HIV AUQ 81 d3d UOdtfA H3JVM 81 'AliaiWflH
3 2 8 S 3
o o o o o o
654
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
withstand the heat must be used. Metal lined ovens are easy to keep
clean, and many high temperature driers up to 1000 F are made of metal
panels with insulation between. Care should be taken to avoid through
metal (metal extending through the oven from inside to out). Batch type
ovens are entirely closed while in use and control of air leakage is easily
taken care of. In the continuous drier where the ends are open, heat and
air leakage becomes important. Warm air leaking out of the ends oJ
ovens means a heat loss, and often the temperature and humidity outside
the oven becomes unbearable. For this reason, inclined or bottom entrj
ovens are used, as the warm air leakage can be more easily controlled
See Figs. 5 and 6.
X_/^*" Dip unk
FIG. 5. SMALL PART MULTIPLE PASS OVEN FIG. 6. INCLINED END ENAMELING OVEJ
HUMIDITY CHART FOR DRYING WORK
In drying problems the chemical engineer uses different psychrpmetr:
values than those used by the heating, ventilating and air conditions
engineer. The humidity chart illustrated in Fig. 4 is based upon valu<
determined from the following explanations:
Humidity (//) is the number of pounds of water vapor carried by or
pound of dry air.
Percentage Humidity (%J/) is the number of pounds of water vap<
carried by one pound of dry air at a definite temperature, divided by tl
number of pounds of vapor that one pound of dry air would carry if
were completely saturated at the same temperature,
Per Cent Relative Humidity ($) is the ratio of weight of water vap
contained in any given volume of air, to the weight of water vapor prese
in the same volume of saturated air, all values referring to the sar
temperature.
To convert from one relation to the other,
where
29.92 -
20,92 -
X <!>
p* » vapor pressure of water, inches mercury; at dry-bulb temperature, degr
Fahrenheit.
p *» <!> p+
COMBUSTION
Where products of combustion arc used directly in the oven, a knc
ledge of their formation and heat values is important. The properties
655
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. DRYING TIME AND CONDITIONS FOR REPRESENTATIVE MATERIALS*
MATERIAL
TEMPERATURE
DEGF
PER CENT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITT
DRYING
TIME
140-180
6Hrs
200
2.5 Hrs
Tin no no "P*r»rtH X<^ 1T1 TTIlipk^ - ---
140
4-6 Hrs
Barrels
300
15Min
140
18 Hrs
Rorlrlincr
150-190
Blankets —
120
40Min
325
12 Min
Brick continuous - -
350 to 90
24 Hrs
1100
108 Min
150
4.5 Hrs
Candied Peel
165
2 Hrs
Casein
180
5 Hrs
Cereals
110-150
Ceramics before firing
150
70 to 20
24 Hrs
Chicle
95-100
170-210
10 Hrs
Cocoanut
150-200
4-6 Hrs
Coffee
160-180
24 Hrs
400 Max
2 Hrs
Cores, Oil sand for molding. J^— 1 in. thick
Black sand with goulic binder f j* |n' jfc^
about 0.6 of time.... {J £ ffig
Cores Crank case (in continuous ovens)
300
480
480
700
525-600
30 Min
2. 5 Hrs
4.5 Hrs
10 Hrs
2-3 Hrs
Cores Radiator (in continuous ovens)
275-450
1.5 Hrs
Cornstalk Board
150
2 Hrs
Cotton Linters,
180
Enamels synthetic.
Finish coat on autos
225
2 Hrs +
Ice boxes all metal (white)
290-425
Air Dry
IHr
Ice boxes wood inside (white)
225
3 Hrs
Enamel not synthetic. - - -
Fence posts green
200
1 Hr
Golf balls (white)
90-95
40-50
18-30 Hrs
Small parts (auto) black
450
1 Hr
Steel furniture
225-300
30-350 Min
License plates
250
1.5 Hrs
Feathers
150-180
Films, Photographic
85-110
20-30 Min
Fruits and Vegetables
140
2-6
Furs _ . ....
110
Gelatin.. .
110
Glue bone, thin sheets on wire trays
70-90
6-9 Days
Glue skin
70-90
2 Days
Glue size on furniture
130
4 Hrs
Gut
150
Gypsum board H in. thick { Fin^^
Gypsum block .
350
275
350-190
60 Min
8-16 Mrs
Hair felt
180-200
Hair goods
150-190
1 Hr
Hanks on poles
120
2 Hrs
Hats felt
140-180
Hides thin leather
90
2-4 Hrs
Hides heavy
70-90
4-6 Days
•See references at end of chapter.
656
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
TABLE 3. DRYING TIME AND CONDITIONS FOR REPRESENTATIVE MATERIALS**— Con.
MATERIAL
TEMPERATURE
DEGF
PUR CENT
RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
DRYING
TIME
Hops
320-180
[nk printing
70-300
[apan beds
300
1 5-2 Hrs
fapan cash register
300-450
1.5 Hrs
[apan metal shelving
200
30 Min
Knitted fabrics
140-180
Leather mulling
78-95
85
Leather thick sole
90
70
4 Days
Leather uppers
80
2-3 Days
Linoleum varnish
110-145
10-30
6-10 Hrs
Lithographing on tin color work. .
250-270
1&-25 Min
Lithographing on tin Japan.
350
Lumber green hardwood
100-180
3-180 Days
-umber green soft wood
160-220
2-14 Days
Macaroni
90-110
7,5-8 Hrs
Vlatchcs „.,.„
140-180
Vlatrix ,
350
15 Min
Vlilk and other liquid foods spray dried
135-300
Instantaneous
Millboard sheets
95
10 Hrs
Moulds green sand C.I. flasks (onef 8 in, thick
surface only exposed) , \ 13 in. thick
600
700
6 Hrs
13 Hrs
Motors, field coils . ....
180
6 Hrs
Motors, stators ,
250
6.5 Hrs
Sf oodles .
90-95
Sluts .
75-140
24 Hrs
")il doth...,
150
*aint, wood wheels
150
35
8-24 Hrs
7aint, on sheet metal ....
350-140
22-30
2.5 Hrs
'uper, machine dried..
180
*aper, air dried
90-200
*« i per wall, ground coat .. ,
140
3 Min
*ap<ir wall, varnished
140-100
45
15 Min
'iipcr cardboard, spirit varnish ,
150
1-2 Min
'caches.......
135
26 Hrs
Van* .
140
24 Hrs
*cafl . , . . , . . ,
*otutocB sliced - ,
350
85
OHrs
4 Hrs
*otatoes steamed ... . .
170
6.5 Hrs
'runes .
<;IKS,,,., , , . .
<amie fiber , , . . ......
<ice
<(ock wool insulation , , . . . . .
{libber . ,
{ublwr reclaimed..
<t»KH
Jiilt . . . .. .
and loose 1 in. deep . ,. ..
kuiMitKti raBiiiKH .
lhad« cloth
ihirt.t , .
loap ,
larch ,., . .
Itoolc feed mixed ,
>torugc buttery plates
mgar
140
1HO
140
150
300
85-90
140-200
190
350
3(K)
no
240
120
100-125
ISO 200
1KO-220
100-110
250
150 -200
00 for
Low for
10 Hrs
8 lira
0-12 Hrs
1-2 Firs
4-8 I Irs
Rotary Drier
10-15 Min
5 Hrs
1-2 Hrs
20 Min
12-72 Hrs
1-4 Hrs
20-30 Min
24 Hrs
0 Hrs
20-30 Min
»'r<*nr«*» ut en<l of duiptcr,
057
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 3. DRYING TIME AND CONDITIONS FOR REPRESENTATIVE MATERIALS3 — Con,
MATERIAL
TEMPERATURE
DuoF
PER CENT
RELATIVE
HUMIDIT
DRYING
TIME
Tanin and other chemicals (spray dried)
Terra Cotta (air drying in conditioned room)..
Tobacco leaves
Tobacco stems.
250-300
150-200
85-130
180-200
Instantaneous
12-96 Hrs
12Hrs
12 Hrs
Varnish refrigerator boxes
110
35
5-7 Hrs
Varnish steering wheels
Veneer J^ in. 3-ply
110-140
120-130
25-35
35-40
Overnight
6-8 Hrs H- 2
•'•Ke in. 5-ply.
120-130
35^40
Hrs acclima-
tion
16-18 Hrs + 4
1J4 in. 5-ply,
120-130
3fy_4.ft
Hrs acclima-
tion
OA_O4 IJrc J_ A
Vitreous Enamel sheets before firing...
Wallboard pasted plywood
170
300
Hrs acclima-
tion
1 f"v__ofl ]\/r:n
Wallboard fiber insulating, roller type drier
Wallboard fiber insulating, truck type drier
Walnuts
300-385
300-385
100
2J4-3 Hrs
24-48 Hrs
94 Wr-o
Wheat, corn, oats, rice, barley
Wire cloth Japan
Wool
180
200
105
20Min
the common constituents of fuel are shown in Table 4. The heating values
of oils are shown in Fig. 7. The sensible heat in Btu contained in the
products of combustion of an average fuel oil and various gases is given
^ *?; • Problem of securing complete combustion in a heater is
important, in order to secure efficiency and the absence of soot formation,
but unlike the ordinary power or heating boiler, excess air need not be
SKlfff?^ * ?' T"? in mt°St Ca2es' Excess air is generally admitted
either in the heater or before the products go into the drier.
DESIGN
m,vL? ' dT£g S^Ti data reSardinS temperatures, time, and hu-
rS?. T .C ob*Mned.b3r experiment or previous experience Experi-
ments are best performed at the temperatures, humidities, and velocities
to be actually used in the full sized drier, and with full size samples
in
humidity of air, pounds of water vapor per pound of dry air
pounds of dry air supplied to the drier per unit of time.
pounds of stock dried per unit of time in a continuous drier.
pounds of stock charged per batch to a discontinuous drier
B
G
A
i
W = time.
Q = total heat supplied to the drier.
658
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
t = air temperature.
P = stock temperature.
*" » average stock temperature over short time interval, in a batch drier.
/w « wet-bulb temperature.
s] = specific heat of the stock.
B — total radiation and conduction losses per unit time.
w = pounds of water per pound of dry stock.
r = heat of evaporation of water,
5 « humid heat of air, i.e., heat necessary to raise 1 Ib of dry air + H Ib of steam
Subscript (1) designates conditions at the point where the material in question (air
or stock) enters and (2) where it leaves the drier.
Air driers may be divided into two classes, those in which all moisture
evaporated from the stock leaves the drier as vapor in the effluent air, and
those in which part or all of the moisture is condensed from the air in the
drying equipment itself. In any continuously operating drier of the first
type the relation between moisture content of the stock and quantity of
air required for the drying operation is given by the equation:
G (H2 - Hi) «
(2)
TABLE 4. GAS COMBUSTION CONSTANTS1
GAB
OfS
c:
//»
03
tf«
MOLZCULAB 1
WEIGHT i
CtiFr
MBRLB
HXA.T or
COUBTIBTION
LBS PER LB or COMBUSTIBLE
Btu per Lb
Required for Combustion
Flue Products
Gross
Net
Os
IT»
-Air
C0»
F«0
^*
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxyjj<-n
12.000
ii.015
:W.QOO
14.140
1-1,140
2.007
8.873
11.540
3.007
8.873
1K7.72«
11.819
OUOO
5M43
7.030
20.414
34.353
8.039
26.414
Nitrogen
2H.OKJ
13.443
Carbon
Monoxide
Carbon
Dioxide
CO
28.000
13,5Qfl
4,300
4,360
0.571
1.000
2.471
1.571
4P
1.900
ah
r//4
-M.OOO
8.5«i8
2a.505
,.,., „.
,...
„.
„.
...„,
Mctlume
i«,o;u
2»,0ia
21,533
3,002
13.282
17.274
2,745
2.248
13.282
Kthimo
, .„
PmiKinr
Sulphur
Dioxide
Of/ft
<V1*
.SY>3
//lO
rui.oirt
•ti.oni*
fH.O(K)
IK.OI5
I2.4flf»
H,;i(55
Ji,770
22,215
21,504
20,,'il2
3,728
3.031
12.404
10.132
2.01>0
1.700
12.404
i(,>,8:n
12.081
15.712
2.906
1.035
12.081
Wat<-r Vapor
21,017
13,OfJ3
—
Air
28.000
•All tfuf volume corrected to flO F and IiO In, mercury barometric pressure dry.
059
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
In discontinuous driers, e.g., compartment driers, the drying operation
is given by the equation:
G CH, -
5' -
(2a)
In the continuous drier, the heat consumption per unit time is :
-J- - Gufa - ft) + G(rz + 4 - *y (H. - Hi) + W, - <'i) (Jr + «ri) + B (3)
Equation (3) assumes continuity of operation. For charge or batch
operations, the total time of the drying cycle may be broken up into a
number of periods, sufficiently short so that over each period average
150,000
140,000
3
\
N
V
Approximate tamperature far atomirmg oil
^
\
DagBa' 1
14
21.4
25.CI30
1 34.7 f 39 7 1 45
90.
r
>
^
D«gF
200
160
140 [120
100 1 80 1 75
7(1)
\
/
'
•
\
^
^
-
\
/•
f
\
/
^x
9,000
/
X
^
x
^
\
/
f
\
x
\
^x
r
X
-"*
1'° °'9 SPECIFIC GRAVITY °'B
0
•*
DEGREES BAUME' (
FIG. 7. HEATING VALUES OF FUEL OIL, B.TU GROSS
values of t, f and H may be employed provided the third term of the
right hand member of the equation is modified to read :
and in the second term t\ be replaced by
ft + ft
2
Theoretically these periods should be very short and the equation
integrated. Practically the error introduced by using a small number of
long periods and employing average values of the variables over each
rarely introduces serious error. The evaluation of equation (2a) may be
approximated in a similar manner.
The first term of the right hand member of equation (3) represents heat
lost as sensible heat in the effluent air. In many drying operations this
becomes excessive. Each pound of air supplied should remove the maxi-
mum amount of moisture. This is best accomplished by bringing the air
660
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
into contact with the stock with sufficient intimacy so that the air leaving
the drier is saturated, or nearly so. Counter-current as against parallel
flow oi air and stock gives rise to optimum operating conditions, resulting
in a minimum quantity of air required (G), and a corresponding minimum
loss, as sensible heat, in the exit air. Similarly, continuous operation is
superior to intermittent operation.
a Despite the fact that the sensible heat loss increases with the rise
m temperature ^ of the air, the percentage of heat lost from this source
decreases, provided the increase in moisture carrying capacity of the air,
100
90
3
0 41
3
6
TE*
0
m
8
:RA
0 ]
FURE, D£(
00
5FAH
2(
^
X)
3f
K> 4T
K)
fif
X)
2000
1000
900 o
800 §
700 £
80
70
^~
"7^
?^-
60
50
40
30
/
/
^
/
/
^
^
/
/
M
X
"\
' V
V
c
urve noted for fuel oil
for perfect products o1
•nbustion per 1 Ib pro*
s
w
/
CO
ucts
10
f
'I
//A
/
<
i
i
^
i
/
/
J
b^-F
uel
oil
5!
/
f
y
$
S
*%
,
1
m
f
y
S/s
I
I
Wt
t
y^
^s
1
A
/
py
N »
/
Y
D2 ~
4
1
It
v~
.
^
400^
300
200
1 ll
7
/
r^
^
^
ft
/
'
//
^
2
III
^
s
///
1 /
/
4
v/
/
/
d
\
V
/
/
d
4
'/
100 200 300 400 600 800 1000 2000 4000 6000 10,000
TEMPERATURE, DEG FAHR
FIG. 8. HEAT CONTENT OF GASES ABOVE 32 F IN BTU PER POUND
due to high temperature, is actually utilized. To secure maximum
thermal efficiency in drying, a high drying temperature and high satura-
tion of the outlet air is imperative.
Ventilation Phase
The technique of attack of the ventilation phase of a drying problem is
best made clear by an illustration. Assume that a material containing
40 per cent moisture is to be dried until this quantity of moisture is
reduced to 5 per cent by weight. The material will stand an air tempera-
ture of 150 F and it is possible to provide sufficiently good contact
between the material and the drykig air so that the effluent air can be
661
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
brought up to SO per cent humidity at 150 F. The drier is to use room
7nrV je^perature and humidity of which may be assumed to average
7U b and 50 per cent. A counter-current drier will be employed and the
f/n1^ K 1Sudner wi!' be ke^ at a substantially constant temperature of
l&U * by heaters thermostatically controlled. The stock enters at 70 F
rises quickly to the wet-bulb temperature of the air, with which it is in'
0.008 HI
W2'0.0527
W-POUNDS OF WATER PER POUND DRY STOCK
FIG. 9. TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY RELATIONS IN A DRIER
40 60" 80 100-
TIME, MINUTES 1W
FIG. 10. CORE DRYING T!ME TEMPERATURE RELATIONS
Vent 33 J per cent at 422 F
Retaliation 66$ per cent
«J422 F-Y Ib
825 F
Excess air for combustion
Xlbat70F
15 Ib product of perfect
combustion per pound fuel
A ID at /u r
»«. 11. Coa. DRV,™ Duo^, „ Co»TOSBO1,
dePresaion'
«*^ouuic UUULCIIL nas laiien to 2(
temperature rises progressively as it dries
temperature between stock and air, divided by
may DC assumed proportional to the moisture content **"«»wii,
.s The moisture content of the entering stock, in the un/ts here employed,
TO! a _ 40 Per cent water
60 per cent dry stock ~~ °'6667: w*
662
_5 per cent water
"*> per cent dry stock " °-0527
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
wi - wa = A w = O.CH Ib water evaporated per pound of dry stock. Since the air
leaving the drier is 50 per cent saturated at 150 F from Fig. 4, H2 ~ 0.105. Similarly,
Hi = 0.008, corresponding to 50 per cent humidity at 70 F. Consequently H2 — Hi =
A H = 0.097 Ib water evaporated per pound dry air.
Inspection of equation (2) shows that (H) is linear in w. Hence, one
can construct on Fig. 9, the line marked (H) being drawn connecting the
initial and final points just computed.
Since the air leaving the drier has a temperature of 150 F and a
humidity of 0.105, Fig. 4 shows that its wet-bulb temperature is 129 F.
This is plotted at the right hand side of Fig. 9. Since the stock maintains
a wet-bulb temperature down to 20 per cent moisture, where w = 0.25,
the corresponding humidity can be computed by the use of equation (2)
or by reading directly from the diagram, the value being 0.0392. Fig. 4
shows that the corresponding wet-bulb temperature is 105 F. Any
intermediate point on the wet-bulb temperature curve can be calculated
similarly. The points for w — 0.5 are shown in Fig. 9.
Below the point, w = 0.25, the temperature of the stock begins to rise
appreciably _above the wet-bulb temperature. Its temperature at any
given point in this range, for example at w — 0.15, may be computed as
follows: At this point, H — 0.0234 (from equation (2)) and from Fig. 4,
tw » 95 F. Hence the wet-bulb depression, t - fe = 150 — 95 = 55 F.
The assumption made regarding the relation between stock temperature
and moisture content in this range may be formulated:
A *' „ w
r-"i "" 0.25
At the point w = 0.15, A/1 = 33 F, £ = 117 F. The temperature of the
stock leaving the drier, similarly computed, is 136 F.
Fig. 9 thus computed gives in graphical form the information as to the
temperature humidity relationships in the drier. The air requirements
can be computed by equation (2). Thus, per 100 Ib of dry stock, it is
necessary to supply 633 Ib of dry air. Furthermore, since from Fig. 4
it is seen that the volume of 50 per cent saturated air at 70 F, is 13.55 cu ft
per pound; 8580 cu ft of room air must be supplied per 100 Ib dry stock.
Similarly, since the volume of 50 per cent saturated air at 150 F is 18.0
cu ft per pound, the volume of hot wet air discharged from the drier is
11 ,400 cu ft per 100 Ib of dry stock. Finally, the heat necessary to supply
to the drier, as a whole, or to any section of itT may be computed from
equation (3).
High Temperature Drier
In the design of a high temperature drier unit a method of approach
to the necessary calculations involved are outlined as follows:
Example L CorcH 4 and f> in. thick are to be dried by heating to a temperature at
400 F. An intermittent type box oven ia to be used, size 12 x 14 x 10 ft with 856 sq ft
surface having an average heat tranfifer of 0,3 Btu per square foot per decree per hour.
Drying time a« determined by test is 2 hr (Fig. 10). Cores weighing 6 tons, and 15-ton
steel plates, trucks etc, are delivered to the drier at 70 F. The oven is heated by an
external heater; the products of combustion and 6ft% per cent recirculated air will be
delivered to the oven at 825 F. Fuel oil of 19,080 Btu gross and 18,830 Btu per pound
net heating value, weighing 0,75 Ib per gallon and having 15 Ib product per pound fuel
663
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
for perfect combustion. Cores consist of 91 per cent sand, 3 per cent oil binder, and
6 per cent water.
Solution. Heat required per ton of cores:
Lb Material X Temp. Rise X Sp. Ht. = Btu
Sand 0.91 X 2,000 X (400 - 70) X 0.2 - 120,120
Binder 0.03 X 2,000 X (400 - 70) X 0.4 - 7,920
Water heating. 0.06 X 2,000 X (212 - 70) X 1.0 = 17,040
Water evaporation 0.06 X 2,000 X 970 (Fig. 4) - 116,520
Water superheating (approx. 50 per cent reaches 575 F)
==0.5 X 0.06 X 2,000 X (575 - 212) X 0.45 « 9,800
Total Heat 271,400 Btu
HEATING LOAD FIRST HOUR
HEATED TO RTU
Sand— 212 F ~| X 120,120 « 51,688
ooU
Binder* 212 F ~| X 7,920 - 3,408
Water. 212 F « 17,040
Evaporation 66.7% 0.667 X 116,520 = 77,680
Superheat 66.7% 0.667 X 9,800 * 6,530
Total Per Ton 156,340
For 6 ton 6X156,346 «= 938,070
Steel plates 390 F 320 X 30,000 X 0.12 « 1,152,000
Radiation* 422 F Avg. 352 X 856 X 0.30 « 90,394
Total— 2,180,470
HEATING LOAD SECOND HOUR
Sand.
Bindera
Water.
Evaporation
Superheat
400 F
400 F
33.3%
33.3%
~ X 120,120
|| X 7,920
0.333 X 116,520
0.333 X 9,800
68,432
4,512
38,840
3,270
Total Per Ton 115,054
For 6 ton..
Steel plates
Radiation*5
460
575
6 X 115,054
70 X 30,000 X OJ2
505 X 856 X 0.30
Total..
« 090,324
--- 2,72,000
» 129,084
.... 1,072,008
aBinder oxidizes and liberates heat, which is neglected in this calculation.
. ^Average value of coefficient is less than 0.3 because oven is not up to 575 F. This is neglected. 422 F
is arrived at by taking area under curve as compared to area under 575 F ordinate.
664
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
Heat in 1 Ib fuel oil = 18,830 Btu
Heater Loss (10 per cent) = 1883
Duct Loss (5 per cent) = 942 2,825 Btu
16,005 Btu available to heat oven.
Heat content of gases in 1 Ib fuel oil at 825 F is 205 Btu (Fig. 8)
15 Ib X 205 - 3,075 Btu sensible heat in products
of perfect combustion.
12,930 Btu to heat air X and F
(Fig. 11).
V (.S«i - .S'aa) + -Y (Sm - .STO) = 12930 (4)
r ~ 2 (A" -4- 15) for 05.7 per cent recirculation.
where
S - heat content of air at temperature noted taken from Fig. 8
(Kecirculation and exhaust contains water vapor, products of combustion, and a
greater portion of air. Heat capacities of all vary so little that they have all been
assumed to be air).
Sm - .V« =190-01 =99
•Via* ~ $n « IttO - 8.6 « 18 L. 4
Substituting values of Y, II, etc. in liquation 4,
(2 A" + 30) 99 + 181.4 X = 12,930
A" • 20,3 Ib excess air.
r — • 82.0 Ib recirculating air.
Total • • 20.3 + 82.0 -}- 15 ~ 123.9 Ib air and products of combustion circulated per
pound fuel burned.
Heat in air exhausted from oven at 422 F per pound fuel burned « 0.333 X 123.9
X (.S'«a - .Vf») - 41.3 (91 - 8.0) - 3,400 Btu.
Btu available for heating material « 16,005 — 3,400 « 12,005 Btu per pound fuel.
Fuel used in first hour 2,180,470 •:- 12,605 « 173 Ib - 25,0 gal.
During the second hour the heater capacity will be much greater than required. If
an automatic oven temperature control operates on the oil supply, the delivery tem-
perature of thfc air entering the oven and the quantity of oil burned will decrease, the air
supply being constant,
Heat in air exhaust CM 1 41.3 (»V«» - .S'n) 41.3 (127 - 8.0) - 4880 Btu per pound
fuel.
Heat available for hutting material - • 10,005 - 4HXO « 11,125 Btu.
Fuel used iu xcc-ontl hour 1,()72,(K)8 -:- 1 1,125 ^ 90.5 Ib oil » 14.3 gal.
Total oil used per load 25.0 | 14.3 39.9 gal.
ESTIMATING METHODS
Values based on prarti<*al e5cp<Ti(»n<%(» arc available! for rough estimating
of drying problems. Tin* temperature will drop approximately 8.«r> F per
grain of water evaporated per cubic foot of air (measured at 70 I*') or
approximately (Ui*J F per pound of air at any temperature. Air will drop
f>f> V per cubic foot for each Btu extracted. Generally air will absorb
from *J grains to 5 grains per cubic foot of air in one passage through an
air drier, depending on the temperature and the degree of contact: with
the material. The amount of steam required to evaporate a pound of
water will vary from 1.5 Ib to a more usual figure of from 2.f> to 3 Ib of
steam per pound of water evaporated,
605
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
REFERENCES
Commercial Drying Apparatus, by L. P. Dwyer (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 22,
1916, p. 479).
Artificial Drying with Special Reference to the Use of Gas, by G. C. Shadwell (A.S.H.
V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 23, 1917, p. 231).
Drying by Evaporation, by F. R. Still (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 23, 1917,
p. 255).
High Temperature Drying, by Burt S. Harrison (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 24,
1918, p. 7).
The Temperature of Evaporation, by W. H. Carrier (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 24, 1918, p. 25).
Commercial Dehydration, by J. E. Whitley (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 26,
1920, p. 551).
Drying as an Air Conditioning Problem, by A. W. Lissauer (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 27, 1921, p. 251).
A Chronological Survey of Drying and Driers, by J. E. Boiling (A.S.H.V.E. JOURNAL,
SECTION, October, 1921, p. 715).
Calculations for Drying Design, by Grosvenor (Transactions, American Institute
Chemical Engineering, 1908, p. 184).
The Rate of Drying Solid Materials, by J. Lewis (Industrial Engineering Chemistry,
1921, p. 427).
Adiabatic Drying of Hygroscopic Solids, by A. M. McCready, and W. L. McCale
(Transactions t American Institute Chemical Engineers, 1933).
Lignite Drier, by La vine & Sutherland (Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering,
July, 1929).
Enameling Oven Economy, by B. S. Harrison (Fuels & Furnaces, February, 1931).
Powdered Yeast Prepared by Spray Drying, by A. W. Farrell (Food Industry,
December, 1931).
Factors that Influence Drier Performance, by A. Weisselberg (Chemical and Metallur-
gical Engineering, August, 1932).
Principles of Drying Lumber and Humidity Diagram, by H. D. Tiemann (Forest
Service Bulletin 104, 1912). .
Symposium on Drying. Articles by W. K. Lewis, W. H. Carrier, A. E. Staccy and
Fleming, R. G. Metz, G. B. Ridley, C. O. Lavett, D. J. Van Marie (Journal Industrial
Engineering Chemistry, May, 1921).
The Drying of Solids, by T. K. Sherwood (Bulletin Massachusetts Institute Technology,
Air Conditioning and Engineering, American Blower Co.
Combustion (American Gas Association, 3rd edition, 1932).
Die Trockentechnik, by M, Hirsch (Julius Springer, Berlin, 1932).
5\ying (Kmf*> MechanKti Engineers Handbook, 10th edition, 1923; llth edition,
Drying, by W. H. Carrier (Murks', Mechanical Engineers Handbook, 3rd edition, 1930).
Drying, by Perry (Chemical Engineers Handbook, 1934).
Drying by Means of Air and Steam, by E. Hausbrand (D. Van Nostrand & Co,, 1901 ).
Drying in Industrial Plants, by J. 0. Ross.
Elements of Chemical Engineering, by Badger and McCabe (McGraw UHl Co., 1031)
Fan Engineering, Buffalo Forge Co.
Fuels and Their Combustion, by Haslam and Russell (McGraw Hill Co., 1926).
Heat Transmission, by W. H. McAdams (McGraw Hill Co., 1933).
Modern Drying Machinery, by H. B. Grenshaw, London, 1926.
Ev^Slf8 w C^?ical Engineering, by Walker, Lewis, McAdams (Chapters on
Evaporation, Humidity and Drying, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Co.). -yww* on
The Kiln Drying of Lumber, by A. Koehler and R. Thelen, New York 1926
The Kiln Drying of Lumber, by H. D. Tiemann (Lippincott, 1920).
666
CHAPTER 35. DRYING SYSTEMS
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What makes a commercial adiabatic drier differ from a theoretical one?
The word adiabatic means no heat lost to the outside and that the sensible heat lost by
the air is equal to the latent heat of the water evaporated. In an actual drier, the solid
containing the water, and the water itself must be heated to the temperature of evapora-
tion, before evaporation^ can begin. Radiation losses from the drier enclosure is the
other factor causing deviation from the theoretical adiabatic process.
2 • What IH a zone drier?
This term refers to a continuous drier where the drying medium is divided into two or
more sections, in order to have better control of the temperature and humidity gradients
through the drier, and often different velocities.
3 • If a material enters a drier containing 70 per cent water and 30 per cent
fiolidn, and leaves the drier with 10 per cent water and 90 per cent solids, (a)
What i« the evaporation per pound of dried product? (h) What is the evapora-
tion per pound of bone dry material?
00
a. -OA — 1 *-• 2 Ib water per pound dried product.
oU
b. Water entering ~ •„•= «* 233 per cent on bone dry basis.
Water leaving = ^ « 1 1 per cent on hone dry basis.
Water evaporated 222 per cent on bone dry basis.
Evaporation =•• 2.22 Ib water per pound bone dry material.
4 • What ilemrt muwl he included in a calculation of the drier heat require-
a. Heating water to be evaporated from the entering temperature to the temperature of
evaporation,
b. Evaporating water to be removed.
c. Superheating evaporated water from the temperature of evaporation to the exit
temperature of the air.
d. Heating material from entering to leaving temperatures.
e. Heating residual water from the entering to the leaving temperatures.
f. Heating conveyor or other supporting materials.
#, Radiation IOHHCK through the enclosure.
h. Sensible heat in the exit air.
5 • The following comiitionH prevail in it drier; 250 Ih water evaporated per
hour. Air enter* heater at 80 V dry-bulb and f>5 F wet-hulh. Air exhauHtcd
from drier at 130 F dry-bulb and 100 F wet -bulb. Stock enter* drier at 70 F,
Htfat required for warming Htook and radiation IOHHCH arc not considered. Fan
in located ahead of heater. Find condition* of air entering and leaving drier,
volume handled by fan, and temperature of air entering drier to Hupply the
ne.coHwury heat, uwing Humidity Chart in Fig. 4.
Entering Air: Humidity, H « 0.01 Ib water vapor per pound dry air.
Dew-point »• 57 F
Per Cent Humidity, % // * 40
007
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Leaving Air: Humidity, H = 0.0355 Ib water vapor per pound dry air.
Per Cent Humidity, % H = 32
Water pick up = 0.0355 — 0.01 = 0.0255 Ib per pound bone dry air.
Bone dry air circulated per hour = 250 -s- 0.0255 = 9800 Ib.
Volume of air circulated at 80 F dry-bulb, and 46 per cent humidity
14.1 - 13.6 = 0.5 cu ft vapor (Fig. 4).
Volume =» 13.6 + (0.46 X 0.5) - 13.87 cu ft - 1 Ib dry air + vapor.
Volume handled by fan at 80 F = 980Q *Q 13'87 = 2260 cfm.
Btu received by water = (130 - 70) X 1.0 = 60
Latent heat of stearn at 130 F (Fig. 4) = 1019
Total = 1079 Btu per pound.
Heat used for evaporation per pound dry air = 1079 X 0.0255 = 27.43 Btu.
For entering air: Humidity, H = 0.01, Humid Heat = 0.2425 Btu per pound (Fig. 4)
(h — tz) X S — Btu for evaporation
ft - 130) X 0.2425 = 27.43
ti » 247 F
6 ft Given the following conditions, air 160 F dry-bulb, 49.6 per cent relative
humidity (<£), 29.92 in. Hg, barometric pressure, find the per cent H, absolute
humidity.
For 160 F, pB - 9.65 in. Hg (From Table 6, Chapter 1)
p = $ps = 0.496 X 9.65 = 4.78
29*92 - 4*78 X °'496 " °"40 or 40 per cent absolute humidity.
66S
Chapter 36
NATURAL VENTILATION
Wind Forces, Stack Effect, Openings, Windows, Doors, Sky-
lights, Roof Ventilators, Stacks, Principles of Control, General
Rules, Measurements, Dairy Barn Ventilation, Garage Ven-
tilation
VENTILATION by natural forces, supplemented in certain cases
with mechanical forces, finds extensive application in industrial
plants, public buildings, schools, dwellings, garages, and in farm buildings.
The natural forces available for the displacement of air in buildings are
the wind and the difference in temperature of the air inside and outside
the building* The arrangement and control of ventilating openings
should be such that the two forces act cooperatively and not in opposition.
Wind Forces
In considering the use of natural wind forces for the operation of a
ventilating system, account must be taken of (1) average and minimum
wind velocities, (2) wind direction, (3) seasonal, daily and hourly varia-
tions in wind velocity and direction, and (4) local wind interference by
buildings and trees.
Table 1, Chapter 8, gives values for the average summer wind velocities
and the prevailing wind directions in various localities throughout the
United States, while Table 2, Chapter 7, lists similar values for the winter.
In almost all localities the summer wind velocities are lower than those in
the winter, and in about two-thirds of the localities the prevailing direc-
tion is different during the summer and winter. While average wind
velocities are seldom below 5 mph, there are many hours in each montt
during which the wind velocity is from 3 to 5 mph, even in localities when
the seasonal average is considerably above 5 mph. There are relativelj
few places where the hourly wind velocity falls much below 3 mph foi
more than 10 daylight hours per month. Usually a natural ventilating
system should be designed to operate satisfactorily with a wind velocity
of 3 to (J mph, depending on locality.
The following formula may be used for calculating the quantity of air
forced through ventilation openings by the wind, or for determining the
proper size of such openings:
Q « KAV (1)
where
Q -"> air flow in cubic feet per minute.
A -•' free area of inlet (or outlet) opening in square feet,
V ** wind velocity in feet per minute,
i'j miles per hour X HS.
K ~- effectiveness of openings.
(/? should lie taken at from flO to M jwr wit if the inlet opening* face the wind and from 2ft to 35 per
cent if th« inlet opening* wdve the wiml
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
If outlet openings, where air leaves a building, are smaller than inlet
openings, where air enters a building, the air will be less effective than
indicated by the constant E.
The accuracy of the results obtained by the use of Formula 1 depends
upon the placing of the openings, as the formula assumes that ventilating
openings have a flow coefficient slightly greater than that of a square-edge
orifice. If the openings are not advantageously placed with respect to the
wind, the flow per unit area of the openings will be less, and if unusually
well placed, the flow will be slightly more than that given by the formula.
Inlets should be placed to face directly into the prevailing wind, while
outlets should be placed in one of the following four places:
1. On the side of the building directly opposite the direction of the prevailing wind.
2. On the roof in the low pressure area caused by the jump of the wind (see Fig. 1).
3. In a monitor on the side opposite from the wind.
4. In roof ventilators or stacks exposed to the full force of the wind1.
Forces Due to Stack Effect 2
The stack effect produced within a building is due to the difference in
weight of the warm column of air within the building and the cooler air
outside. The flow due to stack effect is proportional to the square root
of the draft head, or approximately:
Q = 9.4 A V H (t - t0) (2)
where
Q = air flow in cubic feet per minute.
A — free area of inlets or outlets (assumed equal) in square feet.
H = height from inlets to outlets, in feet.
t = average temperature of indoor air in height H, in degrees Fahrenheit.
t0 — temperature of outdoor air, in degrees Fahrenheit.
9.4 = constant of proportionality, including a value of 65 per cent for effectiveness of
openings. This should be reduced to 50 per cent (constant ~ 7.2) if conditions
are not favorable.
The height between inlets and outlets should be the maximum which
the building construction will allow.
In some cases the necessary air flow will be known from the require-
ments of the building occupancy, and the area necessary for certain
assumed temperature differences may be calculated. Or the areas may
be fixed by the building construction, and the maximum air flow for
various differences between indoor and outdoor temperatures may be
calculated. In any case, the conditions which give the minimum air flow
are those which control the design, as the system must have ample
capacity even under the most unfavorable conditions which are those of
mild or warm weather.
TYPES OF OPENINGS
The engineering problems of a natural ventilation system consist of the
design, location, and control of ventilating openings to best utilize the
Miration of Industrial Buildings, by W. C. Randall (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 34, 1928, p. 159).
2Neutral Zone in Ventilation, by J. E. Emswiler (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 32, 1926. p. 59).
Predetermining Airation of Industrial Buildings, by W. C. Randall and E. W. Conover (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 605).
670
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
natural ventilation forces, in accordance with the requirements of build-
ing occupancy. The types of openings may be classified as :
1. Windows, doors, monitor openings, and skylights.
2. Roof ventilators.
3. Stacks connecting to registers.
4. Specially designed inlet or outlet openings.
Windows, Doors and Skylights
Windows have the advantage of transmitting light, as well as providing
ventilating area when open. Their movable parts are arranged to open m
FIG 1 THE TUMP OF WIND FROM WINDWARD FACE OF BUILDING, (X— LENGTH OF
SUCTION AREA; B--POINT OF MAXIMUM INTENSITY OF SUCTION;
C— POINT OF MAXIMUM PRESSURE)
various ways; they may open by sliding as in the ordinary double-hung
windows, by tilting on horizontal pivots at or near the center, or by
swinging on pivots at the top or bottom. Whatever the form and type of
window used, the amount of clear area that can be made available IB the
factor of greatest importance in ventilation.
All types of sash (double-hung, top, center or bottom horizontal pivoted,
or vertical pivoted) have about the same air flow capacity for the same
clear area* Air leakage through dosed windows is important during high
winds (Chapter 6)*
671
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The proper distribution of air in occupied spaces is an element almost
as important as that of sufficient air quantity. Advantageous pivoting of
sash is very useful for securing good air distribution. Deflectors are some-
times used for the same purpose, and these devices should be considered a
part of the ventilation system.
Door openings are seldom included in the ventilation calculations,
though they may be of great value for extreme summer conditions, and
should be considered in this connection as well as in garage design.
Skylight and monitor openings are of importance as these and the roof
ventilators are outlets, while the lower windows are usually inlets on the
windward side and outlets on the leeward side. In general the areas of
inlets and outlets should be about equal. It is important to make a
check on this ratio in any installation, as any great excess of area of one
set of openings over another means waste opening area. The operating
devices used for sash, monitors, skylights and roof ventilators should be
well selected as poor operating devices may defeat the entire design.
Roof Ventilators
The function of a roof ventilator is to provide a storm and weather
proof air outlet, which is sensitive to wind action for producing additional
flow capacity, and at the same time is subject to manual or automatic
control by suitable dampers. The capacity of a ventilator at a constant
wind velocity and temperature difference, depends upon four things:
(1) its location on the roof, (2) the resistance it offers to air flow, (3) the
area and location of openings provided for air inflow at a lower level, and
(4) the ability of the ventilator head to utilize the kinetic energy of the
wind for inducing flow by centrifugal or ejector action. Frequently one
or more of these capacity factors is overlooked in a ventilator installation.
For maximum flow induction, a ventilator should be located on that
part of the roof which receives the full wind without interference. (See
Fig. 1.) ^ This does not mean that no ventilators are to be installed within
the suction region created by the wind jumping over the building, or in a
light court, or on a low building between two high buildings. Ventilators
are highly effective in such low-pressure areas, but their ejector action,
caused by wind velocity, is of little importance in these locations, and
hence their size should be increased proportionally.
Ventilator resistance depends on (1) type of inlet, (2) area of openings
and passages, and (3) number of turns or changes of direction of the air
flow. The inlet grille, if any, should have ample free area, and the venti-
lator should always be provided with a taper-cone inlet in order to produce
the effect of a bell-mouth nozzle (flow coefficient 0.97) rather than that of
\Sqi^u~entrance orifice (flow coefficient 0.60) . In other words, the grilles
should be oversize as compared with the ventilator, and they should be
connected by tapering collars. If the ventilator head construction
produces changes m the direction of air flow, the area of the flow passages
should be increased accordingly.
Air inlet openings at lower levels in the building are of course necessary
tor the economical use of ventilator capacity. The inlet openings should
be at least equal to, and preferably twice as great as the combined throat
areas of all roof ventilators. The air discharged by a roof ventilator
672
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
depends on wind velocity and temperature difference, but due to the four
capacity factors already mentioned, no simple formula can be devised for
expressing ventilator capacity.
Several types of roof ventilators are shown in Figs. 2 to 11. These may
be classified as stationary, Figs, 2 to 6, pivoted or oscillating, Figs. 7 to 9,
or rotating, Figs. 10 and 11. When selecting roof ventilators, some
attention should be paid to ruggedness of construction, storm-proofing
features, dampers and damper operating mechanisms, possibilities of
noise from dampers or other moving parts, and possible maintenance
costs.
It should be kept in mind that a suitable combination of roof venti-
lators with mechanical ventilation frequently offers the best solution of a
ventilating problem. The natural ventilation units may be used to sup-
plement power driven supply fans, and under favorable weather con-
ditions it may be possible to shut down the power driven units. Where
low operating costs are very important, such a combination has great
advantages. Roof ventilators with built-in electric fans are attracting
increased attention because they combine the advantages of low instal-
lation and operating cost with those of continuous service.
Controls
In connection with any combination between natural and fan venti-
lation, the controls are of importance. Both the fans and the ventilator
dampers may be controlled by some combination of three methods:
(1) hand operation, (2) thermostat operation, and (3) control by wind
velocity. The thermostat station may be located anywhere in the
building, or it may be located within the ventilator itself. The purpose of
wind velocity control is to obtain a definite volume of exhaust regardless
of the natural forces, the fan motor being energized when the natural
exhaust capacity falls below a certain minimum, and again shut off when
the wind velocity rises to the point where this minimum volume can be
supplied by natural forces.
Stacks
Stacks are really chimneys and utilize both the inductive effect of the
wind and the force of temperature difference (the so-called gravity action).
While their openings projecting above the roof are not provided with any
special construction for developing suction by the action of the wind, the
plain vertical opening is also effective in this respect. Like the roof
ventilator, the stack outlet should be located so that the wind may act
upon it from any direction.
Stacks are applicable particularly in the case of schools, apartments,
residences and small office buildings. Partitions interfere with general
air circulation, and some type of outlet from each room is necessary. If
the building is not too tall, and the requirements of occupancy are moder-
ate, a system of stacks with registers in each room may be more eco-
nomical than a system of mechanical ventilation employing fans. In
making the comparison, however, the building space occupied by the
stacks should be considered.
With little or no wind, chimney effect or temperature difference will
produce outflow through the stacks and an equal inflow through windows
073
HEATING
VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FIG. 2
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
FIG. 5 FIG. 6
FIVE COMMON TYPES OF STATIONARY VENTILATORS
FIG. 7 FIG. 8 FIG. 9
THREE TYPICAL OSCILLATING VENTILATORS
674
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
in all sides of the building. With wind, the inductive force at the top of
ventilating shafts is more powerful than that on the leeward side of the
building, so that air is drawn in through leeward openings by a combina-
tion of the forces of wind and temperature difference. On the windward
side, the direct forcing pressure of the wind is of course added to the
temperature difference effect. Thus forces are available for causing in-
flow at practically every window of such a building. Adequacy of stack
size must, of course, be provided.
PRINCIPLES OF AIR FLOW CONTROL
The air flow through a ventilation opening depends on the two factors
already discussed, namely, (1) the natural forces available, (2) the open-
ings available, and the resistance to flow offered by these openings. The
design problem includes, of course, a determination of the desired air
. Propelling bio
;. ID.
ROTATING VENTILATORS
FIG. 11.
quantity and distribution in order that the openings may be properly
placed.
The purpose of ventilation is to carry off either excess heat or air
impurities, and the desired air quantities depend upon the amount of heat
or of impurities present* The amount of heat can be determined, in the
case of forge shops for example, from the amount of fuel burned, which in
turn is based upon the production capacity for which the building is
being designed. In the case of foundries, the heat given off by the metal
in cooling from the molten state can be used. In some instances, not all
of the heat may be dissipated to the air, but a fair estimate of the amount
to he removed by the air can usually be made.
The next step is to select the temperature difference to be maintained.
Knowing the amount of heat to be removed and having selected a
desirable temperature difference, the amount of air to be passed through
the building per minute to maintain this temperature difference can be
determined by means of the following equation:
where
c »
V «
c 00 0 (i -
V
(3)
0/24 » specific heat of air.
ni>ecific volume of the air, cubic feet per pound, about 13.5. (See Chapter 1,)
075
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
H = heat to be carried off, in Btu per hour.
Q = air flow in cubic feet per minute.
t - inside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
to - outside temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
For disposing of air impurities, the required air flow must be such that
the outside air will dilute the impurities to a degree that they are no
longer objectionable. For human occupancy, such as in auditoriums and
classrooms, 10 cfm per person is usually taken as the minimum of outside
air necessary for ventilation (see Chapter 3). For garage ventilation,
sufficient air must be admitted to dilute the carbon monoxide content of
the indoor air to 1 in 10,000 (see Garage Ventilation in this Chapter).
Air quantity and quality are not the only requirements. For human
occupancy, air distribution is important. In ventilation the air distribu-
tion is almost entirely a matter of the number, the design, and the location
of inlets and outlets. In locating openings, special precautions should be
taken against the formation of dead air spaces or pockets within the zone
of occupancy (see Chapter 28).
Suggested methods for estimating the air flow due to temperature
difference alone and to wind alone have already been given. It must be
remembered that when both forces are acting together, even without
interference, the resulting air flow is not equal to the sum of the two
estimated quantities. The same openings have been assumed in both
cases, and since the resistance to flow through the openings varies ap-
proximately with the square of the velocity3, this resistance becomes a
limiting factor as the flow through the openings is increased*
Recent investigations4 show that the total flow is only 10 per cent
above the flow caused by the greater force when the two forces are nearly
equal, and this percentage decreases rapidly as one force increases above
the other. Tests on roof ventilators indicate that this is too conservative
in the direction of low total flow quantities, but there is in any case a
large judgment factor involved. The wind velocity and direction, the
outdoor temperature, or the indoor activities cannot be predicted with
certainty, and great refinement in calculations is therefore not justified.
When designing for winter conditions, an added variable is the heat lost
by direct flow through walls and windows and by infiltration.
Example 1. Assume a drop forge shop, 200 ft long, 100 ft wide, and 30 ft high. The
cubical content is 600,000 cu ft, and the height of the air outlet over that of the inlet is
22 *ftVOiI fuel of 18'000 Btu per lb is used in this sh°P at the rate of <15 &d Pcr hour
(7.75 lb per gal). ^Temperature differences are 10 F in summer and 30 F in winter, and
the wind velocity is 5 mph in summer and 8 mph in winter. What is the necessary area
for the inlets and outlets, and what is the rate of air flow through the building?
Solution. The system must be designed for the summer conditions as these are the
more severe. The heat to be removed per hour is:
H - 15 X 7.75 X 18,000 = 2,092,500 Btu.
By Equation 3, the air flow required to remove this heat with a temperature difference
or 10 deg is:
n - VH 13-5 x 2,092,500
_ Q ~ •*600-fc) " "024 X 60 X 10~
*Loc. Cit. Notes 1 and 2.
<This is true for turbulent flow only. It would be more
676
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
This is equal to 19,6 air changes per hour. The assumption is made that the average
temperature difference between indoors and outdoors is the same as the temperature rise
of the air from the inlet opening to the outlet opening. Actually, the latter difference is
larger and so the value of 19.G air changes per hour is conservative as it allows for more
cooling than is necessary for an average temperature difference of 10 deg.
If 196,172 cf m are to be circulated by the force of the temperature difference alone, the
area of opening would be, by Equation 2:
A Q 196,172
A ~ 9.4 V// ft - /oT " QA V 30 *TB= = 1>2°5 SQft-
If this area of openings were provided, a wind velocity of 5 mph, acting alone, would
produce a flow according to Equation 1, of:
Q = EA V « 0.50 X 1,205 X 5 X 88 = 265,100 cfrn.
If the inlet openings do not face the wind, but are at an angle with it. about half this
amount may be considered to flow.
A factor of judgment must now be exercised in making the selection of
the area of openings to be specified. Apparently 1205 sq ft are a very
generous allowance because either a direct wind of 5 mph or an average
temperature difference of 10 deg acting alone will more than suffice to
carry away the heat, and when the two forces are acting together, the
system may have an excess capacity of 25 per cent to 50 per cent, especially
if the outlets are made up partially of roof ventilators which employ the
force of the wind for producing a suction effect. On the other hand, the
wind may at times come from an unfavorable direction, or its velocity
may fall below 5 mph or the building construction may not permit a full
2400 sq ft of inlet window area and an equal amount of monitor or roof
ventilator outlet area. In case the two sets of openings are not equal,
their effectiveness is reduced.
From this example, it must be apparent that while formulas may
furnish a reliable guide, the final solution of a problem of natural venti-
lation requires a common sense analysis of local conditions to supplement
and to modify the dictates of the formulas.
GENERAL RULES
A^ few of the important requirements in addition to those already
outlined are:
1. Inlet openings should be \\ell distributed, and should be located on the windward
side near the bottom, while outlet openings are located on the leeward side near the top.
Outside air will then be supplied to the /one of occupancy.
t '2. Direct short circuits, between openings on two sides at a high level may dear the
air at that level without producing any appreciable ventilation at the level of occupancy.
!i. ^Roof ventilators should bo located !20 to 40 ft apart each way and preferably on
thc^ ridge of the roof. The closer spaciiigs are used when ventilating rooms with low
ceilings.
4. ^ Greatest How per square foot of total opening is obtained by using inlet and outlet
openings of nearly equal areas,
5* In an industrial building where furnaces, that give off heat and fumes, are to be
installed, it is better to locate them in the end of the building exppsckd to the prevailing
wind. The strong suction effect of the wind at the roof near the windward end will then
cooperate with temperature difference, to provide for the most active and satisfactory
removal of the heat and gas laden air.
077
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
n case it is impossible to locate furnaces in the windward end, that part of the
g in which they are to be located should be built higher than the rest, so that
nd, in splashing therefrom will create a suction. The additional height also
es the effect of temperature difference to cooperate with the wind.
n the use of monitors, windows on the windward side should usually be kept
since, if they are open, the inflow tendency of the wind counteracts the outflow
cy of temperature difference. Openings on the leeward side of the monitor result
>eration of wind and temperature difference.
n order that the force of temperature difference may operate to maximum advan-
he vertical distance between inlet and outlet openings should be as great as
e. Openings in the vicinity of the neutral zone are less effective for ventilation.
n order that temperature difference may produce a motive force, there must be
lc distance between openings. That is, if there are a number of openings available
lilding, but all are at the same level, there will be no motive head produced by
ature difference, no matter how great that difference might be.
In the design of window ventilated buildings, where the direction of the wind is
:onstant and dependable, the orientation of the building together with amount
Duping of ventilation openings can be readily arranged to take full advantage of
'ce _of the wind. On the other hand, where the direction of the wind is quite
e, it may be stated as a general principle that windows should be arranged in
Us and monitors so that there will be approximately equal area on all sides.
10 matter what the wind 's direction, there will always be some openings directly
i to the pressure force of the wind, and others opposed to a suction force, and
re movement through the building will be assured.
The intensity of suction or the vacuum produced by the jump of the wind is
t just back of the building face. The area of suction does not vary with the wind
YJ but the flow due to suction is directly proportional to wind velocity.
Openings much larger than the calculated areas are sometimes desirable, especially
hanges in occupancy are possible, or to provide for extremely hot days. In the
case, free openings should be located at the level of occupancy for psychological
i.
Special consideration should be given to the possibility of sidewall or monitor
/s being closed on account of weather conditions. Such possibilities favor roof
tors and specially designed stormproof inlets.
MEASUREMENT OF NATURAL AIR FLOW
* determination of the performance of any ventilating system
res measurements which are not easy to make. The difficulties are
.sed in ^the case of natural ventilation, since the motive forces and
r velocities are very small. The measurements necessary for giving
•parity of a system are (1) velocity of the wind, (2) velocity of the
rough inlet and outlet openings, (3) outdoor air temperature, and
erage indoor air temperature.
isuring Wind Velocity. The cup-type of anemometer as used for
ler Bureau observations is sufficiently accurate for this measure-
Some more accurate instruments as well as direct-reading types
^een^ developed for airport service, but for ventilation work it is the
£e wind velocity over a long period which determines the capacity of
stem. Hence the use of the Weather Bureau instrument, with an
Cation period of one hour or more, is satisfactory. If observations
id direction are required, these should be taken by observing a
ve weather vane at frequent intervals (about every 5 minutes)
: the same period.
icity of Air Through Openings. The vane type anemometer is the
practical instrument for this measurement.
678
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
Use a small (4 in.) low-speed anemometer, and correct all readings
according to a recent calibration. Mount the anemometer in a strap iron
clamp with a long handle for convenience, Divide each opening into
5 in. squares (by string or wire) and hold the anemometer in the center of
each square for a definite period of from 15 to 30 seconds. Record the
result of the traverse as soon as completed and start another one im-
mediately. A series of traverses over a period of one hour, or the full
period covered by the wind velocity observations with a fairly steady
wind, may be considered a satisfactory test for that wind velocity. It is
preferable to have an anemometer observer at each opening. If the
opening is covered by a grille or register, use the proper correction factors
(see Chapter 44).
Outdoor Temperature. It is easy to make an error of 1 to 5 deg in
observing the outdoor air temperature. An accurate thermometer,
calibrated in 1 deg divisions should be used. The thermometer should be
mounted in the shade at about mid-height of the building and not too
near the building wall or adjacent to an air outlet. The heat from a wall
or roof which has been exposed to the sun is easily transmitted to a
thermometer, with resulting high readings.
Average Indoor Temperature. It is important to note that the capacity
of an opening (such as roof ventilator) does not depend on the difference
in the temperatures measured adjacent to the opening. It depends
rather on the difference between the average temperature of the column
of air inside the building and that outside. Indoor temperatures should
therefore be observed at various heights to secure a good average.
DAIRY BARN VENTILATION 5
A successful burn ventilating system is one which continuously supplies
the proper amount of air required by the stock, with proper distribution
and without drafts, juid one which removes the excessive heat, moisture,
and odors, and maintains the air at a proper temperature, relative
humidity, and degree of cleanliness.
Barn temperatures below freezing and above 80 F affect milk produc-
tion. Milk producing stock should be kept in a barn temperature be-
tween 45 and 50 F. I )ry stock, at reduced feeding, may be kept in a barn
5 to 10 dcitf higher. Calf barns arc generally kept at CO F, while hospital
and maternity barns usually have a temperature of GO F or somewhat
higher.
The heat produced by a cow of an average weight of 1000 Ib may be
taken as .'5000 Btu per hour. The average rate of moisture production by
a cow giving 20 Ih of milk per day is lf> Ib of water per day, or 4375 grains
per hour. To set a standard of permissible relative humidity for cow
barns is difficult. For 45 F an average relative humidity of 80 percent
is satisfactory, with S5 per rent as a limit.
Where the barn volume is within the limit that can be heated by the
stabled animals, the air supply need not be heated. The air should be
•Uairy Bum VVntil.ttinn, I<V I-', I.. KiiiK'iHl;:. (A.S.H.V.K. Tiuv.ArnuN's, Vol. 111, JOtfH, IK IHl).
Cow Kmt Ventilation, l»y AHn-d I, Oh'm-r ( \.S.H V.I-:. *i »• r;- v nn.v-;, Vol. M, HKJ.'t, p. 110).
Kor additiiitul tntnrination OH thb Mthjit I rH»<r t»* Trthmntl liitttrtin, U, S. lH>;irh.t<'nt 'if Ar.ririiltiirc!
. by M. A. U, KfUt-y.
»*/!»
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
supplied through or near the ceiling. It is better to have the exhaust
openings near the floor as larger volumes of warm air are then held in the
barn and there is better temperature control with less likelihood of sudden
change in barn temperature.
If a cow weighs 1000 Ib and produces 3000 Btu of heat per hour, and if
a barn for the cow has 600 cu ft of air space with 130 sq ft of building
exposure, one cow will require 2600 to 3550 cfh of ventilation, depending
on the temperature zone in which the barn is located. The permissible
heat losses through the structure, based on one cow and depending on the
temperature zone, vary between 0.043 and 0.066 Btu per hour per cu ft
of barn space, and 0.197 to 0.305 Btu per hour per sq ft of barn exposure.
GARAGE VENTILATION6
On account of the hazards resulting from carbon monoxide and other
physiologically harmful or combustible gases or vapors in garages, the
importance of proper ventilation of these buildings cannot be over-
emphasized. During the warm months of the year, garages are usually
ventilated adequately because the doors and windows are kept open. As
cold weather sets in, more and more of the ventilation openings are closed
and consequently on extremely cold days the carbon monoxide concentra-
tion runs high.
Many garages can be satisfactorily ventilated by natural means par-
ticularly during the mild weather when doors and windows can be kept
open. However, the A.S.H.V.E. Code for Heating and Ventilating
Garages, adopted in 1929 and revised in 1935, states that natural venti-
lation may be employed for the ventilation of storage sections where it is
practical to maintain open windows or other openings at all times. The
code specifies that such openings shall be distributed as uniformly as pos-
sible in at least two outside walls, and that the total area of such openings
shall be equivalent to at least 5 per cent of the floor area. The code
further states that where it is impractical to operate such a system of
natural ventilation, a mechanical system shall be used which shall
provide for either the supply of 1 cu ft of air per minute from out-of-doors
for each^square foot of floor area, or for removing the same amount and
discharging it to the outside as a means of flushing the garage.
Research
Research on garage ventilation undertaken by the A.S.H.V.E. Com-
mittee on Research at Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., and at the
r Heating and Ventilating Garages (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 35, 1929, p. 355), (A.S.
H.V.E. Repnnt, January, 1935).
1nonAiraSo£Study of GaraSes by w- C. Randall and L. W. Leonhard (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 3C,
19o(J, p. 233 j.
ACTioNSb°V i*onoxide Concentration in Garages, by A. S. Langsdorf and R. R. Tucker (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
Carbon Monoxide Distribution in Relation to the Ventilation of an Underground Ramp Garage, by
F. C. Houghten and Paul McDermott (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 439).
Carbon Monoxide Distribution in Relation to the Ventilation of a One-Floor Garage, by F. C. I loughten
and Paul McDermott (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38, 1932, p. 424).
Carbon Monoxide Distribution in Relation to the Heating and Ventilation of a One-Floor Garage by
F. C. Houghten and Paul McDermott (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 30, 1933, p. 395).
of^jg^a^ A' H< Sluss' E> K' Campbdl and Loui8 M' Farbor
680
CHAPTER 36. NATURAL VENTILATION
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans., in cooperation with the A.S.H.
V.E. Research Laboratory, and at the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory
has resulted in authoritative papers on the subject.
Some of the conclusions from work at the Laboratory are listed below:
1. Upward ventilation results in a lower concentration of carbon monoxide at the
breathing line and a lower temperature above the breathing line than does downward
ventilation, for the same rate of carbon monoxide production, air change and the same
temperature at the 30-in. level.
2. A lower rate of air change and a smaller heating load are required with upward
than with downward ventilation.
3. In the average case upward ventilation results in a lower concentration of carbon
monoxide in the occupied portion of a garage than is had with complete mixing of the
exhaust gases and the air supplied. However, the variations in concentration from
point to point, together with the possible failure of the advantages of upward ventilation
to accrue, suggest the basing of garage ventilation on complete mixing and an air change
sufficient to dilute the exhaust gases to the allowable concentration of carbon monoxide.
4. The rate of carbon monoxide production by an idling car is shown to vary from
25 to 50 cfh, with an average rate of 35 cfh.
5. An air change of 350,000 cfh per idling car is required to keep the carbon monoxide
concentration down to one part in 10,000 parts of air. •
PROBLEMS m PRACTICE
1 • What factor** may make the adoption of a system of ventilation depending
upon wind movement inadvisable in new construction?
a. Variation in direction of wind.
b. Variation in wind velocity.
c. Inability to clean incoming air.
d. Inability to control location, size and shape of buildings on adjacent property.
e. Unsatisfactory xvarming of incoming air during cold weather.
2 • a. What factor** are important in the location and control of ventilating
opening**?
h. What typiw of ventilating openings are best suited to a proper distribu-
tion of the air supplied?
a. The proper distribution of air as required by the occupants, and the best utilization
of natural ventilating forces. The general rules referred to in this chapter apply par-
ticularly to these factors,
b. Windows with swinging sash and openings with deflectors may be used to direct air
to the points desired*
3 • a. What in the best locution for ventilating openings?
b. How are the sizes of ventilating openings determined for proper air
supply?
a. Inlet openings should be low and facing the prevailing winds where possible. Outlet
openings should be high and on the side opposite the prevailing winds.
b. For simple openings use Formula 1:
Q = EA V
and for stacks use Formula 2:
Q » 9.4 A V H (I - O
The use of these formulae is illustrated in Example 1 of the text of this chapter. Inlet
and outlet areas should be approximately the same for best results.
081
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
4 • a. What are the advantages of roof ventilators?
h. How are proper sizes determined for roof ventilators?
a. Roof ventilators offer the best utilization of the inductive force of the wind^and they
may be very economically fitted with built-in fans to supply the necessary circulation
when the force of the wind is not sufficient.
b. Because of the many factors affecting the flow through roof ventilators no accurate
formula can be given. It is usual practice to make the combined throat area of all
roof ventilators between one-half area and full area of the air inlets as determined by
Formula 1.
5 • What methods of control are used in ventilating systems?
Hand control, control by a thermostat located in the ventilated space or in the venti-
lator, or wind velocity control designed to keep the air discharge constant regardless
of wind velocity.
6 • How is the quantity of air required for a building determined?
Sufficient air must be supplied to carry away the heat and impurities generated within a
building. The temperature rise and concentration of impurities in the exhaust air must
be held within specified limits. (See Example 1 in the text of this chapter).
7 • What measurements are necessary to determine the capacity of a. venti-
lating system?
Wind velocity and air velocities through openings, determined by suitable anemo-
meters; outdoor air temperatures, measured by a shaded thermometer not near objects
heated by the sun or near exhaust air openings; indoor air temperatures, measured at
various heights to secure a good average.
8 • How much air must be supplied for dissipating the heat generated in a
dairy barn housing 100 cows if the outside temperature is 20 F and the inside
temperature is to be maintained at 45 F?
The total heat generated is 100 X 3000 = 300,000 Btu per hour. Then from
Formula 3,
* c 60 (t - fc)
= 13.5 X 300,000
0.24 X 60 (45 - 20)
= 11,250 cfm.
This amount of air should also keep down humidity and odors.
9 • a. What precaution is necessary in the ventilation of garages using natural
ventilation?
b. How much window area is required for a garage with 50 x 100 sq ft floor
area if natural ventilation is used?
a.B The carbon monoxide content of the air should be kept below 1 part in 10 000 and
windows should be kept open at all times.
b. The window area should aggregate 5 per cent of the floor area.
0.05 X 50 X 100 = 250 sq ft of window area.
This area should be evenly distributed along two sides of the building.
682
Chapter 37
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Purpose of Automatic Control, Definitions of Control Units
and Terras, Types of Control, Central Fan Systems, Unit
Systems, Control of Automatic Fuel Appliances, Residential
Control Systems, Control of Refrigeration Equipment, Indus-
trial Processes
'HpHIS chapter is prepared with the purpose of acquainting the engi-
J[ neer with the principles underlying the use of automatic control, the
general types and varieties of control equipment available and their
application.
Automatic control, properly applied to heating, ventilating and air
conditioning systems, makes possible the maintenance of desired con-
ditions with maximum operating economy. A properly designed and
complete control system has the ability to interlock and coordinate the
various functions of heating, ventilating and air conditioning in a manner
impossible to accomplish with manual regulation.
Automatic control is an integral and essential part of a heating, venti-
lating or air conditioning installation and cannot be regarded as an acces-
sory. In order to insure satisfactory results, the control should be designed
with and incorporated in the heating, ventilating or air conditioning
system. The control equipment should be given careful consideration in
the planning of any installation in order that the entire system may
operate together with satisfactory results.
In order that proper selection and application of controlling devices
may be made it is important that a broad understanding exist as to the
types of control available and their principles of operation. Improper
selection and application of control equipment will result in unsatis-
factory and inefficient operation. Specific control devices and systems
are described in the Catalog Data Section,
PURPOSE OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Automatic control is normally applied to heating, ventilating or air
conditioning systems:
1. To insure the maintenance of certain desired or required conditions of temperature,
pressure, humidity, air motion or air distribution,
2. To serve a safety function, limiting pressures or temperatures within predetermined
points, or preventing the operation of mechanical equipment unless it may function
without hazard,
3. To produce economical results and thereby insure operation of the system at a
minimum of expense.
GK3
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL UNITS AND TERMS
Controlling devices and terms commonly used in the automatic contro]
of heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems are:
Thermostats: Thermostats are defined as temperature sensitive
devices reacting to temperature changes. There are four major types oi
thermostats.
A Room Thermostat is normally installed on the wall of the room whose
temperature it is to control, and in reacting to rising or falling tem-
peratures, the thermostat causes the operation of heating or cooling
equipment so that desired temperatures will be maintained.
The temperature sensitive element will usually consist of a bi-metal
strip or coil, or a vapor-filled bellows as illustrated in Fig. 1.
CD-
Leverv
_S>Volatile liquid
Diaphragm type
FIG. 1. TYPICAL THERM OSTATIC ELEMENTS
Immersion Thermostats are used for controlling liquid temperatures.
The sensitive element will normally be encased in a protective well which
is inserted in the liquid, the temperature of which is being controlled.
The temperature sensitive element will usually consist of a bi-metal
coil, thermal expansion rod, or a vapor-filled system. If the latter is
used the temperature sensitive bulb may be connected to the case of the
instrument by either a flexible or rigid tube.
Insertion Thermostats are similar to immersion thermostats except that
they are for use in controlling the temperature of a gas such as air. The
sensitive element will often be encased in a protective well which prevents
mechanical damage but which permits the gas to come in direct contact
with the element.
Surface Thermostats include those devices which measure surface
temperatures. These surface temperatures will often be an indirect
measure of the temperature of a gas or fluid as in the case of a pipe within
which water is flowing. The sensitive element will usually be placed in
direct contact with the surface of the object whose temperature it is to
measure and may consist of a bi-metal spiral or vapor-filled bellows.
684
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Humidity Controls: Humidity controls are defined as automatic
devices reacting to changes in relative humidity. Within this group, the
devices which operate in controlling humidity supplying equipment are
regulating devices and when operating only to prevent relative humidity
from exceeding a predetermined maximum are a form of limit control.
The humidity sensitive element may consist of hair, paper, wood, skin
or any other material which changes its dimensions with changes in
humidity.
Controls are available provided with both temperature and humidity
sensitive elements, which operate to maintain definite relations between
dry-bulb temperature and relative humidity.
Pressure Controllers : Pressure controllers are defined as devices
reacting to pressure and pressure changes. Examples of such devices are
the pressure controls governing the operation of refrigeration equipment
from either head or suction pressure, devices reacting to steam or water
pressure or the pressure of air in the distribution systems.
Damper Motors : Damper motors are defined as specialized power
units, the purpose of which is to position outdoor air, face, by-pass or
distribution dampens, regulating the flow of air through the system.
Connected by suitable linkages, these clamper motors react at the com-
mand of thermostats, humidity controllers and pressure controllers to
adjust the air flow to the needs of the system.
Control Valves: Control valves are defined as steam valves, water
valves or air valves which may be adjusted at the command of con-
trollers to regulate the flow of the medium passing through them to the
needs of the system. Such control valves are usually constructed with
an electric or pneumatic power unit: connected to the valve stem so that
the movement of the power unit will react to position the valve as con-
ditions demand.
Self-contained valves are also included under this classification. Their
application is principally Jimited to the regulation of the steam supply to
individual radiators in two-pipe low pressure steam heating systems, and
the temperature of hot water supply tanks.
Solenoid Valves: Solenoid valves are, as their name implies, valves
actuated by the magnetic effect of an electric solenoid built within them.
While normally these valves are opened when the solenoid is energized,
they are sometimes built in a reverse acting manner and closed when
energized. In heating, ventilating and air conditioning systems, they
are normally adapted to the control of oil or gas burners as fuel valves, as
water valves on humidifiers, or as refrigerant valves in refrigeration
systems.
Relays: A relay is defined as a unit installed between a controller and
the device under control, for purposes of amplifying the capacity of the
controller or performing an auxiliary control function. For example, a
thermostat, in order to preserve its sensitivity may be constructed so that
it is not capable of handling the power required of a motor, A relay is,
therefore, installed between the two. The thermostat actuates the relay
and the relay, in turn, actuates the motor. Motor driven switching
devices are also often used as relays.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Operating Media or Source of Power Supply
Automatic control systems may be classified in three broad groups
based upon their primary operating media or source of power, as follows:
l.^Electric^ Control Systems. In such control systems the primary
medium utilized to provide for the operation is electricity, and the basic
function of these controls consists of switching or otherwise adjusting
electric circuits to govern electric motors, relays or solenoids. The
individual units of this type of system are interconnected by line voltage
or low voltage wiring, and this wiring serves to complete the circuits
carrying the commands of the controllers to the controlled valves or
damper motors.
2. Pneumatic Control Systems. In the pneumatic control systems, the
primary source of operation is obtained through a medium of compressed
air, the pressure of which is varied by the controlling devices. In these
systems one or more centrally located air compressors furnish a supply of
compressed air which is distributed in special piping to the various con-
trolling and controlled devices. By means of leak ports or orifices, the
pressure of the air is varied in the branch lines and the changing pressures
are utilized in air operated damper motors or valves to obtain the move-
ment necessary to the operation of valves and dampers.
3. Self-Contained Control Systems. Self-contained control systems
have, in general, been restricted to such operations as could be effectively
handled by a power unit with integrally mounted or direct-connected
controller. Such applications consist of valves utilized to admit steam or
other media into coils to regulate the temperature of tanks or to regulate
the admission of steam into heating coils or radiators as determined by
the controller element.
Motion of Controlled Equipment
Automatic control equipment can also be classified into two general
types with respect to the characteristics of the motion imparted by the
controls to the controlled equipment, such as two position or positive
acting control and modulating or graduated action control.
In any control system it is necessary to choose the type of equipment
manv ™ ^fr Pen?l1: the ^pe of contro1 Cation desired and in
^x^£™^ are used in the — s^- * **
itiv^P£W orPo3itwe:acHng Control. This type of control operates
5W° P??ltlons such ^ on and offer open and closed
*?** , or de%rQes of motio11 be^een the two
UP -t* i c -•<«-- -f control, artificial heat is applied to
• hrinc^wlff "It1* r°,°m thermostat at the same time that heat
» being added to the space under the control of the 'thermostat in order to
686
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
increase its sensitivity. This usually results in more accurate control and
more frequent operation of the heat source.
2. Modulating or Graduated-acting Control. This type of control causes
motion in the controlled device in proportion to motion caused in the
controller by fractional degree variations in the medium to which the
controller is responsive. After a fractional change has been measured at
the controller and has effected a new position of the valve or damper in
proportion to the amount of such change, the system stands by awaiting
further change at the controller before any additional motion occurs.
The extent of the motion is limited only by the limits of the controller and
by the intensity of the change of conditions as measured. With this type
of control, the damper or control valve may be operated in intermediate
positions between its extreme limits in order to properly modulate or
proportion the flow of air, steam or water, reacting with changes of con-
ditions at the controller. Various modifications of this type of control are
available, designed to meet special requirements and conditions, all based
on operation of the controlled equipment in intermediate positions.
This type of control motion cannot be used on valves of one-pipe steam
systems as the partial opening of the valves will not permit the condensate
to escape against the flow of incoming steam. This type of control should
not be used to control the flow of steam to a heater coil of a fan system
which is in the direct path of untcmpered outdoor air at temperatures
below freezing, bocauvse of the possibilities of freezing condensate in the
bottom of the coil.
Division of Space under Control
Control systems vary considerably with the type and size of the
building, occupancy of the building, and with the heating or cooling
system, humidity supplying equipment and ventilating means available
for control. In the following paragraphs the general requirements of
various phases of these different buildings will be discussed.
L Individual Room Control* The most accurate and flexible form of
control for any structure is that calling for the regulation of each indi-
vidual room by control equipment reacting to conditions in that room
only. Such control necessitates a thermostat in each room, located to
properly measure the conditions of the room, controlling the radiator, unit
heater, unit ventilator or other heating source supplying heat to that
room only in which the thermostat is located. This arrangement permits
the maintenance of any desired conditions in any room, entirely inde-
pendent of any other room. In the. case of large rooms, where one ther-
mostat location will not serve to properly measure the conditions through-
out the room, and where two or more sources of heat supply are provided
in the room, additional thermostats may be used, each controlling its
respective section of the heating source. This form of control, due
primarily to the number of control devices required over the entire
building, normally is the most expensive type of control system. How-
ever, where maximum flexibility and the most accurate control is desired,
individual room control can be depended on to furnish the desired results.
2. Single Thermostat Control. Probably more widely used than t any
other form of control is the type of automatic system regulated entirely
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
from a single room thermostat. The wide use of this particular means of
control is primarily due to the fact that it is the form of regulation best
adapted to residences and small buildings, which far out-number the larger
structures. In larger buildings, this form of control has definite short-
comings. In the small buildings and average size residences it is possible
to select a location and install a thermostat of suitable characteristics
which, in controlling from the surrounding air temperature, will hold the
temperature of the entire building within entirely satisfactory limits. It
must be recognized that the thermostat reacts to and controls from the
temperatures to which it is subjected and that, therefore, the position
selected for the thermostat must be representative of general conditions
throughout the structure. It must further be recognized that if certain
areas or rooms of a structure are not properly balanced as regards heating
or cooling capacity and distribution, the control as dictated by the ther-
mostat will not produce satisfactory results in these unbalanced areas.
3. Zone Control. As the size of buildings increases, it becomes in-
creasingly difficult to provide proper regulation for the entire structure
from a single thermostat control. In such instances, where the advantages
of individual room control are not obtainable by reason of its cost, an
intermediate form of control system is available, commonly described as
zone control. In this form of control system a building is divided into
areas or zones such that the general requirements and the general con-
ditions through the areas are relatively constant as to exposure and
occupancy, and then each zone is provided with control equipment which
functions to regulate the conditions in that particular zone. As in the
case of individual room control, each zone may be regulated to its own
needs which may vary from the needs of other zones within the same
structure.
Variations of the usual zone control methods by the use of recently
developed special devices have been quite successful in obtaining greater
economy from heating systems. Frequently these use an outside ther-
mostat or group of thermostats which adjust the operation of the controls
to conform to variations in weather conditions.
CENTRAL FAN SYSTEMS
A central fan system includes any conditioning system by which either
outdoor air, return air, or combinations of outdoor and return air, are
conditioned at a central point and then distributed through duct work to
the various sections of the space being conditioned.
Heating Cycle
Central fan ventilating systems may be sub-divided, first into split
systems, by which air is supplied for ventilating purposes only and heat is
supplied in winter from another source such as direct radiation; and
second, into combined systems, in which the functions of ventilation and
heating are both performed by the central fan system.
• A ° jnjr-0' ®ystem for a central fan ventilating system using all outdoor
air and discharging air at a predetermined temperature is illustrated in
lug. 2. Thermostat 7\ located in the outdoor air intake is set just above
freezing, and controls valve 7X on the first heating coil. This valve must
688
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
be completely open or completely closed to avoid danger of freezing.
The by-pass damper around the heaters and the other two valves F2 and
F3 are controlled by thermostat jT2 located in the discharge duct from the
fan. If the temperature of the discharge air increases, through the action
of 7*2 the damper is moved automatically to admit more cold air. Should
this not reduce the temperature sufficiently, the valves F2 and F3 on the
heating coils will be closed gradually and in sequence until the correct
temperature is reached. The control of the damper and valves Fa and
F3 must be gradual or there will be a wide fluctuation in temperature.
In ventilating systems it is customary to supply air to the ventilated
spaces at an inlet temperature approximately equal to the temperature
maintained in the rooms. The radiators therefore are designed to take
care of all the heat losses from the room and in order to maintain con-
trolled room temperatures it is necessary to control the radiators in-
dependently of the ventilation control.
Insertion thermostat
Control valves
thermostat I
"V
\i\
T7
1 ~"
1 "I
©
©
©
Outdoor air
£
SB
fc
intake
I
I
X
D
amp
°">
<
Fan
(My '"Damper motor
FIG, 2, CONTROL OK A SPLIT SYSTKM OF VENTILATION
In some installations, such as theatres and auditoriums, it is difficult
to install sufficient direct heating surface to offset the heat losses from the
room. There are also installations where a short heating-up period is
allowed before occupancy of the room, and in these cases it is necessary
to use the entire heating capacity of the ventilating system for this
purpose. An additional thermostat may be installed in the room which
will take the control away from the fan discharge thermostat (T2 in
Fig. 2) and utilize the full heating capacity when the room is below normal
temperature.
In central fan systems, air washers arc often used and in such cases,
due to the effect of temperatures on humidity, additional control is
rec^uired. An arrangement with control of the second tempering heating
coil from the air washer temperature and with the usual control of the
first tempering heating coil from the outside temperature is shown in
Fig. 3. This permits the air to be kept cool while passing through the
washer so that too much moisture will not be absorbed. Control of the
reheating units and by-pass damper by an insertion thermostat in the
fan discharge, and the application of a pilot thermostat to a system of this
sort is illustrated in Fig. 3.
689
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Where a number of rooms are to be heated and ventilated through one
central fan system it is customary to provide tempering heating units,
automatically controlled to provide a minimum temperature for venti-
lation only and additional heating units to supply the heating require-
ments. These reheating units may be located in the various branch ducts
to the different rooms, each under control of its individual room ther-
mostat, or individual ducts may be run to the various rooms frorn the
central unit. In this case reheater coils are provided to maintain a
predetermined temperature in a warm air chamber. Each room duct is
connected to this warm air chamber and to the tempered air supply, and
through the action of a room thermostat on a gradual-acting double-
mixing damper the proper proportions of warm and tempered air are
secured to maintain desired conditions in the room.
In all types of central fan systems, the outdoor air damper is usually
opened and closed by a damper motor controlled from a manual switch
Two
position
insertion
thermostat
Control valves
Modulating
I
Outdoor air
intake
!
I
\ '
Air washer
,
1
£
£
/\
\
Damp
"1
f
: ,
u
^Damns
Multiple point
insertion '
Fan
FIG. 3. CONTROL OF VENTILATING SYSTEM WITH AIR WASHER USING PILOT THERMOSTAT
or by a relay in the fan motor circuit, so arranged that when the fan
motor is started, the relay causes the damper motor to open the outdoor
air damper.
Recirculating and vent dampers may also be opened and closed by
means of damper motors controlled from remote locations. Generally
these damper motors are positive acting and are either completely open
or closed. However, in some cases, where part outdoor air and part
recirculated air is desired, it is advantageous to control the dampers so
that definite proportions of damper opening area exist. In some instal-
lations the control of outdoor air and recirculating dampers is under the
command of a thermostat at the intake to the conditioner, in which case
the proportions of outdoor and recirculated air are fixed by the resultant
temperature of their mixture. This arrangement tends to reduce the
amount of outdoor air used as the outside temperature is lowered.
The operation of a central fan system during the heating cycle often
results in unfavorably low relative humidity and the provision and
control of humidity becomes an important factor of the system. If water
spray humidification is used, control may be effected by a humidity con-
690
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
troller actuating a control valve in the water supply to the sprays. If
steam humidification is used, either of the steam jet type or of the steam
heated evaporating type, the flow of steam may be controlled from the
humidity controller in the ventilated space. Where an air washer is used,
approximate control of humidity may be obtained by maintaining the air
temperature in the air washer at a predetermined desired dew-point
temperature.
For example, the dew-point temperature at 70 F and 40 per cent
relative humidity is 45 F. Therefore, if the air temperature is maintained
at 45 F as it leaves an air washer (assuming it is fully saturated) and then
is heated to 70 F, it will have a relative humidity of 40 per cent. If it is
desired to maintain these conditions in a given space, the air temperature
can be raised to any necessary point, say 120 F (at which the relative
humidity will be only 9 per cent). When the heat in the air has been
dissipated, the space temperature being maintained at 70 F, the relative
humidity will be 40 per cent.
Whenever moisture is being added to the air during the heating cycle
by the use of a spray or any other means, a considerable amount of care
must be used in order to prevent frost from collecting on the windows due
to the air being reduced below its dew-point at the inside surface of the
windows.
Cooling Cycle
Central fan cooling systems are divided into two general groups based
upon the methods employed to control the temperature and humidity of
the treated space. Cooling normally involves the removal of moisture
from the air, and to accomplish this end the temperature of the air must
be lowered below the clew-point. The air at this low temperature must
then be treated or introduced into the room in such manner as to avoid
uncomfortable cold drafts.
In the first group the air is supplied from the conditioner after being
cooled and dehumidified to a fixed temperature and humidity and then
before entering the treated space is reheated. This is accomplished either
by passing the air through coils heated with steam, hot water, or other
heating medium, or the air from the conditioner is mixed with recirculated
air before entering the conditioned space.
In the second group are those systems which use the treated space as a
mixing chamber, the air being supplied to it at the temperature and
humidity leaving the conditioner and depending upon diffusion in the
conditioned space to give ultimately the correct conditions. In these
systems the temperature and humidity of the treated space are measured
and govern, through control of the cooling means, the temperature and
the humidity of the air leaving the conditioner.
In Fig. 4 is represented one of the most simple central fan ^ types of
cooling system. Thermostat T measures the temperature within the
treated spaa* and operates to start and stop the refrigeration compressor
or to control the supply of refrigerant: to the cooling unit as required to
maintain a fixed temperature in the space.
There are three general methods for the; control of relative humidity
in central fan cooling systems, which arc:
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
1. By provision for limiting the relative humidity in addition to the temperature at a
definite point. When this method is used, either temperature or humidity may demand
operation of the cooling source regardless of whether or not the other factor has been
exceeded. The use of a high limit humidity control in this manner is desirable during
conditions of high relative humidity but its operation may cause excessive cooling unless
some method of reheating is employed.
2. By the maintenance of a fixed effective temperature. By this method, a definite
relation is maintained between temperature and humidity, and sensible cooling is done
whenever possible instead of the removal of latent heat in the form of moisture.
3. By the maintenance of a fixed dew-point in the air discharge. This method usually
provides for the control of relative humidity within the space being conditioned between
reasonable limits, but does not take into consideration any change in the latent heat
load, as compared to the sensible heat load.
The necessity for varying inside temperature conditions in accordance
with changes in outdoor conditions on many types of installations is
important. A control system is shown in Fig. 5 where the temperature
of the treated space is adjusted according to the outdoor temperature.
Room thermostat
Air intake
Cooling
coil
-J
Compressor
FIG. 4. DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE COOLING SYSTEM CONTROL
Thermostat 7\ measures the outdoor temperature and thereby auto-
matically determines the inside dry-bulb temperature control point.
Thermostat T$ in the conditioned space measures the temperature of that
space and controls the refrigerant to the cooling coil so as to maintain the
temperature in the space being conditioned at the point which has been
set up by thermostat 7\.
It is usually found desirable to adjust the indoor temperature between
available limits with the outdoor temperature all of which is fully described
in Chapter 3. Various combinations of control may be applied to cooling
systems to secure desired relationship between outdoor temperature and
resultant indoor temperature and humidity.
All Year Systems
An all year central fan conditioning system consists of the combination
of a ventilating system and a cooling system.
During certain seasons of the year, it is sometimes possible to control
692
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
the dew-point of the air discharged from an air washer by regulating the
relative quantities of outdoor and return air. The use of this method for
controlling the outdoor and return air dampers may also provide for
automatic change-over from the heating to cooling cycles, providing
thereby for the maintenance of a fixed dew-point temperature in the air-
discharge during both cycles.
Complete automatic control of all year systems incorporates an auto-
matic change-over between the cooling and heating cycles. If the instal-
lation necessitates operation of manual switch or other device to change
over between the heating and cooling cycles, then the control system is
semi-automatic. The full automatic change-over between cycles becomes
particularly desirable in the early and late portions of the cooling and
heating seasons when heating is required during the early and late portion
of the day and cooling may be required during the middle of the day.
A system for the control of an all year conditioning system providing
for automatic change-over from the cooling to heating cycles is illustrated
in Fig. 6.
©
•vv
r~i .Room thermostat
thermostat s i
__ _
]6uWooTSir
Cooling
coil
\
1
1 ,
Fan
FIG. f>.
- Refrigerant supply
DIAGRAM OK COMI'KNSATKI) COOLING SYSTKM CONTROL
During the heating cycle, thermostat T\ in the return air or room
measures the temperature of the conditioned space and modulates control
valve Vi which, in turn, modulates the flow of steam to the heating coil
so as to maintain a fixed temperature in the space. Humidity control Hi
measures the relative humidity in the spare being conditioned and opens
control valve Vi so as to admit water to the vSprays whenever moisture is
required in the air.
During the cooling cycle, thermostat 7'2 in the return air measures the
temperature in the space being conditioned and modulates control valve
Vz which, in turn, modulates the flow of water to the cooling coil so as to
maintain a fixed temperature in the space. Humidity control //2 measures
the relative humidity in the space being conditioned and then assumes
command of control valve 73 whenever the relative humidity exceeds a
predetermined amount.
During the heating cycle thermostat 7 3 acts as a low limit. It assumes
command of control valve V\ whenever it is necessary to prevent the air
693
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
discharge temperature from falling below a minimum point. Thermostat
Tz may also be arranged to act as a low limit during the cooling cycle if the
conditions of the installation make it desirable.
Thermostat T4 installed in the inlet to the conditioner controls damper
motor Mi which in turn regulates the relative quantity of outdoor and
return air admitted to the system. This damper action may be provided
with a minimum setting of the outdoor air damper so that a minimum
fixed requirement of outdoor air will be insured for ventilating purposes.
Humidity control H3 measures the outdoor air relative humidity and
prevents the outdoor air damper from opening beyond its minimum
I JJT
Insertion thermostat /
Control
valve
Cold water
FIG. 6. DIAGRAM OF COMPLETE AUTOMATIC CONTROL ALL YEAR
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
position whenever the outdoor air relative humidity exceeds a pre-
determined point.
When the fan is stopped, relay R positions damper motor MI so as to
close the outdoor air damper.
Thermostat T\ must be set at a lower temperature than thermostat T*
in order that each may assume command upon the fall or rise respectively
of the temperature of the return air. As an example, TI might be set at
72 F and Tz at 76 F. When the temperature of the return air approaches
72 F, it would indicate that a change had taken place from the cooling to
the heating cycle and when the return air approaches 76 F, it would
indicate that a change has taken place from the heating to the cooling
cycle.
UNIT SYSTEMS
A unit system provides for the same functions as a central fan system
except that the actual conditioning is usually done within the space being
conditioned instead of at some central location outside of the space. The
694
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
automatic control problems, therefore, become exactly the same as for
central fan conditioning systems except that compactness, ease of instal-
lation and control cost often assume somewhat more importance.
Because of the usual segregated location of unit equipment throughout
a building and its^consequent lack of competent supervision, complete
automatic control is essential to its satisfactory operation.
Unit Heaters
In its simplest form, unit heater control consists of a room thermostat
the function of which is to start the unit heater motor when heat is
required and shut it off when the demand is satisfied. With this limited
control, it is possible in some instances that, with no steam available at
the heater, the operation of the fan at the command of the thermostat
would cause objectionable drafts. To prevent this occurrence, limit
controls arc available which will prevent the operation of the fan at the
command of the room thermostat except when steam is available, as
determined by the temperature of the steam or return pipe or the pressure
of the stcarn supply.
In some cases it is desirable to operate the unit heaters continuously for
circulation of air where, due to the type of installation, cold drafts will not
result therefrom. In such instances the room thermostat regulates the
supply of steam to the unit through a control valve in the steam supply
line and the unit heater motor operation is manually controlled.
Where several unit heaters serve a limited area, they may be grouped
for purposes of automatic control, and several heaters placed in operation
at the command of one t hcrmostat. By properly grouping the units which
will operate together, the benefit of zone control can often be obtained
with a minimum of control equipment. Where such group operation is
utilized, the thermostat: and limit control usually function through a relay,
as the combined load of the several motors may exceed the current
capacity of the thermostatic control device.
Cooling Units
The recommended form of temperature control for the cooling unit
contemplates the continuous operation of the cooling unit fan with auto-
matic two position regulation of the compressor or cooling coil as deter-
mined by a room thermostat or by a temperature controller measuring
the temperature of the return air as it is taken into the cooling unit.
Such operation insures continuous circulation of the air in the room served
by the cooling unit, and in addition to providing the cooling effect due to
the moving air, this circulation overcomes the tendency of air to stratify.
Thus, as this tempeniture tends to rise, the temperature controller will
open the valve supplying either refrigerant or cold water to the cooling
unit coil or start the compressor.
Cooling units may also be controlled by arranging the room thermostat
to start and stop the fan motor or by a combination of motor and refrig-
erant control.
A humidity controller may be used in conjunction with the thermostat
as a high limit control to permit the cooling and dehumidifying of the air
095
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
whenever the relative humidity rises above some predetermined point
such as 60 per cent even though the thermostat is satisfied. This control
is desirable on damp days or in conditions where the humidity load may
become excessive, but its operation will result in excessive cooling unless
some means of reheating is provided,
Unit Ventilators
There are various types of unit ventilators available but in general all
types are designed to draw air from the outside or to mix outside and
recirculated air, heat it and introduce it into the room under control of a
thermostat.
In the application of control to unit ventilators the essential require-
ment is that the action be graduated to prevent sudden changes in the
temperature of the discharged air and where direct radiation is used in
conjunction with the unit that the cycle of control be so arranged that
steam will be admitted to the direct radiation only when the unit is
unable to carry the heating load. This arrangement prevents the unit
from delivering air at low temperatures to offset the overheating effect
of the direct radiation and results in the delivery of a higher percentage of
tempered air.
There are two general types of control applied to unit ventilators as
follows:
^ 1. The mixing or by-pass damper type of unit is provided with a damper, equipped
with a damper motor, which, under control of the thermostat, passes air through and
around the heating element in such proportion as to maintain a uniform room tempera-
ture, the two streams of cold and tempered air being mixed and diffused at the ceiling.
A control valve may also be used on the steam supply to the heating element of the unit
and should be arranged to throttle the steam supply when the damper approaches a
position to by-pass all of the air.
The outside air damper of this type of unit is usually provided with a damper motor
and controlled by a remote manual switch to assume either a fully open or fully closed
position.
2. The recirculating type of unit ventilator is equipped with a control valve on the
steam supply to the heating element of the unit and with a damper motor on the outside
air-recirculating air damper, both under the control of the room thermostat. Some units
are so arranged that a mixture of outside air and recirculated air passes through the
heating element and others so that only the recirculated air is heated.
The fundamental requirements of control as applied to this type of unit is that the
steam supply to the direct radiation, the steam supply to the unit ventilator and the
mixing of outside and recirculated air be accomplished in a definite cycle or sequence to
meet the requirements of the particular unit used and differs from the mixing damper type
of unit in that the percentage of outside air and recirculated air delivered by the unit is
determined by room temperature. The damper motor is sometimes arranged so that a
fixed minimum quantity of outside air is delivered continuously as soon as the room has
reached a predetermined temperature. A limit thermostat, either in the mixing chamber
or in the discharge of the unit, is sometimes used in conjunction with the room ther-
mostat, so arranged that the action on either the control valve or the dampers, or both,
is stopped when a predetermined minimum temperature has been reached in the unit
discharge, to prevent delivery of air at a lower temperature.
For additional information on the control of unit ventilators when
installed and operated, under various types of applications refer to
Chapter 23.
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
All Year Conditioning Units
It is desirable to provide for automatic change-over between the cooling
and heating cycles in the control system for all year conditioning units
because of the probable necessity of changing over a large number of units
if done manually. _
A control system for an all year conditioning unit providing for the
automatic change-over is shown in Fig. 7. Operation of the control
equipment is as follows:
1 During the Heating Cycle. Combination controller 7\ measures the
temperature in the space being conditioned and opens control valve V*
2Tto admit steam to the heating coil whenever heat is required so as to
maintain a fixed temperature in the space. Combination controller T,
measures the relative humidity in the conditioned space and opens
Cooibimtion tNrmosttt
and humKJity control
Air discharge
FIG. 7. ALL YEAR Am CONDITIONING UNIT WITH COUFLETK AUTOMATIC CONTROL
control valve V, so as to admit water to the sprays whenever moisture is
e. Combination controller 'A measures the
ever cooImFis required to maintain the temperature or relative
within predetermined maximum limits.
between the c
and
would be set at a lower point than ^at of controller
7\ might be set at 35 per cent and 1 , at bO per cent.
697
As an example,
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CONTROL OF AUTOMATIC FUEL APPLIANCES
It is essential that automatic controls be used with oil burners, gas
burners, and stokers in order to maintain even temperatures and provide
safe and economical operation of the heating plant. There ^ are many
types of burners and many types of automatic control, and it is essential
that the proper type of control equipment be^selected to fulfill the require-
ments of the burner equipment and its application.
Combustion regulation equipment should be used on the larger com-
mercial and industrial applications to control the secondary air supply and
thereby provide for economical operation. This type of control will
usually consist of a pressure regulator which measures and controls the
pressure over the fire and which thereby indirectly regulates the carbon
dioxide percentage in the flue gas.
On all automatically-fired steam boilers it is advisable to provide
control equipment which will stop the burner operation in case the boiler
water line falls below a predetermined level of safety.
Thermostats used to control automatic fuel appliances may be provided
with clock mechanisms which will operate to maintain lower temperatures
during night hours for economy of fuel.
Oil Burner Controls
In the normal oil burner installation as encountered in residential and
small commercial installations, the burner operation is frequently regu-
lated by electric controls and primarily governed by a room thermostat.
It is essential that a limiting control be incorporated in the control system
to prevent the temperature of the heating medium from exceeding any
predetermined safe maximum. The type of limit control selected will
depend on the type of the heating system. In a warm air furnace instal-
lation, a limit control would be used, reacting to the temperature of the
heated air in the bonnet of the furnace; in a hot water system a control
reacting to the temperature of the water in the boiler; and in a steam
system a control reacting to the pressure of the steam in the boiler.
In addition to the normal control of the burner from the room ther-
mostat and limit control, it is necessary that a combustion safety device
be used to prevent operation of the burner under hazardous conditions.
The oil fire is automatically ignited by means of gas, electric spark or
incandescent element and the combustion safety control acting through a
sequence device permits the burner operation only when the fire is prop-
erly established as the burner starts up. A further function of the com-
bustion safety control is to react to any major disturbance in the flame
during the running operation, shutting down the burner and preventing
the discharge of unburned fuel if for any reason the flame is extinguished.
Gas Burner Controls
In the case of the domestic burner, full automatic operation is the
normal requirement and the burner is started and stopped at the com-
mand of a room thermostat which, in turn, opens and closes a control
valve in the gas supply line. For purposes of preventing abnormally high
temperatures in the bonnet of gas-fired furnaces or in the temperature of
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROI.
the water in gas-fired hot water heating boilers or excessive pressures in
gas-fired steam boilers, temperature and pressure limit controls are used.
Ignition is normally secured through the use of a gas pilot flame and a
safety device is provided, utilizing the heat of the pilot flame in such a
manner that if the pilot light is extinguished for any reason, the main gas
valve cannot be opened. For satisfactory and economical operation, all
automatically fired gas burners should be equipped with pressure regu-
lators on the gas supply line.
Stoker Controls
Domestic stokers are normally placed under command of a room
thermostat for primary operation subject also to the command of a limit
control to prevent their operation when conditions in the boiler or furnace
exceed predetermined safe maximums. Utilizing coal as fuel, automatic
ignition is not provided and the stokers, once ignited, maintain their fire,
merely changing the rate of combustion by changing the draft and the
rate at which the coal is fed. Thus, at the command of the room ther-
mostat the stoker motor is started, driving a forced draft fan and fuel
feeding mechanism. The rate of combustion is thus increased and this
operation continues until the thermostat has been satisfied when the
motor is stopped and the fuel in the combustion chamber continues to
burn at a slow rate with reduced draft.
At certain seasons of the year, the operation of the stoker under the
requirements of the thermostat may be so infrequent that there is a
possibility of the fuel in the combustion chamber burning out or the fire
going out between operations. To prevent this occurrence, automatic
controls may be utilized to operate the stoker independently of ther-
mostat requirements, sufficiently to sustain the fire either through a
timing device functioning for short periods at predetermined intervals or
through a temperature control device reacting to minimum stack or
boiler temperatures. Control may also be utilized to prevent stoker
operation and the delivery of coal into the combustion chamber in the
event that the fire has gone completely out. This control is governed
normally by the stack temperature and shuts down the stoker after a
predetermined minimum stack temperature is reached.
RESIDENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
The control installation in a residence may vary from the simple
regulation of a coal-fired heating plant to the completely automatic all
year air conditioning system. Residential installations with automatic
fuel burning appliances, such as oil burners, gas burners or stokers, are
normally equipped with single room thermostat, limit and safety controls
as outlined above under Control of Automatic Fuel Appliances.
Coal-Fired Heating Plant
Control in the normal coal-fired domestic heating plant consists of
regulating the combustion rate in accordance with requirements. This
function is accomplished by a spring or electric-driven damper motor
which under the command of a room thermostat and through chain
linkage, operates the draft and check dampers of a boiler or warm air
090
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
furnace. Such installation should be protected against excessive tem-
perature or pressure by means of a limit control serving to check the fire
when temperature or pressure conditions at the boiler or furnace reach a
predetermined maximum.
All Year Domestic Hot Water Supply
Hot water or steam heating boilers with automatic fuel burning ap-
pliances can be used for all year heating of domestic water supply. The
fuel burning appliance in this case is controlled from the temperature of
water or pressure of steam in the boiler to maintain uniform boiler con-
ditions and domestic hot water is heated by means of an indirect heater.
The heating of the residence is normally governed by means of a ther-
mostat which operates a control valve in the flow line of a gravity hot
water or a steam system, or controls the operation of a circulating pump
in a forced circulation hot water system.
Air Conditioning Systems
Residential air conditioning systems are of various types normally
including a heating source and a motor-driven fan for circulating air.
In addition, such installations may involve spray-head equipment, the
purpose of which may be only to supply humidity, or which, in some
instances, are of greater capacity and serve not only to humidify but to
wash the air passing through them. It is also common practice to include
dry filters to aid in air cleaning. Such installations distribute suitably
heated and humidified air during the heating cycle, and during the summer
or cooling cycle may be used effectively as conditioners if the washer unit
is supplied with water at suitable temperature or if such an installation is
equipped with other refrigeration means.
During the heating cycle the regulation of temperatures is normally
Dne or the other of the problems previously discussed in connection with
the various types of heating sources described, such as the oil burner, gas
burner, stoker or the coal-fired heating plant under automatic control.
Regulation of the humidity during the heating cycle is normally accom-
plished by opening and closing a solenoid water valve supplying water to
the spray-heads, the solenoid valve being under control of a room type
lumidity control. In the average installation the fan is permitted to run
Dnly during such intervals as the thermostat is calling for heat or at the
:ommand of a limit control to prevent the overheating of the bonnet of a
warm air furnace. The limit control should also prevent the operation of
:he fan at the command of the thermostat until the circulating air tem-
perature has increased to a predetermined point.
When cooling equipment is provided in such installations, control
luring the cooling cycle will be an adaptation of the control principles
lescribed for central fan systems selected for the type of cooling equip-
nent utilized.
The selection of automatic control equipment for residential air con-
litioning systems is just as important as for commercial installations,
"ewer controls are generally used and systems are usually less com-
)licated except in the case of a very large residence installation when the
:ontrol system may become as complete as the commercial installation.
700
CHAPTER 37. AUTOMATIC CONTROL
CONTROL OF REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
The most common means of providing cooling for air conditioning may
be divided into four general classifications as follows:
Compressor Type Refrigeration
Refrigeration compressors may furnish refrigerant to direct expansion
cooling coils through which air is being passed, or to coils in cooling tanks
through which water is passed which is then pumped to air washers or
cooling coils through which the air is passed.
In either case the compressor motor may be started and stopped in
order to meet the demand for refrigeration or a pressure controller may be
used to regulate the low side or suction pressure of the compressor. When
the latter method is used, the flow of refrigerant to cooling coils may be
regulated by the opening and closing of a solenoid refrigerant valve at the
command of a temperature controller or thermostat.
A high pressure cutout as an individual unit or in combination with
either a temperature or pressure controller provides a safety feature
against the development of excessive pressures on the high side of the
compressor.
Refrigeration by Ice
When ice is used for the cooling or dehumidification of air, it is usually
placed in bunkers and water is sprayed over it. This water, after being
cooled, may be used in air washers or surface cooling coils and is usually
returned to the bunker for additional cooling after being used.
Control of the water temperature leaving the cold water tank may be
maintained by a temperature controller, which measures the temperature
of the water in the tank and modulates a control valve in a by-pass which
permits a portion of the return water to return directly to the tank
instead of passing through the sprays.
Vacuum Refrigeration
A vacuum refrigerating system consists of an evaporator, compressor,
condenser and auxiliaries. The refrigerant used is water, and water
vapor (steam) is the power medium.
Water which has been passed through an air washer or cooling coil is
sprayed directly into the evaporator or water cooler where it is cooled by
its own evaporation. A condenser is attached directly to the compressor
discharge and its function is to rccondense the water vapor drawn from
the evaporator, plus the steam which supplies the energy for compression.
The temperature of the cold water leaving the flash chamber should be
measured by a temperature controller which will in turn operate a two
position or positive control valve installed in the steam line to the jet so
as to permit steam to flow only when cooling is required. If city water is
used in the condenser, the amount of water should be modulated according
to the demand as measured at the condenser outlet by means of a tem-
perature controller and control valve.
701
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Refrigeration by Well Water
When well water is available in sufficient quantities at low temperatures
during the cooling season, it may be pumped directly to air washers or
cooling coils. Control is usually effected through control valves on the
water supply to the cooling unit actuated by temperature or humidity
controllers, or both, located either at the outlet of the conditioner or in
the conditioned space.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
There are many industrial processes requiring automatic temperature
and humidity regulation. The control equipment operates on the same
principles that have been described, but it is often especially designed for
each particular process. Each installation, or the installation for each
process, is likely to be a problem peculiar to that process.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What important functions of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
systems do automatic controls fulfill?
Controls are applied to maintain adequate requirements for human comfort and efficiency;
to maintain requirements for industrial processes; to obtain economy in operation; and
to provide necessary safety measures.
2 • How may temperature control he obtained in a room heated by a unit
heater?
With constant steam supply, the unit heater motor may be started or stopped by a
thermostat, either directly or through a relay. With intermittent steam supply, opera-
tion of the motor by thermostat can be limited to the time that steam is available, by
using a reverse-acting temperature or pressure limit switch.
3 • How may temperature control he obtained in a room cooled by a self-
contained mechanical unit?
The fan operation may be controlled by a manual switch, while a room thermostat in con-
junction with a solenoid valve may regulate the flow of the refrigerant to the coil. The
thermostatic circuit might be operative only when the fans are running; and the com-
pressor might be controlled by refrigerant pressure.
4 • How may temperature control be obtained in a room heated by an auto-
matically-fired warm air furnace?
A room thermostat might control the combustion unit ; and a limit switch in the top of
the furnace unit, when at a low setting of its control might operate the fan whenever
there is a rise of temperature, and when at a high setting of its control it might shut off
the combustion unit. A room humidity control operating a solenoid valve on the water
supply to the humidifier, or operating a relay on the recirculating pump motor to the
humidifier, may be connected in parallel with the fan motor. Humidification may be
supplied only when heat is supplied and when the humidity control acts in conjunction
with a time switch.
5 • How may humidity be controlled in a unit humidifier for a steam, or hot
water healing plant?
Since heat is required for evaporation, a temperature limit switch, preferably of the
immersion type, may be placed in the heating supply riser to cause the unit to be in-
operative when heat is not available. A room humidity control will operate a solenoid
valve on the water supply to the sprays. Both the solenoid valve and the humidity
control may be electrically wired in parallel with a fan motor, and be subject to the
temperature limit switch.
702
Chapter 38
AND
Direct Current Motors, Alternating Current Motors for Single
Phase and Polyphase, Special Applications, Classification o£
Motors, Manual Control, Automatic Control, Pilot Controls,
Direct Current Motor Control, Squirrel Cage Motor Control,
Multispeed Motor Control, Slip Ring Motor Control, Single
Phase Motor Control
THE electric motor, available in many different types suitable for
various services, is now the most widely used form of prime mover.
The equipment for starting, controlling and protecting these motors vanes
with the ?ype and with the functions it is desired to attain. Motors used
™ eating, ventilating and air conditioning applications may be divided
into two general classifications as follows:
1. For use with direct current,
2. For use with alternating current.
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
There are three types of direct current motors available:
1. Shunt Wound.
2. Compound Wound,
3. Series Wound.
Shunt Wound motors being suitable for application to fans, centrifugal
pumps, or similar equipment where the amount of starting torque required
?s relatively small, are used for the majority of applications m the field of
heating ventilating and air conditioning. They may be used on recipro-
cating pumps and Compressors, if started under unloaded conditions.
Compound Wound motors are required for application to compressors
stokeTs reciprocating pumps when started under loaded conditions, and
Ssf when applied to similar equipment where high starting torque is
required Whenever frequent starting makes high starting and accelerat-
ing torque desirable, or where sudden changes of load are encountered,
compound wound motors are used.
Series Wound motors find only limited application in a few special cases
and are available in only a limited range of sizes.
70S
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Speed Characteristics
Direct current motors are available with speed characteristics of four
types:
1. Constant speed.
2. Adjustable speed.
3. Adjustable varying speed.
4. Varying speed.
Constant Speed motors may be shunt wound or compound wound.
Shunt wound motors have a nearly flat speed-load characteristic, with a
regulation of 15 per cent for up to % nP» 12 per cent for one to 5 hp and
10 per cent for 7^ hp and larger, based on full load speed.
Compound wound motors have a speed regulation over the range from
full load to no load of not more than 25 per cent, based on full load speed.
Adjustable Speed motors are usually shunt wound since it is impractical
to maintain the proper relation between the shunt and series fields of
compound wound motors when wide variations of the field strength are
required to obtain the speed adjustment.
Adjustment of the speed of shunt wound motors is obtained by field
control on motors rated at % hp and larger, with the minimum or base
speed^ at full field strength and higher speeds at reduced field strength
(obtained by adding resistance in the field circuit). The speed regulation
from no load to full load will not exceed 22 per cent for 2 to 5 hp; nor
15 per cent for 7J^ hp and larger. Below 2 hp, the regulation may exceed
22 per cent. If closer speed regulation is required, specifically wound
motors must be obtained.
Practically constant horsepower output is obtained at all speeds up to a
ratio of 2 to 1. For higher speed ratios, the horsepower rating at the
minimum speed is Jess than at the maximum speed, this difference varying
with the speed ratio. High efficiency is maintained over the entire speed
range. Most listed constant speed motors are suitable for operation up to
a speed ratio of 2 to 1 by the use of proper control equipment.
Adjustable Varying Speed motors may be either shunt or compound
wound and speed adjustment is obtained by adding resistance in series
with the armature. The speed thus obtained is always below the rated
full-field speed. Any standard shunt or compound wound constant speed
motor may be used in conjunction with the proper armature resistor.
The usual range of speed reduction is 50 per cent. The speed obtained
for any setting of the resistor depends on the load of the motor and will
vary with this load.
The speed regulation at high speed is comparable to a constant speed
motor, but becomes poorer as the speed is decreased.
When operating at reduced speed, an increased torque requirement
which the motor could easily handle at rated speed is easily sufficient
to stall the motor; for example, a motor operating at two-thirds speed
would be stalled by a torque about 50 per cent in excess of the normal
requirement.
The efficiency of the motor is reduced as the speed is reduced, since the
704
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
loss in the resistor is greater at lower speeds. Speed reduction by armature
control is usually selected where:
1. A wide speed range is not required.
2. Close speed regulation is not necessary.
3. Operating time at reduced speed is short.
4. Operating load at reduced speed is small so that the reduced efficiency can be
ignored.
5. The rating is less than 1 hp.
Varying Speed motors are series wound and the speed varies with the
load on the motor. They should be used where:
1. The load is practically constant or increases with speed.
2. The motor can easily be controlled by hand.
They should not be used where there is a possibility of operation
without load or at a reduced load, as the speed of the motor may become
dangerously high.
For shunt wound motors with full field strength, the starting torque
varies almost directly with the starting current, which is dependent on the
resistance in the armature circuit. With varying positions of the starting
rheostat, it is possible to obtain a wide range of starting torque, within
the limits of starting current permitted by the power company.
A compound wound motor requires somewhat less current for the same
starting torque. The maximum torque of shunt, series, and compound
wound motors is limited by commutation.
ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS
Alternating current motors may be divided into two main groups,
namely, (1) those operating on single phase current, and (2) those oper-
ating on polyphase current.
1. Single phase motors are available in four common types:
a. Capacitor motors,
1 . Full capacitor.
2. Capacitor start-induction run.
b. Repulsion induction motors.
c. Repulsion start, induction run motors.
d. Split phase motors.
2. Polyphase (2 or 3 phase) motors are available in four common types:
a. Squirrel cage induction motor,
b. Automatic start induction motor.
c. Slip ring, wound rotor induction motor.
d. Synchronous motor.
Where the public utility supplying the current determines that a
particular installation should be served with polyphase current, it is
generally understood that the major portion of the motors will be for
polyphase current, although it is commonly acceptable for the smaller
motors to be single phase. This will limit the use of single phase current
to the smaller motor ratings and the polyphase to the larger motors.
Domestic and semi-commercial installations will invariably be single phase.
70S
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Single Phase Motors
Capacitor type motors are available in ratings up to 10 or 15 hp for
general purposes. These motors are recommended for pumps, compressors
and fan duty including housed centrifugal fans and ^propeller fans. The
general purpose motor is commonly known as a high torque capacitor
motor having approximately 300 per cent starting torque with^ normal
current and having a different value of capacitance for starting and
running which is automatically changed over by a mechanical or electrical
means.
Capacitor motors for fan duty are usually divided into the open high
torque type for belted fans and the totally inclosed non-ventilated low
torque type for propeller fans mounted directly on the motor shaft. The
open low torque capacitor motor may be used with small centrifugal fans
mounted on the motor shaft.
Although the motors for Mted fans are called high torque, the available
starting torque is somewhat less than the torque of the general purpose
motor and the slip at full load is approximately 8 per cent. With this
larger amount of slip, adjustable speed down to 60 or 70 per cent of rated
speed may be obtained by line voltage variation. Motors for propeller
fan drive may be supplied with sleeve bearings to obtain greater quietness
in the smaller sizes where the fan thrust does not exceed approximately
25 Ib. For larger fans, thrust ball bearing motors should be used. Low
torque capacitor motors have approximately 50 per cent starting torque
and do not change the value of capacitance from start to run.
Capacitor motors with high slip may have taps brought out from the
main winding which when connected to the line, give a second speed of
from 65 to 70 per cent of the normal speed. This type of motor must be
specially designed for the individual fan, otherwise the correct low speed
will not be obtained. Care should be exercised in applying it to centrifugal
fans where restriction to the air flow through the use of adjustable dampers
changes the motor load and consequently the speed. This same effect is
also found in transformer speed controllers, however, a series of trans-
former taps allow for a selection which partially overcomes the effect of
change in motor load.
Capacitor start-induction run motors are usually confined to the smaller
horsepower ratings and differ from the capacitor motors by having no
running capacitor. The value of starting capacitance used may vary with
the different types of applications involved. These motors may be used
for practically any of the applications met in air conditioning. However,
consideration should be given to the fact that they are not as quiet as a
capacitor motor.
Repulsion induction motors start as repulsion motors and operate under
full speed as combined repulsion and induction motors through the in-
herent characteristics of the motor which has, in addition to the wire
winding with commutator, a buried squirrel cage winding. No additional
switching devices are required to change over from start to run. This and
the repulsion motor described below may be used for constant speed
drives where high starting torque is required and where commutator and
brush noise is not a factor.
706
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
The repulsion start-induction run motor starts as a repulsion motor,
has a switching means for transferring from start to run which short
circuits the commutator and permits operation under full speed as a
wound induction motor. This motor is sui table *f or applications similar
to those for which the repulsion induction motor is used.
The split phase motor has a high resistance auxiliary winding in the
circuit during^ starting which is disconnected through the action of a
centrifugal switch as the motor comes up to speed. Under running con-
ditions, it operates as a single phase induction motor with one winding in
the circuit. These units are available for the lower horsepower ratings and
when equipped with a high slip rotor may be used for adjustable varying
speed through line voltage control.
Polyphase Motors
Squirrel cage induction motors are available in three types and a full
range of sizes:
1. The normal torque, normal starting current squirrel cage motor has close speed
regulation, high efficiency, high power factor, medium starting torque, high pull-out
torque, and is suitable for general purpose applications. This motor has a large current
inrush and a low starting current power factor. It operates with these characteristics
only when started directly across the line on full voltage. When central stations require
current limiting starting equipment on such motors, the starting torque is less. Current
limiting hand operated starters are standard equipment.
2. The normal torque, low starting current squirrel cage motor has approximately the
same torque as the normal current motor, but the starting current is about 20 per cent
less than the normal torque motor on full voltage and ordinarily within the National
Electric Light Association locked rotor current limits on sizes up to 30 hp.
This motor lends itself to automatic or remote control because no current limiting
starting equipment is necessary up to and including 30 hp. A magnetic starter with low
voltage and thermal relay overload protection gives the most satisfactory service.
3. The high torque, low current squirrel cage motor has a starting torque approxi-
mately 25 to 50 per cent greater than the normal torque motor on full voltage with
starting current approximately 10 per cent less than the normal torque motor started on
full voltage, but within the required limits on 30 hp sixes and smaller. These motors are
also started directly across the line on full voltage through a magnetic starter or other
approved starting device.
These three types of motors are also available in two, three, or four
speed designs with variable torque, or constant torque characteristics.
Two speed motors may be either single, or two winding; three speed
motors are single, two, or three winding; and four speed motors are two,
three, or four winding. When a motor is wound with a winding for each
speed, better operating characteristics may be obtained because no
sacrifice is made for the other speed and operating characteristics ap-
proaching single winding motors may be expected,
Frequently, multispecd motors lend flexibility to an installation that
cannot be obtained in any other way.
Multispeed motors are started directly across the line through magnetic
starting equipment with overload and low voltage protection and com-
pelling relays to insure starting on low speed regardless of the ultimate
running speed. Starting on low speed limits the starting current to the
starting current of the low speed winding and consequently lowers the
maximum demand.
707
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS
CUKHENT
TYPE
SPEED
CHARAC-
TERISTICS
FULL VOLTAGE
HP
RANGE
TYPE OF
APPLICATION
SEE FOOTNOTE*
STARTING
TORQTJE
STARTING
CURRENT
Constant Speed Drives
1. Shunt
Constant
Medium
Medium
All
(a) Fans and
(c) Centrifugal
Pumps
DIRECT
2. Compound
Constant
or
Variable
High
Medium
All
(b) (c} (e) Recip-
procating Pumps and
•requent or hand
starting
3. Series
Variable
High
Medium
Small
(d) Fans direct
connected
4. Squirrel Cage
General Purpose
Constant
Normal
High
6-8 Times
All
[a) Fans and
» Centrifugal
Pumps
5. Squirrel Cage
Medium Torque
Constant
Normal
VIedium
5-6 Times
VIedium
Small
'a) Fans and
Centrifugal Pumps
6. Squirrel Cage
High Torque
Constant
High
Medium
5-6 Times
VIedium
Small
'b) Reciprocating
Dumps
(e) and Compressors
started loaded
'OLY-
•HASE
7. Automatic Start
High Torque
Constant
High
3 Times
VIedium
'b) Reciprocating
Dumps
[e) and Compressors
started loaded
8. Slip Ring
Wound Rotor
Constant
High
.-3 Times
with sec-
ondary
control
All
a) and Hoists
b) Reciprocating
5umps
c) and Frequent
e) or Hand Start
9. Synchronous
High Speed
Constant
VIedium
Medium
5-7 Times
Medium
Large
a) Fans and Cen-
rifugal Pumps
0. Synchronous
Low Speed
Constant
Low
-ow
3-4 Times
VIedium
Large
a) Reciprocating
Compressors Start-
ng Unloaded
IINGLE
EASE
.1. Capacitor
Constant
High
STormal
VIedium
Small
b) Pumps and
Compressors
*Applications:
b. Drives having
accdelSg^tor^ue.
d. Fans direct connected.
e. Stoker drives.
starting torques, such as reciprocating pumps and
t °r ha"d ^^ °*r*e ^
708
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS— (Continued)
CUERBNT
TYPE
SPEED
CHARAC-
TERISTICS
FuUi VOLTAGE
HP
RANGE
TYPE OF
APPLICATION
SEE FOOTNOTE*
STARTING
TOKQUB
STARTING
CURRENT
1 2. Capacitor Fan
Constant
High
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans— belted
13. Capacitor Fan
Constant
Low
Medium
Medium
Small
(d) Fans — direct
14. Capacitor Start
Induction Run
Constant
Any
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans
(ft) Pumps and
Compressors
SINGLE
PHASE
15. Repulsion
Induction
Constant
High
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans
(ft) Pumps and
Compressors
16. Repulsion Start
Induction Run
Constant
High
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans
(&) Pumps and
Compressors
17, Split Phase
Constant
and
Ad just-
table
Medium
Medium
Frac-
tional
(a) Fans
(&) Pumps and
Compressors
Adjustable Speed Drives
DIRECT
18. Shunt Field
Adjustment
19. Shunt Armature
Resistor
Constant
Variable
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
All
All
(a] Fans and
(e) Centrifugal
Pumps
(a) Fans and
(e) Centrifugal
Pumps
20. Squirrel Cage
High Slip,t
Tapped Winding
Variable
Medium
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans
POLY-
PHASE
21. Squirrel Cage
High Slip, Trans-
former Adjust-
ment
Variable
Medium
Medium
Medium
Small
(a) Fans
22. Squirrel Cage
Separate Wind-
ing or Regrouped
Poles
Constant
Multi-
Speed
Medium
or High
Low
All
M Fans
(/;) Pumps and
(c) Compressors
709
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS — (Continued)
CURRENT
TYPE
SPEED
CHARAC-
TERISTICS
FULL VOLTAGE
HP
RANGE
TYPE OP
APPLICATION
SHE FOOTNOTE*
STABTINQ
TORQUE
STARTING
CURRENT
POLY-
PHASE
23. Wound Rotor,
Slip, Ring, Ex-
ternal Secondary
Resistance
Variable
High
Low
All
(a) Fans and
(b) Centrifugal
Pumps
24. Capacitor High
Torque Tapped
Winding
Variable
High
Normal
Medium
Low
(a) Fans, belt
25. Capacitor Low
Torque Tapped
Winding
Variable
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
(d) Fans, direct
SINGLE
PHASE
26. Capacitor High
Torque Trans-
former Adjust-
ment
Variable
Low
Low
Frac-
tional
(d) Fans
27. Capacitor Low
Torque Trans-
former Adjust-
ment
Variable
Low
Low
?rac-
:ional
(d) Fans
28. Split Phase
Regrouped Poles
Constant
Normal
formal
rrac-
ional
(d) Fans
Often where the central station requires current limiting starting
equipment for the normal torque, normal starting current motor, it is
advisable to use the normal torque low starting current multispeed motor.
High slip polyphase motors may be used for adjustable varying speed
drives in a manner similar to that described for capacitor motors, with
either a transformer speed regulator or tapped motor windings.
It is apparent from these motor characteristics that a squirrel cage
motor may be selected for operating any air conditioning and allied
equipment.
Automatic start induction motors are constructed with two windings on
the rotor, one of which is a high resistance, squirrel cage winding used in
starting and gives a high starting torque approximately the same as the
high torque, squirrel cage. A centrifugal mechanism within the motor
switches to the second low resistance winding when the motor comes up to
speed, thus obtaining running characteristics equal to the normal torque
normal current squirrel cage motor. The power factor of the starting
current is high.
Slip ring wound rotor motors are built for two classes of service, con-
stant speed and adjustable variable speed. The motors are identical in
each case and use the same primary control, the only difference being in
the secondary control.
710
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
Slip ring motors for_ constant speed service are used where high starting
torque with low starting current is required for bringing heavy loads up
to speed. The resistance is in the secondary or rotor circuit, only when
starting, and is short circuited when the motor is up to speed.
For adjustable varying speed service, part or all of the secondary
controller resistance is in the circuit whenever the motor is operating
below full speed. ^ The speed obtained with a given resistance in the
secondary circuit is dependent on, and changes with the load on the
motor. The horsepower developed by the motor is approximately pro-
portional to the speed, whereas the power required by the motor is
practically the same at reduced speed as at full speed, hence the efficiency
at reduced speeds is much lower than at full speed.
Synchronous motors are ordinarily used only where there is a need for,
or advantage in, obtaining power factor correction. It is necessary to
consider each application as a special case which must be individually
engineered, since for satisfactory operation, the combined moment of
inertia of the compressor fly wheel and motor rotor must be correctly
established.
The general classification of motors used for heating, ventilation and
air conditioning is shown in Table 1.
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
A few applications of motors may require special constructions such as
splash proof, explosion proof, fully enclosed, and self- ventilated to meet
hazardous or special duty conditions. These requirements are frequently
encountered in certain industrial applications, in which cases it is neces-
sary to select the motors from the viewpoint of service conditions, as well
as the required operating characteristics to meet the demands of the
machines being driven.
CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR MOTORS
In selecting control for alternating and direct current motors it is
necessary to determine whether the installation is to be operated by
manual or automatic control. The available controls and the function of
each group of apparatus may be outlined as follows:
1. Manual Control:
a. To establish current.
(1) Snap switch.
(2) Knife switch.
(3) Manually operated contactor.
(4) Drum switch.
6. Establish current and add overload protective device.
(1) Snap switch with overload element.
(2) Knife switch with fuse or thermal cutout.
(3) Manual contactor with overload protective device; also reduced voltage
starting compensator.
(4) Drum switch with overload protection.
c. Establish current and add overload and low voltage protective devices.
(1) Not used.
(2) Not used.
711
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
(3) Manual contactor or reduced voltage compensator with overload and low
voltage release.
(4) Drum switch equipped with latch coil to give low voltage release.
2. Automatic Control:
a. To start on full voltage.
(1) Without overload device.
(2) With overload device.
(3) With combination overload device and knife switch.
b. Reduced voltage starting.
(1) Primary resistance type starter.
(2) Auto compensator type.
(3) Reactance type.
PILOT CONTROLS
In selecting pilot control devices to operate in conjunction with either
manual or automatic motor control, it is necessary that they be classified
as follows:
1. Two Wire Control. Most thermostats, float switches, and pressure regulators,
provide two wire control which gives low voltage release. A three position pilot switch
can be used in connection with this method and thus provide manual control. With a
low voltage (12 or 20 volt) control circuit it is desirable to use a low voltage thermostat.
When this type of thermostat is used it will be found that a saving in the wiring cost
results. When using the low voltage thermostat on a control circuit a relay and trans-
former panel should be used instead of the low voltage coil on the starter.
2. Three Wire Control. Momentary contact start and stop push button stations are
usually furnished as standard accessories with automatic starters, which gives low
voltage protection. This control cannot be used in combination with two wire pilot
devices.
In selecting manual control for an alternating or a direct current motor,
the common practice is to locate the control near the motor. When the
control is installed at the motor, an operator must be present to start and
stop or change the speed of the motor by operating the control mechanism.
Frequently manual control is employed only as a device to give overload
protection and another device is employed to start and stop the motor.
Manual control is used particularly on small motors which operate unit
heaters, small blowers, and room coolers in an air conditioning system
In other cases manual control in the form of drums, when used with
multispeed motors, is only used as a speed setting device with the starting
and stopping functions operated automatically through thermostats, and
pressure switches.
Because of the increasing complexity of air conditioning systems,
heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment is being operated on
automatic control with less dependence on manual operation and regu-
lation.
Automatic control of motor starters may be accomplished by the use of
remote push button stations, by a thermostat, float switch, pressure regu-
lator or^other similar pilot devices. An added advantage of automatic
control is that the main wiring for the starter may be installed near the
motor, while the starter may be operated by a control device located else-
where. In the majority of air conditioning installations, requiring motors
1 hp and larger, two or three phase alternating current is usually supplied.
712
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR CONTROLS
Air conditioning installations using direct current power are now only
used where alternating current is not available. Direct current motors
are always started through starters, which are devices using a resistance
to be put in series with the armature circuit during starting only, the
resistance being gradually cut out as the motor comes up to speed. The
starting current is held within safe limits by the use of the resistance.
The speed of a direct current motor may be regulated by the following
methods :
1. Speed regulation by field control — by using a device with resistance to be put in
series with the field winding. After the motor has been started to be used to increase the
speed of the motor above full field speed.
2. Speed regulation by armature control — by using devices with resistance to be put
in series with the armature circuit to be used to reduce the speed of the motor below full
field or normal speed.
3. Combinations of field and armature control, so that the starting, field control, or
armature control may be combined in a single unit.
Field control is usually preferred, depending on the size of the instal-
lation. For example, if a direct current motor were required with speed
regulation between 1200 and 600 rpm, a choice of supplying a 1200 rpm
motor with armature control or a 600 rpm motor with field control, both
giving the same speed variation would be possible. While the 1200 rpm
motor with armature control is lower in first cost than the 600 rpm motor
with field control, the cost of operating the 600 rpm motor with field
control is less and will save the difference in first cost over a period of time
depending on the size of installation. A wide speed variation can be easily
obtained in a direct current motor by using a combination of field and
armature control.
SQUIRREL CAGE MOTOR CONTROL
To meet the requirements of various drives of an air conditioning
system, three types of squirrel cage, two or three phase motors may be
used :
1. Normal torque, normal starting current.
2. Normal torque, low starting current.
3. High torque, low starting current.
Because of the large current inrush of the normal torque, normal
starting current motor, central stations usually require current limiting
starting equipment on such motors above 5 hp. To meet the starting
current requirements, manual or automatic current limiting starting com-
pensators arc used. These compensators are equipped with 50, 65 and
80 per cent voltage taps, the (55 per cent tap being regularly furnished
when the compensator leaves the factory. Motors 5 hp and smaller have
starting currents within the requirements of central stations and manual
or magnetic, full voltage control may be used.
The normal torque, low starting current motor has a starting current
which is approximately 20 per cent less than the normal current motor on
713
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
full voltage and well within the required current limits on 30 hp sizes and
smaller. This motor, therefore, lends itself to across-the-line control
because no current limiting equipment is necessary. In selecting motors
for fans, pumps, or blowers, it should be noted that while the cost of the
normal starting torque, low starting current motor is higher, the cost of
full voltage control is lower, so that the total cost of low starting current
motors with across-the-line control is lower.
A magnetic starter with low voltage and thermal overload protection
gives the most satisfactory service. These switches may be controlled
by remote push button stations, thermostats, or pressure switches to
meet the requirements of any particular installation.
The high torque, low starting current motor has a starting Current
approximately 10 per cent less than the normal torque, low starting cur-
rent motor when started on full voltage. These motors, most commonly
used on compressor drive, can be started directly across-the-line with
manual or magnetic starters.
Adjustable varying speed motor control by terminal voltage regulation
requires a tap-changing switch manually or magnetically operated. Such
a control switch operates to alter the voltage applied to the motor by
contacting different auto-transformer voltage-ratio taps or by changing
the amount of resistance inserted in the primary or line circuit.
MULTISPEED MOTOR CONTROL
To make an installation more flexible, multispeed motors are available
with two, three or four speed designs, with variable torque, constant
torque or constant horsepower characteristics. Multispeed may be
started by means of manual or magnetic starting equipment.
When using automatic magnetic control with two, three, and four
speed separate winding or consequent pole motors, control is obtained
from a remote point by means of a push button master switch. The
various speeds of the motor are obtained from the master switch by
simply depressing the correct push button, which is known as selective
speed control. It is commonly used in the smaller theatre installations
where the fan and motor is located backstage and the speed control is
located in the lobby.
Magnetic multispeed motor controllers may also be provided with a
compelling relay which makes it necessary that the operator press the first
speed button before regulating the motor to the desired speed. This
assures the operator that the motor is always started at low speed before
the motor is adjusted to one of the higher speeds. Starting on low speed
limits the starting current to the starting current of the low speed winding,
and therefore, permits the use of motors in sizes larger than ordinarily
permitted by central stations for full voltage starting.
Timing relays, which provide for automatic acceleration, may be used
for control. With the automatic acceleration feature, it is only necessary
to press the button for the desired speed. The motor will always start
in low speed and automatically step up to the desired speed.
Where ^the change of speeds does not occur at regular intervals, and
where it is only necessary to change from one speed to another to take
714
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
care of seasonal requirements, a manual drum speed selector may be used.
This drum is used to select the proper motor speed while an automatic
starter is used to start and stop the motor.
The smaller size speed selector drums rated 10 hp at 220 volts and
smaller may also be used as a motor starter to make and break the current,
as well as, serving as a speed selector device. Reversible or non-re-
versible drums may be supplied depending on the requirements of the
installation.
In the large size drums, a separate contactor must be provided to make
and break the current. The contactor may be any approved starter.
Overload and low voltage protection may be accomplished by using a
magnetic starter. No push button station is required, the handle switch
on the drum having the same characteristics as a three wire push button
station.
In selecting two speed motors for fan, pump, blower, or compressor
drive it will be found that the two winding motors are more expensive
than the single winding. The control for two speed, two winding motors
is more economical and the combined price of the motor and contactor is
only slightly higher. Because of the better performance of the two speed
motor and the factor of safety in having two independent motor windings,
the increased cost is considered worth the difference.
SLIP RING MOTOR CONTROL
When close speed regulation and low starting current is required slip
ring or wound rotor motors are used. Slip ring motors are built for two
classes of service, constant speed and adjustable varying speed. The
motors for the two classes of service are identical, the only difference
being in the secondary control used with the motors. Control for both
primary and secondary of a slip ring motor is required.
The primary control for a constant or adjustable speed is the same type
as used with squirrel cage motors. Manual or magnetic starters, across-
the-line type, may be used depending on the installation.
The starting current and starting torque of a slip ring motor are almost
entirely dependent on the amount of resistance in the secondary control
and in the manner in which the secondary control is operated. The
National Electric Manufacturers Association has adopted service classi-
fications which allow a selection of resistors permitting a starting current
on the first contact of resistance varying from approximately 25 per cent
of full load current to approximately 200 per cent of full load current or
more, and permitting the resistor to remain in the secondary circuit of the
motor for a period varying from not more than 15 seconds during an
interval of operation from 4 minutes to continuous.
Speed regulation of a slip ring motor is obtained by inserting resistance
in the secondary circuit and usually provides for a 50 per cent speed
reduction when the motor takes its full rated current at normal speed.
As resistors are supplied for both fan duty and constant torque duty, care
should be taken in selecting the proper resistors.
Slip ring motors when used with centrifugal pumps and fans should have
fan duty resistors. Because of the low current inrush of the fan and pump
715
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
load a starting resistor NEMA classification No. 15 may be used. For
speed regulation resistor, classification No. 93 should be selected. On a
compressor drive using an unloader, a constant torque resistor classi-
fication No. 15 should be used. If the compressor is started under load,
NEMA classification No. 56 or 76 are used. For constant torque speed
regulation, resistor No. 95 is used.
SINGLE PHASE MOTOR CONTROL
Where three phase current is not available or where single phase opera-
tion is preferred, then single phase repulsion induction, capacitor type or
multispeed single phase motors may be used. Since the starting currents
of all single phase motors are required to be within the starting-current
limits established by the local power-supply company, a suitable type of
starter may be chosen from the following selection :
1. Enclosed two pole manually operated motor starters with thermal overload
protection.
2. Enclosed two pole automatic motor starter operated by a push button, thermostat
or similar device, with thermal overload relay and low voltage protection.
3. A manual or magnetic resistance type starter with low voltage protection.
4. A manual or magnetic control for pole changing motors and for adjustable varying
speed motors using an auto-transformer or resistance in the primary circuit to obtain
line (or terminal) voltage drop.
In selecting across-the-line control for single phase capacitor type
motors it is usually very desirable to use three pole across- the-line starters.
Control for multispeed, single phase capacitor motors may be selected
from tables on three phase rating when consideration is given to the
increased current and the necessary switching of connections.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • When motors are being considered as prime movers, what are some of the
basic considerations that determine the final selection of the correct unit?
a. The^ kind of current available for driving the necessary motors is a primary con-
sideration. There are two groups of motors available for driving the equipment on any
job, which are the direct current type or alternating current type. The proper group
selection depends entirely on the current available.
b It is also necessary to decide whether constant speed or variable speed operation is
desired.
c. Consideration must also be given to the type of service required.
1. Whether variable torque or constant torque motors will be required.
2. Whether a high starting torque is required or whether a relatively small starting
torque is required.
d. It is important to take into consideration the atmospheric conditions surrounding the
motor location.
2 • When using direct current motors: a. What three types are available as
regards their windings; 6. What four types are available with reference to
their speed characteristics?
a. Shunt wound, compound wound, and series wound.
b. Constant speed, adjustable speed, adjustable varying speed, and varying speed.
716
CHAPTER 38. MOTORS AND CONTROLS
3 • With direct current motors as prime movers what type would you use:
a. For driving a fan; b. For driving a compressor?
a. A fan requires a relatively small starting torque, therefore, a shunt wound motor
would be ideal for this type service.
b. A compressor has a constant torque, therefore, a compound wound motor would be
the proper selection for this duty.
4 9 What is one of the important factors that should he taken into account
when a series wound direct current motor is being considered?
With a series wound motor the speed varies with the load, therefore this type should
never be used where there is a possibility of the motor operating without being loaded.
The resultant high speed may prove to be dangerous.
5 • With the use of alternating current motors what two groups are generally
considered?
Motors using single and polyphase power supply.
6 •JUnder the alternating current group of motors what common types are
available: a. For single phase duly; b. For polyphase duty?
a. Capacitor high torque, capacitor fan— (1) high torque, (2) low torque, capacitor
start-induction run, repulsion induction, and split phase.
b. Squirrel cage--(l) general purpose, (2) medium torque, (3) high torque, automatic
start high torque, normal torque normal current, normal torque low current, high torque
low current, slip ring wound rotor, synchronous high speed, synchronous low speed.
7 • What is the moat commonly used of the polyphase motors?
The squirrel cage induction motor is the type most generally used for ordinary applica-
tion.
8 • With the use of squirrel cage motors what speed characteristic is available
and what construction is used to make these more flexible?
The squirrel cage motor is basically a constant speed motor. However both single phase
and polyphase high slip motors are used far adjustable varying speed drive through the
use of line voltage control. When using an adjustable varying speed motor, particularly
with a centrifugal fan and to a somewhat lesser extent, with a propeller fan, special care
should be taken to assure that the fan is closely motored (Le.t adequately loads the motor)
in order to obtain the desired speeds under reduced speed operation. To make the
squirrel cage motor more flexible, multispccd units are used quite frequently. These
units may be single winding for the two speed unit or for different number of windings
depending upon the number and combination of speeds required. For two speed single
winding units the second speed is always one-half of top speed.
9 • Differentia to between synchronous speed and full load Hpe<id of a motor.
Synchronous speed is the theoretical or no load speed. With the induction motor there
is a certain amount of slip depending upon the load. As a rule, at full load, the speed is
approximately % per cent of synchronous speed, however, motor manufacturers generally
list full load speeds on their motor name plates.
The synchronous type of motor has a full load speed which is the same as the synchronous.
10 • What arc th<i general rcquiremcniH usually recommended by the power
company with reference to connecting polyphase motors to the power line?
For motors up to and including 5 lip, normal torque, normal starting current type of
units can be connected directly to the lino.
For motors from 5 to 30 hp, both high torque and normal torque, low starting current
types of units can be used with across-thc-line type of control.
Above these sixes, it is necessary to furnish current limiting starting equipment.
It is always advisable to check with local power companies as there are no standards for
717
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
connecting of loads on the power line and they are likely to vary with different power
companies.
11 • In controlling direct current motors what two methods are used, what
speed ranges are obtained, and what is the relative efficiency of each method?
In controlling direct current motors, resistance is placed in either the armature circuit or
the field circuit. For armature control, the speed is reduced with the increase of re-
sistance. With the field control, the speed is increased with the addition of resistance
in the field circuit.
For most listed direct current motors, it is possible to obtain operation up to a speed
ratio of two to one with field control equipment. This type of control is used in con-
nection with shunt wound motors for best results.
For speed adjustment by resistance in series with the armature circuit, a reduction of
50 per cent in speed can generally be obtained. This control can be used with either
shunt or compound wound motors.
The field control method of changing speeds on direct current motors is the most ef-
ficient. Due to the large current in the armature circuit, this method results in a high
loss when the speed is reduced any appreciable amount. It is well to remember that with
field control only constant horsepower output is obtained, thereforef< care should be taken
that the motor at normal speed is large enough to care for any increase in load as a
result of speeding up the unit.
12 • What reduction in speed is possible and how is it obtained when alter-
nating current slip ring motors are used?
Speed variation in slip ring motors is obtained by inserting resistance in the secondary
circuit. This generally allows for a 50 per cent speed reduction when it is fully loaded at
normal speed.
From 20 to 30 per cent speed reduction can be obtained through the use of line voltage
control of an adjustable varying speed motor with a fan closely motored (i.e., the fan
approximately fully loads the motor).
Chapter 39
PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
Heat Losses from Bare and Insulated Pipes, Heat Losses from
Ducts, Low Temperature Insulation, Insulation of Pipes to
Prevent Freezing, Economical Thickness of Pipe Insulation,
Underground Pipe Insulation
INSULATION reduces the flow of heat where it is desired to maintain
a temperature higher or lower than that of the surroundings. Its use
contributes to the most economical operation of heating and refrigerating
systems.
HEAT LOSSES FROM BARE PIPE
Heat losses from horizontal bare iron pipes, based on data obtained
from tests conducted at the Mellon Institute, are given in Table L The
TABLE 1. HEAT LOSSES FROM HORIZONTAL BARE IRON PIPES
Expressed in Btu per linear foot per degree Fahrenheit difference in temperature between the
pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATJBK
STBW.M
NOMINAL
PIPE
120 F
150 P ! 180 F
210 F
227.1 F 297.7 F
(S Lb) ; (50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
SlZB
(INOHV8)
T&UPBiuTUttR DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
no F
140 F
1S7.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
1A
0.543
0.573
0.605
0.638
0.656
0.742
0.7%
?4
0.660
0.600
0.729
0.762
0.781
0.886
0.955
I
0.791
0.820
0.878
0.920
0.953
1.084
1.166
IU
0.970
1.02
1.087
1.15
1 . 184
1.345
1.450
iH
K09
1.15
1.220
1.29
1.335
1.520
1.640
1.34
1.40
1.491
1.58
1.637
1.866
2.015
m
1.58
1.67
1.778
1.87
1.937
2.215
2.388
U88
1.99
2.100
2.22
2.301
2.641
2.853
ui
2.13
2.24
2.380
2.51
2.585
2.972
3.215
4
2.36
2.50
2.650
2.78
2.873
3.312
3.582
4H
2.60
2.75
2.920
3.08
3,170
3.655
3.956
2.87
3.02
3.200
3,38
3.493
4.030
4.368
6
3.30
3.56
3.775
4.01
4.115
4,755
5.153
8
4,32
4.55
4.830
S.14
5.270
6. 120
6.635
10
5.32
5.61
5,925
6.34
6.551
7 592
8.245
12
6.25
6.62
6,995
7.46
7.670
8.900
9.670
719
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
'v, i u — nc-
4 &_.£
\
-
T:M
SYSTI1M
-r 5
JMF
0V
7,/L
\
^j£
COST OF lOAL
CALORIFIC
WAI.UE ore )AI.
\
FIG. 1. CHART FOR ESTIMATING DOLLAR VALUE OF HEAT Loss
FROM BARE IRON PIPES. (SEE TABLE l)a
aThis chart is based on 100 linear feet per 1000 hours. For fractions or multiples of these factors,
multiply by proper percentage.
monetary value of the loss of heat given in Table 1 may be obtained by
means of Fig. 1 for various heating system efficiencies, temperature differ-
ences, and calorific values and costs of coal. To solve a problem, select
the proper heat loss coefficient from Table 1 and locate this value on the
upper left hand margin of the chart. Then draw lines in the order indi-
cated by the dotted lines, the dollar value of the heat loss per 100 linear
feet of pipe per 1000 hours being given on the upper right hand scale.
In using this chart, the cost of coal should also include the labor for hand-
ling it, boiler room expense, etc.
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
TABLE 2. HEAT Loss FROM HORIZONTAL BARE BRIGHT COPPER PIPE
Expressed in Btu per linear foot per degree Fahrenheit between the
pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATER (Type K Copper Tube)
STEAM (Standard Pipe Size Pipe)
NOMINAL
PIPE
120 F
150 F
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(SLb)
297.7 F 1 337.9 F
(SOLb) 1 (100 Lb)
SIZE
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
K
0.180
0.210
0.218
0.229
0.299
0.338
0.355
\i
0.236
0.275
0.291
0.307
0.357
0.408
0.418
0.290
0.338
0.354
0.373
0.440
0.492
0.523
IK
0.340
0.400
0.418
0,443
0.510
0.571
0.598
1U
0.390
0.463
0.473
0.507
0.598
0.671
0.710
2
0.490
0.525
0.600
0.628
0.719
0.813
0.851
2}/2
0.580
0.675
0.709
0.750
0.840
0.953
1.008
3
0.680
0.788
0.848
0.871
0.987
1.107
1.165
&A
0.760
0.888
0.946
1.000
1.114
1.235
1.307
4
0.940
1.000
1.045
1.107
1,210
1.361
1.456
41^
1.335
1.495
1.488
5
1.020
1.200
1 .255
1.320
1.465
1.670
1.755
6
1.160
1,375
1.410
1.500
1.685
1.890
1.942
8
1 .460
1.725
1.820
1.890
2.100
2.373
2.510
TABLE 3. HEAT Loss FROM BRIGHT COPPER PIPE GIVEN ONE
THIN COAT OF CLEAR LACQUER
Expressed in Btu per linear foot per degree Fahrenheit between the
pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
NOMINAL
PIPK
Ud K
HOT WATKH (Type K Copper Tube)
ISO V | IM F I 21(1 F
STEAM (Standard Pipe Size Pipes)
7W7JF
m Lb)
~227TV'
(5 Lb)
TKMPERATUKK DIKKBUENCK
4
4,4
5
6
8
51) V
80 I''
110F
141) F
157.1 F
227.7 F
2<>7.y F
0,240
0.265
0,282
0.307
~ 0,401
0.461
" 0 478
0.320
0.356
0.373
0.414
0.477
0.571
0.578
0.390
0.437
0.403
0.507
0.598
0.681
0.710
0.470
0.537
0.554
0.614
0.700
0.812
0.840
0.540
0.612
0.645
0.714
1.208
0.960
0.990
0.690
0.762
0.818
0.892
1.005
1.164
1.201
0.840
O.W
O.W1
1 .085
1.178
1.361
1.420
().%()
1 .025
1.135
1.270
1.400
1.025
1.700
1. 100
1.250
1.318
1.442
1.580
1.845
1.905
1.241
1 .400
1 .480
1,550
1.750
2.040
2.130
1.910
2.240
2.350
1.480
1.0K5
1.790
l.%5
2. WO
2.415
2.610
1.7(K)
1 .936
2.052
2.272
2.450
2.810
2.990
2.200
2.500
2.630
2,854
3.120
3.425
3.730
Heat losses from horizontal copper tubcs^ind pipes with bright, bright
lacquered and tarnished surfaces are given in Tables 2, 3 and 4l.
In order to determine heat losses per linear foot of pipe from known
losses per square foot, it is necessary to know the area in square feet per
i Heat L<m from Copper Piping, by K. H. Hrilman (II fating, /'!>'«# untl A/r Conditioning, September,
103,'i, p. 458).
721
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 4. HEAT Loss FROM HORIZONTAL TARNISHED COPPER PIPE
Expressed, in Btu per linear foot per degree Fahrenheit between the
pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
NOMINAL
PIPE
SIZE
i. INCHES)-
HOT WATER (Type K Copper Tube)
STEAM (Standard Pipe Size Pipe)
120 F
150 F | 180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(SLb)
297.7 F
(50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
£
h
itf
i>i
2
2«
3H
4
4H
5
6
8
0.250
0.340
0.440
0.500
0.580
0.730
0.880
1.040
1.180
1.460
0.287
0.381
0.475
0.5,59
0.656
0 825
1 000
1.175
1.350
1.500
0.300
0.409
0.509
0.618
0.710
0.890
1.091
1.272
.1.454
1.635
0.321
0.429
0 536
0.622
0.750
0.957
1.143
1 .343
1.535
1.715
0.433
0.533
0 636
0.764
0.904
1.101
1.305
1.560
1.750
1,941
2.131
2.387
2.740
3.310
0.500
0.543
0.746
0.878
1.053
1.273
1.490
1.800
2.020
2.240
2.465
2.770
3.210
4.050
0.530
0.654
0.803
0.934
1 . 120
1.364
1.605
1.940
2.170
2.430
2.650
2.990
3.440
4.370
1.600
1.840
2.400
1.812
2.125
2.685
1.980
2.270
2.910
2.071
2.430
3.110
linear foot of pipe. Table 5 gives these areas for various standard pipe
sizes, and Table 6 for copper tubing, while Table 7 gives the area in square
feet for flanges and fittings for various standard pipe sizes.
Very often, when pipes are insulated, flanges and fittings are left bare
due to the belief that the losses from these parts are not large. However,
the fact that a pair of 8 in. standard flanges having an area of 2.41 sq ft
TABLE 5. RADIATING SURFACE PER LINEAR FOOT OF PIPE
NOMINAL
• PIPE SIZE
, (INCHES)
SURFACE AREA
, (SQFT)
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZK
(INCHES)
SURFACE AREA
(SQ FT)
NOMINAL
PIPE SIZK
(INCHBS)
SURFACE ARK
(S(j FT)
y2
0.22 '
2
0.622
5
1.456
X
0.275
2^
0.753
6
1.734
i
0.344
3
0.917
8
2.257
l'a'
0.435
VA
1.047
10
2.817
\Y*
0.498
4
1.178
12
3.338
TABLE 6., RADIATING SURFACE PER LINEAR FOOT OF COPPER TUBING
TUBE SIZE
(INCHES)
SURFACE AREA
(SQ FT)
TUBE SIZE
(INCHES)
SURFACE AREA
(SQFT)
TUBE SIZE
(INCHES)
SURFACE ARKA.
(SQ FT)
y*
0.164
2
0.556
5
1.342
H
0.229
m
0.687
6
1.604
i
0.295
3
0.818
8
2 128
J&
0.360
VA
0.949
VA
0.426
4
1.080
722
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
TABLE 7. AREAS OF FLANGED FITTINGS, SQUARE FEET*
NOMIHAL
FLANGED
COUPLING
90 DEQ ELL
LONG RADIUS
ELL
TBB
CROSS
PIPE SIZE
(INCHES)
Standard
Extra
Heavy
Standard
Extra
Heavy
Standard
Extra
Heavy
Standard
Extra
Heavy
Standard
Extra
Heavy
1
0.320
0.438
0.795
1.015
0.892
1.083
1.235
1.575
1.622
2.07
IK
0.383
0.510
0.957
1.098
1.084
1.340
1.481
1.925
1.943
2.53
1H
0.477
0.727
1.174
1.332
1.337
1.874
1.815
2.68
2.38
3.54
2
0.672
0.848
1.65
2.01
1.84
2.16
2.54
3.09
3.32
4.06
m
0.841
1.107
2.09
2.57
2.32
2.76
3.21
4.05
4.19
5.17
3
0.945
1.484
2.38
3.49
2.68
3.74
3.66
5.33
4.77
6.95
3H
1.122
1.644
2.98
3.96
3.28
4.28
4.48
6.04
5.83
7.89
4
1.344
1.914
3.53
4.64
3.96
4.99
5.41
7.07
7.03
9.24
4^
1.474
2.04
3.95
5.02
4.43
5.46
6.07
7.72
7.87
10.07
5
1.622
2.18
4.44
5.47
5.00
6.02
6.81
8.52
8.82
10.97
6
1.82
2.78
5.13
6.99
5.99
7.76
7.84
10.64
10.08
13.75
8
2.41
3.77
6.98
9.76
8.56
11.09
10.55
14.74
13.44
18.97
10
3.43
5.20
10.18
13.58
12.35
15.60
15.41
20.41
19.58
26.26
12
4.41
6.71
13.08
17.73
16.35
18.76
19.67
26.65
24.87
34.11
a Including areas of accompanying flanges bolted to the fitting.
would lose, at 100 Ib steam pressure, an amount of heat equivalent to more
than a ton of coal per year shows the necessity for insulating such surfaces.
HEAT LOSSES FROM INSULATED PIPES
The conductivities of various materials used for insulating steam and
hot water pipes are given in Table 8. In this table the conductivities are
given as functions of the mean temperatures or the mean of the inner and
outer surface temperatures of the insulations. This method of stating
conductivities makes it possible to readily calculate the heat loss through
single or compound sections. It should be emphasized that the conduc-
tivities given in Table 8 for the various insulations are the average of
TABLE 8.
CONDUCTIVITIES (k) OF VARIOUS TYPES OF INSULATING MATERIALS
FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH TEMPERATURE PIPES*
TYPM OK INMI L \TIKO MATBRULH
MEAN TiMPtiuTuai
100 P
200 P
300 P
400 F
500 P
85 per cent Magnesia Type
0.425
0.530
0.480
0.300
0.545
0.350
0.515
0.600
0.405
O.G50
0.555
0,415
0.005
0.410
0.545
0.040
0.505
0.770
0.030
0.470
O.C05
0,470
0.575
0.075
0.550
0.800
0.705
0.525
0.725
0.530
0.005
0.715
0.590
0.585
0.785
0.590
0.635
0.750
Corrugated Asbestos Type
(4 Plies per 1 in. thick)
Corrugated Asbestos Type
(8 Plies per 1 in. thick)
Laminated Asbestos Type............
(30-40 Laminations per 1 in. thick)
Laminated Asbestos Type
(20 Laminations per 1 in. thick)
Rock Wool Type
High Temperature Type
(Diatomaceous Earth and Asbestos)
Brown Asbestos Type
(Felted Fibre)
»R. II, IMlman, Mechanical Knginfering, Vol. 40 (1924), p. f>««.
723
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 9. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (U) FOR PIPES INSULATED
WITH 85 PER CENT MAGNESIA TYPE INSULATION
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATBB
STEAM
THICKNESS
NOMINAL
OF
INSULATION
PEPB
SIZE
120 P
150 F
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(5 lib)
297.7 F
(50 Lb)
337.9F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
X
0.744
0.754
0.764
0.774
0.779
0.802
0.814
X
0.672
0.681
0.689
0.697
0.701
0.721
0.731
1
0.613
0.621
0.629
0.637
0.641
0.659
0.670
IK
0.562
0.570
0.577
0.585
0.589
0.606
0.617
IX
0.532
0.539
0.546
0.553
0.557
0.573
0.582
2
0.500
0.506
0.512
0.519
0.523
0.538
0.547
VA
0.475
0.481
0.487
0.493
0.497
0.512
0.520
3
0.455
0.461
0.467
0.474
0.477
0.492
0.500
1
3X
0.441
0.447
0.452
0.458
0.462
0.475
0.483
4
0.429
0.435
0.441
0.446
0.449
0.463
0.471
±l/2
0.420
0.425
0.431
0.437
0.440
0.453
0.460
5
0.411
0.416
0.422
0.427
0.430
0.443
0.450
6
0.402
0.408
0.413
0.419
0.422
0.435
0.442
8
0.387
0.392
0.397
0.403
0.405
0.418
0.425
10
0.375
0.380
0.385
0.390
0.393
0.405
0.412
12
0.369
0.374
0.378
0.383
0.386
0.398
0.405
1A
0.617
0.625
0.633
0.642
0.646
0.665
0.676
%
0.550
0.558
0.566
0.573
0.577
0.596
0.606
1
0.496
0.503
0.511
0.518
0.522
0.540
0.549
IK
0.453
0.459
0.465
0.472
0.475
0.490
0.498
iy2
0.424
0.430
0.436
0.442
0.445
0.459
0.467
2
0.394
0.400
0.405
0.410
0.413
0.427
0.434
%
0.371
0.376
0.382
0.386
0.389
0.401
0.408
3
0.352
0.357
0.362
0.367
0.370
0.380
0.387
IX
m
0.339
0.343
0.347
0.351
0.354
0.364
0.370
4
0.328
0.333
0.337
0.341
0.343
0.353
0.359
4X
0.320
0.324
0.328
0.332
0.334
0.343
0.350
5
0.312
0.316
0.320
0.324
0.326
0.336
0.342
6
0.303
0.307
0.311
0.315
0.318
0.328
0.333
8
0.287
0.291
0.295
0.299
0.301
0.311
0.316
10
0.276
0.280
0.284
0.288
0.290
0.299
0.304
12
0.272
0.275
0.279
0.283
0.285
0.294
0.299
y*
0.543
0.551
0.558
0.565
0.569
0.587
0.597
%
0.484
0.490
0.497
0.503
0.507
0.523
0.532
i
0.433
0.439
0.445
0.451
0.454
0.467
0.476
IK
0.393
0.398
0.403
0.409
0.412
0.424
0.432
IX
0.365
0.370
0.376
0.381
0.384
0.397
0.402
2
0.338
0.343
0.347
0.351
0.354
0.364
0.370
2^
0.316
0.320
0.324
0.328
0.331
0.341
0.347
3
0.297
0.301
0.305
0.309
0.312
0.321
0.326
2
3J6
0.284
0.288
0.292
0.295
0.297
0,306
0.311
4
0.275
0.278
0.282
0.285
0.287
0.296
0.301
4X
0.266
0.270
0.273
0.276
0.278
0.286
0.290
5
0.258
0.262
0.265
0.268
0.270
0.278
0,283
6
0.250
0.254
0.257
0.260
0.262
0.270
0.274
8
0.236
0.239
0.242
0.245
0.247
0.255
0.258
10
0.224
0.227
0.230
0.233
0.235
0.242
0.246
12
0.219
0.222
0.225
0.228
0.230
0.237
0.240
724
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
TABLE 10. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION ( U) FOR PIPES INSULATED WITH CORRUGATED
ASBESTOS TYPE INSULATION (4 PLIES PER INCH THICKNESS)
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATER
STBAU
THICKNESS
NOMINAL
or
INSULATION
PIPE
SIZE
120 F
150 F
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(SLb)
297 .7 F
(SO Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
11 OF
140 F
1S7.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
K
0.890
0.919
0.949
0.978
0.995
1.065
1.106
H
0.803
0.829
0.857
0.883
0.898
0.961
0.997
0.731
0.756
0.780
0.804
0.818
0.876
0.909
iM
0.671
0.693
0.716
0.738
0.751
0.804
0.834
IK
0.635
0.656
0.677
0.698
0.710
0.760
0.788
2
0.595
0.615
0.635
0.656
0.667
0.715
0.742
2H
0.567
0.586
0.605
0.624
0.635
0.680
0.705
3
0.544
0.562
0.580
0.598
0.608
0.652
0.677
1
3K
0.527
0.544
0.561
0.578
0.588
0.631
0.654
4
0.513
0.530
0.548
0.565
0.575
0.616
0.639
4K
0.502
0.518
0.535
0.551
0.561
0.601
0.624
5
0.490
0.507
0.523
0.539
0.549
0.588
0.611
6
0.480
0.496
0.512
0.528
0.538
0.577
0.599
8
0.462
0.477
0.493
0.508
0.517
0.554
0.575
10
0.447
0.462
0.476
0.491
0.500
0.537
0.557
12
0.441
0.456
0.470
0.485
0.493
0.529
0.550
1A
0.737
0.762
0.787
0.812
0.826
0.884
0.918
H
0.657
0.679
0.702
0.725
0.737
0.790
0.820
\
0.594
0.614
0.634
0.654
0.666
0.713
0.740
1!<4
0.542
0.559
0,577
0.596
0.606
0.649
0.673
IK
0,507
0.524
0.541
0.558
0.568
0.609
0.632
2
0.471
0.487
0.503
0.519
0.528
0.565
0.587
m
0.443
0.458
0.473
0.488
0.497
0.533
0.553
3
0.421
0.435
0.449
0.463
0.472
0.506
0.525
IK
3K
0.403
0.417
0.430
0.443
0.451
0.483
0.502
4
0.393
0.405
0.418
0.432
0.439
0.471
0.489
4K
0.383
0.394
0.407
0.420
0.428
0.460
0.476
5
0.372
0.384
0.397
0.409
0.417
0.447
0.463
6
0,362
0.374
0.387
0.399
0.406
0.436
0.452
8
0.343
0.354
0.366
0.378
0.385
0.413
0.429
10
0.328
0.339
0.351
0.362
0.369
0.397
0.413
12
0.323
0.334
0.346
0.357
0.364
0.391
0.407
H
0.648
0.670
0.692
0.713
0,726
0.779
0.810
H
0.578
0.598
0.617
0.637
0.648
0.694
0.720
l
0.518
0.535
0.552
0.570
0.580
0.622
0.645
i'.f
0.469
0.485
0.501
0.517
0,527
0.506
0.587
IK
0.438
0.452
0,467
0.481
0.490
0.526
0.545
2
0.404
0.417
0.430
0.444
0.452
0.483
0.502
2^
0.379
0.391
0.403
0.415
0.422
0.451
0.466
3
0.356
0.367
0.37S
0.390
0.397
0.425
0.440
2
3K
0,339
Q, 350
0.361
0.373
0.380
0.406
0.421
4
0.328
0.339
0.350
0.360
0.367
0.392
0.406
4K
0.318
0.32K
0.339
0.350
0.357
0.381
0.395
5
0.308
0.31S
0.329
0.340
0.346
0.370
0.3K4
6
0.299
0.309
0,319
0.329
0.335
0.358
0.371
8
0.282
0.291
0.301
0.310
0.315
0.336
0.349
10
0.267
0.276
0.285
0.294
0.299
0.319
0.332
12
0.263
0.272
0.280
0.289
0.294
0.314
0,325
725
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 11 . COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION ( U) FOR PIPES INSULATED WITH CORRUGATED
ASBESTOS TYPE INSULATION (8 PLIES PER LVCH THICKNESS)
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at / 0 F
HOT WATER
STEAM
THICKNESS
OF
INSULATION
NOMINAL
POTB .
SIZE
120 F
150F
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(5Lb)
297.7 F
(50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
1A
0.801
0.820
0.838
0.857
0.868
0.913
0.939
a/
0.723
0.739
0.756
0.773
0.783
0.824
0.847
1
0.658
0.673
0.688
0.704
0.713
0.751
0.772
0.606
0.619
0.633
0.647
0.655
0.688
0.707
1^
0.573
0.586
0.599
0.612
0.619
0.652
0.670
2
0.538
0.550
0.562
0.575
0.581
0.612
0.629
0.511
0.523
0.534
0.546
0.553
0.582
0.599
3
0.489
0.501
0.512
0.524
0.531
0.558
0.575
1
0.474
0.485
0.496
0.507
0.514
0.542
0.557
4
0.461
0.472
0.482
0.493
0.500
0.527
0.542
0.451
0.462
0.472
0.482
0.489
0.515
0.530
5 2
0.442
0.452
0.462
0.473
0,479
0.505
0.520
6
0.432
0.442
0.452
0.463
0.468
0.493
0.508
8
0.416
0.426
0.436
0.446
0.451
0.475
0.489
10
0.402
0.412
0.421
0.430
0.435
0.459
0.473
12
0.397
0.406
0.415
0.424
0.429
0.452
0.466
y*
0.664
0.679
0.695
0.711
0.720
0.759
0.780
%
0.593
0.607
0.621
0.636
0.643
0.677
0.697
i
0.535
0.547
0.560
0.573
0.580
0.611
0.629
0.488
0.499
0.510
0.522
0.528
0.556
0.572
IH
0.457
0.467
0.478
0.490
0.496
0.522
0.537
2
0.425
0.434
0.444
0.455
0.460
0.485
0.499
0.399
0.408
0.418
0.428
0.434
0.457
0.471
3 2
0.378
0.387
0.396
0.405
0.411
0.433
0.446
1H
0.363
0.371
0.380
0.388
0.393
0.415
0.427
4 2
0.353
0.361
0.369
0.378
0.383
0.403
0.415
0.343
0.351
0.360
0.368
0.373
0.393
0.404
5 2
0.334
0.342
0.350
0.358
0.363
0.383
0.394
6
0.325
0.333
0.341
0.349 '
0.353
0.373
0.383
8
0.309
0.316
0.324
0.332 |
0.336
0.355
0.365
10
0.295
0.303
0.310
0.318 1
0.322
0.340
0.350
12
0.291
0.298
0.306
0.313 1
0.317
0.335
0.344
H
0.585
0.599
0.613
0.627 !
0.635
0.668
0.688
^
0.520
0.533
0.545
0.55S
0.565
0.595
0.612
1
0.465
0.476
0.487
0.498
0.504
0.532
0.547
IJi
0.422
0.432
0.442
0.452
0.458
0.483
0.497
1J"£
0.394
0.403
0.412
0.422
0.427
0.450
0.462
2
0.364
0.372
0.380
0.388
0.393
0.415
0.427
2^
0.339
0.347
0.355
0.363
0.367
0.387
0.398
3
0.319
0.327
0.334
0.342
0.346
0.365
0.375
2
3J^
0.304
0.311
0.318
0.326 ,
0.330
0.349
0.358
4
0.295
0.302
0.308
0.315
0.319
0.336
0.345
4jfJ2
0.285
0.292
0.299
0.306
0.310
0.327
0.336
5
0.278
0.284
0.290
0.297
0.301
0.317
0.326
6
0.269
0.275
0.282
0.288
0.292
0.307
0.315
8
0.253
0.259
0.265
0.270
0.273
0.288
0.296
10
0.240
0.245
0.251
0.257
0.260
0.275
0.282
12
0.236
0.241
0.247
0.253
0.256
0.270
0.277
726
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
TABLE 12. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION ( U) FOR PIPES 'INSULATED WITH LAMINATED
ASBESTOS TYPE INSULATION (30 TO 40 LAMINATIONS PER INCH THICKNESS-)
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per Degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATER
STEAM
THICKNESS
or
INSULATION
NOMINAL
PIPE
SIZE
120 F
1SOF
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(5Lb)
297.7 F
(50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 V
noP
140 F
1S7.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
X
0.605
0.620
0.635
0.650
0,658
0.695
0.716
%
0.546
0.560
0.573
0.586
0.594
0.627
0.645
0.498
0.510
0.522
0.534
0.541
0.570
0.587
1M
0.457
0.468
0.480
0.491
0.497
0.525
0.540
IX
0.432
0,442
0.453
0.464
0.470
0.496
0.511
2
0.406
0.416
0.426
0.437
0.442
0.467
0.481
2X
0.385
0.395
0.405
0.415
0.420
0.443
0.457
3
0.370
0.379
0.389
0.39S
0.403
0.425
0.438
1
3Ji
0.359
0.367
0,376
0.385
0.390
0.413
0.426
4
0.349
0.358
0.366
0.375
0.380
0.402
0.414
4X
0.341
0.350
0.359
0.367
0.372
0.393
0.405
0.334
0.342
0.351
0.359
0,364
0.384
0.395
6
0.327
0.335
0.343
0.351
0.356
0.376
0.387
8
0.314
0.322
0.330
0.338
0.343
0.362
0.373
10
0.304
0.312
0.320
0.328
0.332
0.350
0.361
12
0.301
0.308
0.316
0.324
0.328
0.346
0.356
X
0.502
0.514
0.526
0,539
0.546
0.577
0.595
%
0.450
0.461
0.473
0.484
0.490
0.517
0.532
i "
0.405
0,415
0.426
0.436
0.442
0.466
0.480
U.f
0.369
0,37vS
0.387
0.396
0.401
0.423
0.435
IX
0.343
0.352
0,361
0.370
0.375
0.397
0.409
0.321
0,329
0.337
0.34S
0.350 .
0.369
0.380
2H
0.301
0.309
0.317
0.324
0.330
0.348
0.358
0,286
0.293
0.301
0.308
0.313
0.330
0.340
IX
3X
0.274
0.281
0.288
0.295
0.300
0.316
0.326
0 267
0.273
0.280
0.287
0.291
0.307
0.317
4^
0.259
0.266
0.272
0.279
0.283
0.299
0.308
0.253
0.260
0.266
0.272
0.276
0.291
0.300
6
0.247
0.253
0.260
0.266
0.269
0.284
0.293
8
0.234
0.240
0.246
0.252
0.255
0.270
0.279
10
0.223
0.229
0.235
0.241
0.245
0.258
0.266
12
0.221
0.227
0.232
0,238
0,241
0.255
0.263
X
0.442
0.453
0,464
0,475
0.481
0.50S
0.523
J4
0.392
0.402
0,412
0.422
0.428
0.452
0.465
1
0.352
0.360
0.369
0.378
0.383
0.405
0.417
IK
0.319
0.327
0.335
0.343
0.348
0.367
0.379
IX
0,297
0,304
0.311
0.319
0.323
0.341
0.352
2
0.274
0.280
0,287
0,294
0.298
0.314
0.324
2H
0.256
0.262
0.269
0.275
0,279
0.293
0.302
0.243
0,249
0,254
0.260
0.264
0.277
0.285
2
**X
0,231
0.236
0.242
0.248
0.251
0.265
0.273
4
0.223
0.228
0.234
0.240
0.243
0.257
0.265
4X
0.216
0.222
0.227
0.233
0.236
0.249
0.256
5
0.210
0.215
0.220
0.225
0.228
0.241
0,248
6
0.203
0.208
0.213
0.218
0.221
0.233
0.240
8
0,191
0.1%
0.201
0.206
0,209
0.220
0.227
10
0.182
0.187
0.192
0.196
0.199
0.210
0.215
12
0.178
0.183
0.187
0.192
0.195
0.205
0.210
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 13. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION ( Z/)FOR PIPES INSULATED WITH LAMINATED
ASBESTOS TYPE INSULATION (APPROXIMATELY 20 LAMINATIONS PER INCH THICKNESS)
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATER
STKAU
THICKNESS
NOMINAL
OP
INSULATION
PIPE
120 F
1SOF
180 F
210 F
227.1 F
(5Lb)
297.7 F
(50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TBMPBRA.TURB DIFFERENCE
SOF
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
j^
0.910
0.925
0.940
0.956
0.964
1.001
1.022
?€
0.823
0.836
0.850
0.863
0.871
0.902
0.921
1
0.748
0.760
0.773
0.785
0.792
0.823
0.840
1J€
0.686
0.698
0.710
0.721
0.728
0.756
0.771
1J^
0.649
0.659
0.671
0.682
0.688
0.716
0.731
2
0.610
0.620
0.630
0;640
0.647
0.671
0.685
%
0.581
0.590
0.600
01609
0.615
0.638
0.651
3
0.558
0.567
0.576
0.585
0.591
0.613
0.626
1
M
0.539
0.548
0.557
0.566
0.571
0.592
0.604
4
0.524
0.532
0.541
0.551
0.556
0.577
0.589
&A
0.514
0.522
0.530
0.539
0.544
0.564
0.575
5
0.503
0.511
0.519
0.528
0.533
0.553
0.565
6
0.492
0.500
0.509
0.517
0.522
0.542
0.553
8
0.473
0.480
0.488
0.497
0.502
0.521
0.532
10 •
0.458
0.465
0.473
0.481
0.485
0.504
0.514
12
0.452
0.459
0.467
0.475
0.478
0.497
0.507
y*
0.755
0.767
0.780
0.793
0.800
0.831
0.848
%
0.674
0.685
0.697
0.708
0.715
0.743
0.759
i
0.607
0.618
0.628
0.639
0.645
0.670
0.684
iji
0.553
0.562
0.572
0.581
0.587
0.610
0.622
ijij
0.517
0.527
0.536
0.545
0.550
0.572
0.584
2
0.481
0.490
0.499
0.508
0.513
0.535
0.547
2Ji
0.453
0.460
0.469
0.477
0.481
0.500
0.511
3
0.429
0.436
0.444
0.452
0.456
0.475
0.485
1H
3J^
0.412
0.419
0.427
0.434
0.438
0.456
0.465
4
0.400
0.407
0.415
0.422
0.426
0.443
0.453
4J^
0.390
0.396
0.402
0.409
0.413
0.429
0.437
5
0.380
0.386
0.393
0.400
0.403
0.418
0.427
6
0.369
,0.375
0.382
0.389
0.392
0.408
0.417
8
0.351
0.358
0.364
0.370
0.374
0.388
0.397
10
0.337
0.344
0.350
0.356
0.359
0.373
0.382
12
0.332
0.338
0.344
0.350
0.353
0.367
0.375
Y2
0.664
0.675
0.687
0.698
0.704
0.732
0.747
%
0.591
0.601
0.611
0.621
0.627
0.652
0.665
1
0.529 ,
0.538
0.547
0.557
0.562
0.584
0.597
13i
0.480
0.488
0.497
0.505
0.510
0.529
0.540
lJ-£
0.445
0.453
0.462
0.470
0.475
0.494
0.504
2
0.412
0.420
0.427
0.434
0.438
0.455
0.464
2J£
0.385
0.392
0.398
0.405
0.409
0.425
0.434
3
0.364
0.370
0.376
0.382
0.385
0.400
0.408
2
3Ji
0.346
0.352
0.358
0.365
0.368
0.382
0.390
4
0.336
0.342
0.348
0.354
0.357
0.371
0.378
4J£
0.325
0.332
0.338
0.343
0.346
0.360
0.367
5
0.316
0.322
0.327
0.333
0.336
0.349
0.356
6
0.306
0.312
0.317
0.323
0.326
0.338
0.345
8
0.288
0.293
0.298
0.303
0.306
0.317
0.324
10
0.275
0.279
0.284
0.289
0.292
0.302
0.308
12
0.269
0.274
0.278
0.283
0.286
0.296
0.302
728
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
TABLE 14. COEFFICIENTS OF TRANSMISSION (U) FOR PIPES INSULATED
WITH ROCK WOOL TYPE INSULATION
These coefficients are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree
Fahrenheit difference in temperature between pipe and surrounding still air at 70 F
HOT WATER
STEAM
THICKNESS
NOMINAL
OF
INSULATION
PIPE
SIZE
120 P
150 F
180 F
210 F
227.1* 1 297.7 F
(SLb) 1 (50 Lb)
337.9 F
(100 Lb)
(INCHES)
(INCHES)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
50 F
80 F
110 F
140 F
157.1 F
227.7 F
267.9 F
1A
0.631
0.644
0.658
0.672
0.680
0.712
0.730
«
0.569
0.581
0.593
0.606
0.613
0.642
0.659
1
0.518
0.529
0.541
0.552
0.559
0.585
0.600
l}4
0.476
0.486
0.497
0.507
0.513
0.537
0.551
IX
0.450
0.460
0.470
0.480
0.485
0.508
0.522
2
0.422
0.431
0.441
0.450
0.456
0.478
0.490
2H
0.402
0.411
0.420
0,428
0.434
0.455
0.466
3
0,385
0.394
0.402
0.411
0.415
0.435
0.446
1
3H
0.373
0.381
0.389
0.398
0.402
0.421
0.432
4
0.363
0.371
0.379
0.387
0.392
0.411
0.422
4H
0.355
0.363
0.371
0.379
0.383
0.402
0.413
0.348
0.356
0.364
0.371
0.376
0.394
0.404
6
0.341
0.348
0.356
0.363
0.368
0.386
0.396
8
O.s327
0.335
0.342
0.349
0.353
0.372
0.381
10
0.317
0.324
0.331
0.338
0.343
0.360
0.369
12
0.313
0.320
0.327
0.334
0.338
0.355
0.364
1A
0.523
0.534
0.545
0.556
0.563
0.590
0.606
H
0,468
0.477
0.487
0.497
0.503
0.528
0.542
l
0.421
0.430
0.440
0.449
0.455
0.477
0.490
itf
0.383
0.391
0.399
0.407
0.412
0.433
0.444
iH
0.359
0.366
0.375
0.383
0.387
0.407
0.419
2
0.333
0.340
0.348
0.356
0.360
0.378
0.389
2H
0.314
0.320
0.327
0.335
0.339
0.355
0.365
3
0.2%
0.302
0.310
0.317
0.321
0.337
0.347
1H
3H
0,286
0.291
0.298
0.304
0.307
0.323
0.332
4
0.278
0.284
0.290
0.296
0.300
0.315
0.323
4H
0.270
0.276
0.282
0.287
0.291
0.305
0.313
5
0.263
0,269
0.275
0.280
0,284
0.298
0.305
6
0.257
0.262
0.267
0.273
0.277
0.290
0.297
8
0.244
0.249
0.254
0.260
0.263
0.276
0.283
10
0.235
0.240
0.245
0.250
0.253
0.265
0.272
12
0.230
0.234
0.239
0.245
0.247
0.260
0.267
1A
0.461
0.471
0.481
0.491
0.496
0.520
0.534
H
0.400
0.418
0.427
0.436
0.441
0.463
0.475
l
0.366
0.374
0.382
0.390
0.395
0.415
0.427
m
0.333
0.340
0.347
0.355
0.359
0,377
0,387
ix
0.310
0.316
0.323
0.330
0.334
0.351
0.360
2
0.286
0.292
0.298
0.304
0.308
0.323
0.331
2x
0.268
0.274
0.279
0.285
0.289
0.302
0.310
3
0,252
0.257
0.262
0.268
0.272
0.284
0.292
2
3H
0.241
0.246
0.251
0,257
0.260
0.272
0.280
4
0.232
0.237
0.242
0.247
0.250
0.262
0.269
4H
0.225
0.230
0.235
0.240
0.243
0.255
0.262
0.21K
0.223
0.228
0.233
0.236
0.247
0.253
6
0.213
0.217
0.221
0.226
0.228
0.239
0.245
8
0.200
0.204
0.208
0.213
0.215
0.225
0.231
10
0.180
0.193
0.197
0.201
0.204
0.214
0.220
12
0.1X5
0.190
0.194
0.198
0.200
0.210
0.216
720
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
values obtained from a number of tests made on each type of material,
also that all variables due to differences in thickness, pipe sizes, and air
conditions are eliminated. Individual manufacturer's materials, will
of course, vary in conductivity to some extent from these values.
The heat losses through six of the types of insulation given in Table 8
for 1, \y% and 2 in. thick materials, and for temperatures commonly
encountered in engineering practice can be obtained from Tables 9 to
14 inclusive. The loss through other thicknesses of the materials, and
for other hot water or steam temperature conditions may be obtained by
interpolation. The heat loss coefficients given in Tables 9 to 14 are based
on the conductivities in Table 8 and were computed from data given in
Chapter 22, THE GUIDE 1931.
The rate of heat loss from a surface maintained at constant temperature
is greatly increased by air circulation over the surface. In the case of
well-insulated surfaces the increases in losses due to air velocity are very
small as compared with increases shown for bare surfaces, because of the
fact that air flowing over the surface of the insulation can increase only
the rate of heat transfer from surface to air, and cannot change the
internal resistance to heat flow inherent in the insulation itself. The
maximum increase in loss due to air velocity ranges from about 30 per
cent in the case of 1 in. thick insulation, 'to about 10 per cent in the case
of 3 in. thick insulation, provided that the insulation is thoroughly sealed
so that air can flow only over the surface.
If the conditions are such that the air may circulate through cracks
and crevices in the insulation, the increases may be far greater than those
given. Therefore, it is essential that insulation be sealed as tightly as
possible. Pipe insulation out-of-doors should be provided with a water-
proof jacket, and other outdoor insulation should be thoroughly weather-
proofed.
HEAT LOSSES FROM DUCTS
The heat transmission through sheet metal duct walls is mainly a
function of the surface character of the metal since the thickness of the
metal itself is not enough to appreciably retard the flow of heat. In other
words, the two surfaces provide the resistance to heat flow through the
metal. The surfaces of black iron probably offer the least resistance to
the flow of ^heat, while metals with brighter and smoother surfaces, offer
greater resistance. For ducts in service at normal air velocities and
temperatures, the coefficient of heat transmission for black iron is 1.6
Btu per square foot per hour per degree Fahrenheit difference between
the mean temperature in the duct and the temperature of the surrounding
air and for galvanized iron is 1.1 Btu per square foot per hour per degree
Fahrenheit difference.
The heat loss from a given length of duct is expressed by:
The heat given up by the air in the duct is:
H = 0.24 M fa - 40 = 14.4 A V d ft - « (2)
730
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
Equating 1 and 2 enables the determination of the temperature drop in the duct:
k />
/i + k - 2/3 _ 28.84 Vd f~
/, - k " TPlT W
wfcere
Jf = heat loss through duct walls, Btu per hour.
k — overall heat transmission coefficient, Btu per square foot per hour per degree
Fahrenheit temperature difference.
p = perimeter of duct, feet.
L = length of duct, feet.
h — temperature of air entering duct, degrees Fahrenheit.
k = temperature of air leaving duct, degrees Fahrenheit.
ls = temperature of air surrounding duct, degrees Fahrenheit.
M = weight of air per hour through the duct, pounds.
A — cross-sectional area of duct, square feet.
V — velocity of air in the duct, feet per minute, at specified temperature.
d = density of air at the specified temperature at which V is measured.
In using the formula 3 one of the duct air temperatures will be unknown
and will be solved for by substitution of the other known or assumed
values. The assumed values dependent upon the mean duct air tem-
perature can be determined exactly by cut and try.
Heat losses for insulated duels are given in the warm air column of
Table 15. The losses are based on a uniform series of material conduc-
tivities at 8(> F mean temperature and an air temperature of 50 F outside
of the duct. The losses may be interpolated for odd material conduc-
tivities and temperatures. The conductivities of various materials will be
found in Table 2 of Chapter 5. For cases whore the surrounding air
temperature is other than 50 V the losses may be selected on the basis of
temperature difference.
Example 1. Determine the entering air temperature and heat loss for a duct 24 x 36 in.
cross section and 70 ft in length, insulated with ^2 in. of a material having a conductivity
of 0.35 Btu at 86 F mean temperature, carrying air at a velocity of 1200 fpm, measured
at 70 F, to deliver air at 120 K with air surrounding the duel at 40 F.
Solution. Assume the entering air temperature to be 130 F. Thus* the mean tem-
perature difference will be 85 F. Referring to the warm air column of Table 15 and
interpolating for 90 F temperature difference, the overall heat transmission coefficient is
found to be 0.510 Btu. From Table 4, Chapter 1 the density of air at 70 F and 29.92 in.
Hg. is found to be 0.07-123 Ib per cubic foot. Substituting these and the other given values
in Formula 3,
/i f 120 - (2 X 40) •-= 2K.8 X 6 X 1200 X 0.07423
/i - 120 0.5 Hi X 10 X70
/i -f- 120 - 80 - 42,«2 (/i - 120)
/, -f 40 f 42.02/1 ~ 5114
5154 *- 41.02*,
128.8 « h
Based on 123.8 F entering air temperature the new mean temperature difference will be
731
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
81.9 F and the new transmission coefficient will be 0.515. Resubstituting in Formula 3,
ti becomes 123.9 F, which value is evidently exact within one tenth of one degree.
Substituting in Formula 1,
g = 0.515X10X7o[(123-92+12°)-4o]
H - 0.515 X 10 X 70 X 81.95
H = 29,543 Btu.
TABLE 15. HEAT TRANSMISSION THROUGH DUCT WALLS INSULATED WITH MATERIALS
OF VARYING CONDUCTIVITIES*
Values are expressed in Btu per hour per square foot of flat surface per degree Fahrenheit
difference in temperature between air inside and still air outside at 90 F for
cold air and 60 F for warm air in ducts
CONDUCTIVITY
OF
INSULATION
AT 86 F
MEAN TEMP.
THICKNESS
OP
INSULATION
(INCHES)
COLD AIR
WARM Am
40F
60 F
80 F
90 F | 120 F
150 F
180 F
TEMPBRATURB DIFFERENCE
50 F
30 F
10 F
40 F
70 F
100 F
130 F
0 200
V*
ix
2
0.319
0.175
0.121
0.092
0.323
0.177
0.122
0.093
0.328
0.180
0.124
0.095
0.324
0.178
0.330
0.181
0.125
0.337
0.184
0.127
0.344
0.188
0.129
0.250
X
IX
0.382
0.214
0.149
0.114
0.387
0.217
0.151
0.115
0.392
0.220
0.153
0.117
0.390
0.218
0.397
0 221
0.154
0.404
0.225
0.156
0 412
0.229
0.159
0.300
M
IX
0.440
0.252
0.176
0.135
0.445
0.255
0.178
0.137
0.450
0.258
0.180
0.139
0.448
0.256
0.457
0.260
0.181
0.466
0.264
0.184
0.475
0.268
0.187
0.350
y*
i
IX
2
0.494
0.286
0.202
0.156
0.499
0.289
0.204
0.158
0.505
0.292
0.207
0.160
0.502
0.290
0.511
0.295
0.208
0.521
0.300
0.211
0.530
0.306
0.215
0.450
1A
1
iy2
2
0.596
0.356
0.254
0.198
0.602
0.360
0.257
0.200
0.599
0.358
0.610
0.364
0.259
0 621
0.370
0.263
0.633
0.376
0.267
0.550
1A
l
IX
2
0.682
0.417
0 302
0.236
0 688
0.422
0.305
0.239
0.685
0.418
0.699
0.425
0.307
0.714
0.432
0.312
0.730
0.440
0.317
aFor round ducts less than 30 in. diameter, increase heat transmission values by the following percent-
ages:
THICKNESS OF INSULATION (Inches)
fcj
1
134
2
21 to 30 in. Duct Diameter. ..
1%
307-
4%
12 to 21 in. Duct Diameter
3%
7°?
9%
732
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
LOW TEMPERATURE INSULATION
Surfaces maintained at temperatures lower than the surrounding air
are insulated to reduce the flow of heat and to prevent condensation and
frost. The insulating material should absorb a minimum amount of
moisture, for one reason that the absorption of moisture substantially
increases the conductivity of the material. This property is particu-
larly important in the case of surfaces to be insulated that are below the
dew .point of the surrounding air. In such cases, due to vapor pressure
difference, it is necessary to seal the surface of the insulating material
against the penetration of water vapor which would condense within the
material, causing a serious increase in heat flow, possible breakdown of
the material and corrosion of metal surfaces. An insulating material with
a high degree of moisture absorption might pick up moisture before
application and then, when the seal is in place and the temperature of the
insulated surface reduced, release that moisture to the cold surface.
The thickness of insulation which should be used to prevent condensa-
tion on pipes and flat metallic surfaces may be obtained from Fig. 2.
The maximum permissablc temperature drop is indicated at the point
where the guide line passes through the horizontal scale at the left center
of the chart. This temperature drop represents the difference between
the dry-bulb temperature and the clew point temperature for the con-
ditions involved. (See discussion of condensation in Chapter 7). The
surface resistances used for calculating the family of curves in Fig. 2 are
based on tests made on canvas covered pipe insulation surfaces at Mellon
Institute. However, it has been found that the resistance for asphaltic
and roofing surfaces is practically the same as for canvas surfaces, so that
the curves may be followed with no alteration for surfaces commonly used.
Heat gains for pipes insulated with a material having a conductivity
of 0.30 Btu per square foot per hour per degree Fahrenheit difference per
inch thickness are given in Table 16.
Heat gains for insulated ducts are given in the cold air column of
Table 15. The heat gains arc based on a uniform series of conductivities
at 8G F mean temperature and an air temperature of 90 F outside of the
duct. The gains may be interpolated for odd material conductivities and
temperatures. For cases whore the surrounding air temperature is other
than 90 F the gains may be selected on the basis of temperature difference.
INSULATION OF PIPES TO PREVENT FREEZING
If the surrounding air temperature remains sufficiently low for an ample
period of time, insulation cannot prevent I he free/ing of still water, or of
water flowing at such a velocity that the quantity of heat carried in the
water is not sufficient to take rare of the heat losses which will result and
cause the temperature of the water to be lowered to the freezing point.
Insulation can materially prolong the time required for the water to give
up its heat, and if the velocity of the water flowing in the pipe is main-
tained at a sufficiently high rate, freezing may bo prevented.
Table 17 may be used for making estimates of the thickness of insu-
lation necessary to take care of still water in pipes at various water and
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
surrounding air temperature conditions. Because of the damage and
service interruptions which may result from frozen water in pipes, it is
essential that an efficient insulation be utilized. This table is based on
the use of a material having a conductivity of 0.30, The initial water
temperature is assumed to be 10 F above, and the surrounding air tern-
FIG. 2. THICKNESS OF PIPE INSULATION TO PREVENT SWEATINC^
aSolve problems by drawing lines as indicated by dotted line, entering chart at lower left hand scale.
perature 50 F below the freezing point of water (temperature difference,
60 r).
The last column of Table 17 gives the minimum quantity of water at
initial temperature of 42 F which should be supplied every hour for each
linear foot of pipe, in order to prevent the temperature of the water from
being lowered to the freezing point. The weights given in this column
should be multiplied by the total length of the exposed pipe line expressed
in feet. As an additional factor of safety, and in order to provide against
temporary reductions in flow occasioned by reduced pressure, it is ad-
734
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
visable to double the rates of flow listed in the table. It must be empha-
sized that the flow rates and periods of time designated apply only for the
conditions stated. To estimate for other service conditions the following
method of procedure may be used.
If water enters the pipe at 52 F instead of 42 F, the time required to
cool it to the freezing point will be prolonged to twice that given in the
table, or the rate of flow of water may be reduced so that the quantity
required will be one-half that shown in the last column of Table 17.
However, if the water enters the pipe at 34 F it will be cooled to 32 F in
TABLE 16. HEAT GAINS FOR INSULATED COLD PIPES
Based on materials having conductivity, k — 0.80
NOMINAL
I OB WA.TEH THICKNESS
BRIMS THICKNESS
HEAVY BRINK THICKNESS
PlPK i
SBB
(iNl'HKS)
Thickness
of
Insulation
(Inches)
Btu Per
Linear
Foot
Btu Per
Sq Ft
Pii*
Surface
Thickness
of
Insulation
(Inches)
Btu Per
Linear
Foot
Btu Per
Sci Ft
Pipe
Surface
Thickness
of
Insulation
(Inches)
Btu Per
Linear
Foot
Btu Per
Sq Ft
Pipe
Surface
V-2 ; 1.5
0.110
0.502
2.0
0,098
0.446
2.8
0.087
0.394
3 ^ : 1.6
0.119
0.431
2.0
0.111
0.405
2.9
0.094
0.340
I 1.6
0.139
0.403
2.0
0.124
0.352
3 0
0.104
0.294
l»4 1.6
0.155
0.357
2.4
0.131
0,300
3.1
0.113
0.260
1 " •> ; 1.5
0.174
0.351
2.5
0.134
0 270
3.2
0.118
0.238
2
1.5
0.200
0.322
2.5
0.151
0.244
3.3
0.134
0.214
'? i ,> ! IS
0.228
0.303
2.6
0.170
0.226
3.3
0.147
0.197
3 i 1.5
0.269
0.293
2.7
0.186
0.202
3.4
0 . 162
0.176
3*L> 1.5
0.295
0.282
2.9
0.191
0.183
3.5
0.176
0.167
4 i 1,7
0.294
0.248
2.9
0.209
0.176
3.7
0.182
0.154
5
1.7
0.349
0 2s"59
3.0
0.241
0.165
3.9
0.202
0.138
()
1.7
0.404
0.233
3.0
0.259
0.150
4.0
0.228
0.130
8 1.9
0,455
0.201
3.0
0.318
0.140
4.0
0.263
0,116
10 1 .9
0.559
0.198
3.0
0.383
0.135
4.0
0.309
0.110
12 1.9
0.648
0.194
3.0
0.438
0.131
4.0
0.364
0.108
one-fifth of the time given in the table. It will then be necessary to
increase the rate of flow so that five times the specified quantity of water
will have to be supplied in order to prevent freezing.
If the minimum air temperature is —38 F (temperature difference 80 F)
instead of — 18 F, the time required to cool the water to the freezing point
will be 00/80 of the time given in the table, or the necessary quantity of
water to be supplied will be 80/00 of that given.
In making calculations to arrive at the values given in Table 17,- the
loss of heat stored in the insulation, the effect of a varying temperature
difference due to the cooling of pipe and water, and the resistance of
the outer surface of the insulation to the transfer of heat to the air have
all been neglected. When these factors enter into the computations it is
necessary to enlarge the factor of safety. Also as stated, the time shown
in the table is that required to lower the water to the freezing point. ^ A
longer period would be required to freeze the water but the danger point
is reached when freezing starts. The flow of water will stop and the entire
line will be in danger as soon as the water freezes across the section of the
pipe at any point.
735
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ECONOMICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
"SCALE -A ife" " /i"
HOURS OT OPERATION PER YEAR
(L. B. McMillan, Proc. National Dist. Heating Ass'n., Vol. 18, p. 138.)
FIG. 3. CHART FOR DETERMINING ECONOMICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION
736
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
When water must remain stationary longer than the times designated
in Table 17, the only safe way to insure against freezing is to install a
steam or hot water line or to place an electric resistance heater along the
side of the exposed water line. The heating system and the water line are
then insulated so that the heat losses from the heating system are not
excessive, and the heating effect is concentrated against the water pipe
where it is needed. ^ For this form of protection 2 in. of an efficient insu-
lation may be applied.
ECONOMICAL THICKNESS OF PIPE INSULATION
The thicknesses of insulation which ordinarily are used for various
temperature conditions are given in Table 18. Where a thorough analysis
of economic thickness is desired this may be accomplished through the
the use of the chart, Fig. 3.
The dotted line on the chart illustrates its use in solving a typical
example. In using the chart, start with the scale at the left bottom
margin representing the given number of hours of operation per year;
then proceed vertically to the line representing the given value of heat;
thence horizontally to the right, to the line representing the given tem-
perature difference; thence vertically to the line representing the con-
ductivity ^of the given material ; thence horizontally, to the left, to the line
representing the given discount on that material; thence vertically to
the curve representing the required per cent return on the investment;
thence horizontally to the right, to the curve representing the given pipe
size; thence vertically to the scale at the top right margin where the
economical thickness may be read off directly.
UNDERGROUND PIPE INSULATION
Underground steam distribution lines are carried in protective struc-
tures of various types, sizes and shapes. (Sec Chapter 42). Detailed data
on commonly used forms of tunnels and conduit systems have been
published by the National District Heating Association2.
Pipes in tunnels are covered with sectional insulation to provide
maximum thermal efficiency and are also finished with good mechanical
protection in the form of metal or waterproofing membrane outer jackets.
Conduit systems arc in more general use than tunnels. Pipes carried in
conduits may be insulated with sectional insulation; however, the more
usual practice is to fill the entire section of the conduit around the pipes
with high quality, loose insulating material. The insulation must be
kept dry at all times, and for this purpose effective waterproofing mem-
branes enclose the insulation. A drainage system is also provided to divert
water which may tend to enter the conduit.
The economical thickness of insulation for underground work is
difficult of accurate determination clue to the many variables which have
to be considered. As a result of theories8 previously developed, together
'Handbook of the *Vatit>nul Di&trut llfutinH Association, Second Kdition, li>.'J2,
•Theory of Heat Lowes front Pipes Huried iri tin* Ground, by J, U. Allen (A. S. H. V. K. TRANSACTIONS
Vol. UO, 1020, p, ,W».
737
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 17. DATA FOR ESTIMATING REQUIREMENTS TO PREVENT
FREEZING OF WATER IN PIPES
NOMINAL
PIPE
SIZE
NUMBER OP HOURS
TO COOL
WATER TO
WATER REQUIRED TO FLOW
TO PREVENT FREEZING
POUNDS PER LINEAR FOOT OP
INCHES)
FREEZING POINT
PIPE PER HOUR
Thickness of Insulation in Inches
2
3
4
2
3
4
1A
0.42
0.50
0.57
0.54
0.45
0.40
0.83
1.02
1.16
0.68
0.55
0.48
V4
1.40
1.74
2.02
0.84
0.68
0.58
2
1.94
2.48
2.90
0.95
0.75
0.64
3
3.25
4.27
5.08
1.24
0.94
0.79
4
4.55
6.02
7.20
1.47
1.11
0.93
5
5.92
7.96
9.6Q
1.73
1.29
1.06
6
7.35
9.88
12.20
1.98
1.46
1.19
8
10.05
13.90
17.25
2.46
1.78
1.43
10
13.00
18.10
22.70
2.96
2.12
1.70
12
15.80
22.20
28.10
3.43
2.45
1.93
TABLE 18. THICKNESSES OF INSULATION ORDINARILY USED INDOORS*
STBAM PRESSURES
(La GAGE)
OB CONDITIONS
STEAM TEMPERATURES
DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT
THICKNESS OP INSULATION
Pipes Larger
Than 4 In.
Pipes
2 In. to
4 In.
Pipw
4 In.
to Ift In
0 to 25
25 to 100
100 to 200
Low Superheat
Medium Superheat
High Superheat
212 to 267
267 to 338
338 to 388
388 to 500
500 to 600
600 to 700
1 in.
2 in.
2}$in.
3 in.
3J^ in.
lin.
lin.
IJjin.
2 in.
3 in.
1 in.
1 in.
1 in.
2 in*.
2 in.
aAH piping located outdoors or exposed to weather is ordinarily insulated to a thickness 1A in. greater
than shown in this table, and covered with a waterproof jacket.
TABLE 19. THICKNESS OF LOOSE INSULATION FOR USE AS
FILL IN UNDERGROUND CONDUIT SYSTEMS
STEAM
PRESSURES
(Lu GAGE)
OR CONDITIONS
STEAM
TEMPERATURES
DECREES
FAHRENHEIT
MINIMUM THICKNESS OP INSULATION IN INCHES
Mr.vi Mrw
DISTANCE
BETWEEN
STEAM
AND
RETURN
STEAM LINES
RETURN LINES
Pipes Less
than 4 In.
Pipes 4 In.
to 10 In.
Pipes Larger
than 12 In.
Pipes Less
than 4 In.
Pipce 4 In.
and Larger
Hot Water,
or 0 to 25
25 to 125
Above 125, or
superheat
212 to 267
267 to 352
352 to 500
iJi
2
2^
2
2y2
3
2^
3
3M
IK
1M
V/4
1H
1
1 H
J!2
738
CHAPTER 39. PIPING AND DUCT INSULATION
with other experimental data which have been presented, the usual
endeavor is to secure not less than 90 per cent efficiency for underground
piping. Table 19 can be used as a guide in arriving at the minimum
thickness of loose insulation fills to use for laying out conduit systems.
Other factors such as the number of pipes and their combination of
sizes, as well as the standard conduit sizes, are primary controlling
factors in the amount and thickness of insulation for use.
When sectional insulation is applied to lines in tunnels or conduits,
usual practice is to apply the most efficient materials J^ in. less in thick-
ness than that determined by the use of Fig, 3. The data in Fig. 3 are based
on conditions of insulation exposed to the air, whereas normal ground
temperature is substituted for air temperature in determining the tem-
perature difference for use with the chart when applying it for under-
ground pipe line estimates.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What precautions must be taken in selecting insulation used for covering
pipe lines carrying materials at temperatures lower than the dew point?
Materials intended for this service should be as moisture proof as possible and in addition
an outer covering should be applied which is proof against diffusion of air and water
vapor. If the material permits the diffusion of air, the air will reach a point in the
covering where the temperature is below the dew point. The condensed water will
gradually accumulate until the covering becomes saturated, which will increase the
conductivity and perhaps lower the mechanical strength of the covering until it becomes
worthless.
2 • Compute the total annual heat loss front 165 ft of 2-in. bare pipe in service
4000 hours per year. The pipe is carrying steam at 10 Ib pressure and is exposed
to an average air temperature of 70 F.
The pipe temperature is taken as the steam temperature, which is 239.4 F, obtained
from Table 8, Chapter I. The temperature difference between the pipe and air = 239.4
— 70 = 169.4 de£. By interpolation of Table 1 between temperature differences of
157.1 F and 227.7 F, the heat loss from a 2-in. pipe at a temperature difference of 169.4
deg is found to be 1.677 Btu per hour per linear foot per degree temperature difference.
The total annual heat loss from the entire - 1,677 X 169.4 X 165 (linear feet) X 4000
(hours) » 188,000,000 Btu.
3 • Coal costing $11.50 per ton and having a calorific value of 13,000 Btu per
pound is being burned in the furnace supplying steam to the pipe line given in
Question 2. If the system is operating at an over-all efficiency of 55 per cent
determine the monetary value of the annual heat loss from the line.
The cost of heat per 1 million Btu supplied to the system « 1,000,000 X 11.5 (dollars)
-r 13,000 (Btu) X 2000 (Ib) X 0.55 (efficiency) = $0.804. The total cost of heat
lost per year - 0.804 X 188 (million Btu) - $151.15.*
4 • If the steam line given in Question 2 i« covered with 1-in. thick 85 per cent
magnesia, determine the resulting total annual heat loss through the insula-
tion. Also compute the monetary value of the annual saving and the per-
centage of saving over the heat loss from the bare pipe.
By interpolation of Table 9 between temperature differences of 157.1 F and 227.7 F, the
coefficient of transmission for 1-in. magnesia on a 2-in. pipe is found to be 0.525 Btu per
hour per square foot of pipe surface per degree temperature difference at a temperature
difference of 169.4 cleg. The total hourly loss per square foot of insulated pipe will then
be 0.525 X 169.4 =» 89.04 Btu. From Table 5 the area per linear foot of 2-in. pipe is
4A closely approximate solution of this problem may be quickly made by use of the estimating chart given
in F'ig. I.
789
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
found to be 0.622 sq ft. The total annual loss through the insulation = 89.04 X 0.622
X 165 (linear feet) X 4000 (hours) = 36,550,000 Btu. The annual bare pipe loss as
determined in the solution of Question 2 was found to be 188,000,000 Btu. The saving
due to insulation is then 188,000,000 - 36,550,000 - 151,350,000 Btu per year.
From the solution of Question 3 it was found that the heat supplied to the system cost
$0.804 per million Btu; therefore, the monetary value of the saving = 0.804 (dollars)
X 151.35 (million Btu) = $121.69, or 81.2 percent of the cost when using uninsulated
pipe.
5 • The manufacturer's list price for 85 per cent magnesia insulation is $0.36
per linear foot for 1-in. (standard thick) material to cover a 2-in. pipe. De-
termine the period of tune required for the saving found in Question 4 to pay
for the cost of the insulation if it can be purchased and applied at 80 per cent
of list price (20 per cent discount).
The applied cost of insulation = 165 (linear feet) X 0.36 (dollars) X 0.80 (net)
= 47.52. Since the annual saving as found in Question 4 amounts to $121.69, the in-
sulation will pay for its cost in 47.52 + 121.69 = 0.3905 years; in other words, the cost
will be repaid 2,56 times by the saving obtained in one^heating season.
6 • The conductivity of magnesia insulation is 0.455 at the mean temperature
which will result under the conditions of Question 4. Estimate the most
economical thickness of magnesia for application on the pipe when operating
under the conditions which are given in the foregoing problems and when a
20 per cent return is required on the investment for insulation.
Use chart given in Fig. 3. Begin at the left bottom margin and proceed successively as
shown by the dotted line example to the following essential data which are collected from
the problems previously given :
4000 hours operation per year.
$0.804 value of heat, dollars per million Btu.
169.4 deg temperature difference.
0.455 conductivity of insulation.
20 per cent discount from list, cost of insulation.
20 per cent fixed charges, return on investment.
2-in. pipe size.
Solution of the problem by use of Fig. 3 results in a required thickness of approximately
1.05 in. The nearest commercial thickness procurable is standard thick (1^2 in.)
magnesia.
(It is of interest to note that the use of Fig. 3 will generally result in solutions which, for all practical pur-
poses, agree closely with the specifications for thicknesses given in Table 18.)
7 • Determine the minimum thickness of wool felt insulation having a con-
ductivity of 0.30 necessary to prevent condensation of moisture on a 4-in. pipe
carrying cold \vater at a temperature of 40 F when the surrounding air reaches
maximum conditions of 90 F with a relative humidity of 90 per cent.
The difference between the temperature of the pipe and the surrounding air is 90 — 40
— 50 deg. For quick estimating purposes use the chart given in Fig. 2. Enter this chart
at the lower left margin on the 90 per cent relative humidity line and proceed horizontally
to the right to intersect the 90 deg air temperature line. Project a line up to the 50 deg
temperature difference line, and then horizontally to the right to the intersection with the
4-in. pipe size line. From this point proceed down to intersect the 0.30 line which denotes
the conductivity of the insulation , Directly opposite this point of intersection the correct
thickness of insulation is read from the scale on the lower right margin. This chart
solution denotes that wool felt 2.4-in. thick is sufficient to prevent condensation. The
nearest commercial thickness procurable is 2J£ in.
For prevention of condensation as well as for protection against freezing, if the thickness
determined theoretically cannot be had, it is better to apply the next greater thickness
procurable rather than to use any lesser thickness because an additional factor of safety
is thus obtained.
740
Chapter 40
ELECTRICAL HEATING
Resistors, Heating Elements, Electric Heaters, Unit Heaters,
Central Fan Heating, Electric Steam Heating, Electric Hot
Water Heating, Heating Domestic Water Supply, Industrial
Heating, Reversed Cycle Refrigeration, Auxiliary Electric
Heating, Control, Calculating Capacities, Power Problems,
Insulation
heating is steadily assuming a more important place in
heating, ventilating and air conditioning installations, accelerated in
many territories by the load building efforts of the utilities which usually
include reduced rates to encourage such installations. Electrical heating
has^ a logical place in the heating industry because of its features of
flexibility, cleanliness, safety, convenience and ease of control. Electrical
heating practice has many basic principles in common with fuel heating,
but there are also important differences. When heat units are delivered
to each room by wire, ^no^ combustion process is necessary, either at a
central plant or at the individual room units. The maximum output of
an electric heater is a fixed constant, unaffected by the temperature of the
surrounding air and it follows that the maximum total load on an electrical
heating system is the total wattage of connected electric heaters, regard-
less of weather conditions. The real obstacle to the more general adoption
of electric heating for buildings is the cost of the electricity itself. Because
the heat units produced electrically are more costly, their conservation is
of more relative economic importance than with fuel heating, so that
sponsors of electric heating give greater attention to temperature-insu-
lated building construction, and to economy by accurate controls.
All heat is a form of energy, JFuels hold stored chemical energy which
is released into heat by combustion. Electrical power is a form of energy
which can be released into heat by passing it through a resisting material
Both fuel and electric heating have two divisions: first, the conversion of
energy into heat; second, the distribution and practical use of the heat
after it is produced.
In converting the chemical energy of fuels into heat by combustion,
there is necessarily a considerable variation in thermal efficiency. This
is not true, however, when converting electric power into heat, because
100 per cent of the energy applied in the resistor is always transformed
into heat. ^ In electric heating practice the engineer need not be concerned
about efficiencies of heat production, but rather about efficiencies of heat
utilization. It is the engineer's problem to distribute the electrically
741
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
produced heat units in such manner as to obtain conditions of maximum
comfort with the minimum consumption of electricity.
DEFINITIONS
Definitions of terms used in fuel heating are given in Chapter 45. The
following terms apply particularly to electric heating:
Electric Resistor: A material used to produce heat by passing an electric current
through it.
Electric Heating Element: A unit assembly consisting of a resistor, insulated
supports, and terminals for connecting the resistor to electric power.
Electric Heater: A complete assembly of heating elements with their enclosure,
ready for installation in service.
RESISTORS AND HEATING ELEMENTS
Solids, liquids, and gases may be used as resistors, but most com-
mercial electric heating elements have solid resistors, such as metal
alloys, and non-metallic compounds containing carbon. In some types of
electric boilers, water forms the resistor which is heated by an alternating
current of electricity passing through it. One of the more common
resistors is nickel-chromium wire or ribbon which, in order to avoid
oxidation, contains practically no iron.
Commercial electric heating elements are made in many types. Some
have resistors exposed to the air being heated. The resistors may be coils
of wire or metal ribbon, supported by refractory insulation, or they may
be non-metallic rods, mounted on insulators. This type of element is
used extensively for operation at high temperatures when radiant heat is
desired, also at low temperatures for convection and fan circulation
heating, especially in large installations.
Some elements have metallic resistors embedded in a refractory insu-
lating material, encased in a protective sheath of metal. Fins or extended
surfaces may be used to add heat-dissipating area. Elements are made
in many forms, such as strips, rings, plates and tubes. Strip elements are
used for clamping to surfaces requiring heat by conduction, and in some
types of convection air heaters. Ring and plate elements are used in
electric ranges, waffle irons, and in many small air heaters. Tubular
elements may be immersed in liquids, cast into metal, and, when formed
into coils, used in electric ranges and air heaters. Cloth fabrics woven
from flexible resistor wires and asbestos thread, are used for many low
temperature purposes such as heating pads and aviators' clothing.
ELECTRIC HEATERS
Electric heaters may be divided into three groups, conduction, radiant
and convection.
Conduction electric heaters, which deliver most of their heat by actual
contact with the object to be heated, are used in such applications as
aviators' clothing, hot pads, foot warmers, soil heaters, ice melters, and
water heaters. Conduction heaters are useful in conserving and localizing
heat delivery at definite points. They are not suitable for general air
heating.
742
CHAPTER 40. ELECTRICAL HEATING
Radiant electric heaters, which deliver most of their heat by radiation,
have high temperature incandescent heating elements and reflectors to
concentrate the heat rays in the desired directions. The immediate and
pleasant sensation of warmth which is caused by radiant heat makes this
type desirable for temporary use where the heat rays can fall directly
upon the body. They are not satisfactory for general air heating, as
radiant heat rays do not warm the air through which they pass. They
must first be absorbed by walls, furniture, or other solid objects which
then give up the heat to the air. A typical radiant heater is shown in
Fig. 1.
Gravity convection electric heaters, designed to induce thermal air circu-
lation, deliver heat largely by convection, and should be located and used
in much the same manner as steam and hot water radiators or convectors,
They generally have heating elements of large area, with moderate surface
temperature, enclosed to give proper stack effect to draw cold air from
Back
X
£
•Reflector
/j^jncandescent
element
Cord
Elements
Wire
guard
Fi<;. !. TYPICAL KAIHANT HKATKR
Perforated'rU« /
case ' n//
FIG. 2. CONVKCTOR HRATKR
the floor line. See Fig. 2. The flexibility possible with electric heating
elements should discourage the use of secondary mediums for heat trans-
fer. Water and steam add nothing to the efficiency of an electric heater
and entail expensive construction and maintenance.
UNIT HEATERS
Unit electric heaters include a built-in fan unit which circulates room
air over the heating elements. Heaters of thus type are manufactured in
many designs and sizes, and can be located in much the same manner as
steam unit heaters.
Electric unit heaters are used in industrial plants, sub-stations, power
houses, pumping stations, etc., where the power rate for electric heating
is found to be favorable. The best location of the heater depends upon
local circumstances as they can be mounted either on the ceiling to direct
the air downward, on the side wall about 7 ft from the floor, or at the
floor line. Variations in design are necessary for different locations, but
typical arrangements are indicated in Figs. 3, 4, and 5.
The arrangement of the wiring circuits is very important for electric
unit heaters. In principle they are all the same and include as essential
743
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
elements an automatic control panel, a thermostat, and a master hand
switch. All heaters should be designed with a safety thermal trip wired
in series with the magnet coil of the control panel and with the hand
switch and thermostat. A typical wiring diagram is shown in Fig. 6. This
applies to a single phase power supply, but for 3 phase the only difference
is to have a 3 pole panel and a heater arrangement for 3 phase connection.
^u
Motor
Ceiling
f \ Thermal
1 T trip\
' """ Fan-* "
r ~i
1 Heater 1
|_ J
/ / Louvers -\ \
Louvers
x\\\\\\\v\V.\\\\\\N
n i?
]Heater| ^
JFan/T"1
i ! Hi
i i / 1
i i ^>
Thermal
trip
[
}
Motor
Wall-^
'1,
FIG. 3. CEILING MOUNTED UNIT HEATER FIG. 4. WALL MOUNTED UNIT HEATER
Thermal
/ |
4 M^
A?"i ! ^
' i i
f i i
L-_ i t
Power supply
Thermostat
Diffusing
C1 ff"'116
fc^
FIG. 5. FLOOR MOUNTED UNIT
HEATER
FIG. 6. WIRING DIAGRAM FOR UNIT
HEATER
Portable unit heaters are useful for temporary work, such as drying out
damp rooms, or for warming rooms during construction.
CENTRAL FAN HEATING
Electric heating elements can be used for the prime source of heat in a
central fan electric heating system or in the heating phase of a complete
air conditioning system. They can be used in the same manner as steam
served heating units for tempering, preheating or reheating the air at the
main supply fan location and as booster heaters at the delivery terminals
of the duct system. In the humid ification phase of air conditioning
electric heating elements can be used to provide moisture by the evapori-
744
CHAPTER 40. ELECTRICAL HEATING
zation of water, or for controlling air washer dew-point temperatures when
mounted as preheating units on the intake side of the air washer. See
Chapter 21.
In coordinating the input of heat energy and the volume of air circu-
lation^ a basic difference between electric heating and steam heating
enters into the problem. Steam is approximately a constant-temperature-
source of heat for any given pressure as a change in air volume flowing
over steam coils does not greatly affect the temperatures of the delivered
air. The amount of steam condensed (heat input) varies in proportion to
the air volume, but the surface temperature of the steam coils remains
about the same. Electric heat is quite different, having a constant input
of energy. If the volume of air flow over electric heating elements is
changed, and no change is made in the electrical power connections, there
will be a corresponding change in the temperature of the air delivered.
Power supply
.Control panel
Thermostat
Interlock on fan
motor starter, closed
when fan is running
Thermal trip Beaters in duct
FIG. 7. WIRING DIAGRAM OF A MODULATING CONTROL FOR A FAN SYSTEM
This occurs because the electrical energy input remains constant and the
surface temperature of the heating elements will vary as is necessary to
force the air to accept all the heat. With electric heat the total heat is
constant unless some compensating action is performed by control.
Automatic modulation to vary the electrical heat input and synchronize it
properly with the air flow has been successfully applied to central fan
systems. Electric booster heaters are often useful in balancing a system
in which the air has been heated with steam coils.
A typical wiring diagram of an automatic modulating system for
central fan heating is indicated in Fig. 7.
ELECTRIC STEAM HEATING
Electric steam heating differs from fuel heating only in the use of electric
boilers to generate steam. Electric steam boilers arc entirely automatic
and arc well adapted to intermittent operation. Small electric boilers
usually have heating elements of the enclosed metal resistor type im-
mersed in the water. Boilers of this construction may be used on either
direct or alternating current since the heat is delivered to the water by
745
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
contact with the hot surfaces. To lessen the likelihood that the heating
elements will burn out, they should be of substantial construction , with a
low heat density per unit of surface area. Provision should be made for
cleaning off deposits of scale which restrict the heat flow. A typical
Cover to terminals^
\Heatertu
I
-—•=-=i& — -4? i
Thermostat bulb
eater tubes^ \\
Terminals
SECTION A-A
FIG. 8. RESISTANCE TYPE BOILER FOR STEAM OR HOT WATER
Power supply
i -
t t t
J34^L
n
i i
•=2-~
Pressure
regulator
Electrodes'
\ i
LJ LJ LJ
Guage
f Water glass
Control panel
Steam boiler
O Feed pump
FJoat valve =^0v<
hw-^^^^ii^^001
> — n— -*"
^F=A =^-Cor
h
1 1 Hot well r
U
return
Ground "xBtow'off'
FIG. 9. DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF AN ELECTRODE BOILER
resistance type of hot water or steam boiler is shown in Fig. 8. Large
electric boilers are usually of the type employing water as the resistor.
Only alternating current can be used, as direct current would cause
electrolytic deterioration. Large boilers of this kind have electrodes
immersed in the water where heat is generated directly. Electric steam
boilers are useful in industrial plants which require limited amounts of
steam for local processes, and for sterilizers, jacketed vessels and pressing
machines which need a ready supply of steam. It sometimes is economical
746
CHAPTER 40. ELECTRICAL HEATING
to shut down the main plant fuel burning boilers when the heating season
ends, and to supply steam for summer needs with small electric steam
boilers located close to the operation. In general, electric steam heating
is confined to auxiliary or other limited applications. If the heating
system is designed to use electricity exclusively, steam generating or
distributing equipment is superfluous. A diagrammatic arrangement of
an electrode boiler is shown in Fig. 9.
ELECTRIC HOT WATER HEATING
Electric water heating, using an electric boiler in place of a fuel ^burning
boiler, like electric steam heating, is generally confined to auxiliary or
other limited applications. The use of insulated water storage tanks in
which to store heat generated by electricity during off-peak hours at
extremely low rates, is a development which has some special applications.
In this system of heating, the primary storage tank is simply a large,
well-insulated, pressure type steel tank, equipped with electric heating
• elements connected to line with automatic time switches, which also have
automatic limit controls for temperature and pressure. The heating
system installed in the building may be of any standard individual
radiator or fan-served indirect type or with provisions for the heating and
humidification phases of an air conditioning system. A system of this
kind requires very careful design to avoid excessive overall radiation
losses during periods of low heat demand. It is also important to provide
for sudden changes in heat demand. A typical hot water heating boiler
is illustrated in Fig. 8.
HEATING DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY z
Electric water heaters of the automatic storage type for domestic hot
water supply are simple and reliable, and in many sections of the country
low electric rates have been established by the electric utilities to secure
this load. In some districts, rate schedules divide the current used for
water heating into two classifications, regular and off-peak. A time
switch automatically limits use of the off-peak heating Clement to the
hours of off-peak load, while the regular heating clement is a stand-by at
all times. Storage of this two-element type of water heater is larger than
average to carry over the periods when the off-peak element is timed out,
without too frequent demands on tlie regular heating element which takes
the higher domestic lighting service rate. Some utilities now offer a
schedule which, beyond a stipulated minimum, lowers the rate for all
service if an electric water heater is installed.
A comprehensive survey covering United States and Canada shows a
rapidly growing use of electric water heaters, although the per cent of
saturation, based on the total number of domestic power customers, is
still low. Public acceptance is effected by the cost of other competitive
fuels, by the electric power rate, and by the temperature of the .cold
water supply.
iTeat Results of Electric Water Ifoatcrs, by C. O. Hilllcr (A.S.H.V.K. JOURNAL SBCTION, Heating,
and Air ContlitioninK* November, 1986, p. IMS).
Fourth Annual Survey, by B. J, Martin (Electric Light and Power, March, 1937).
747
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Competition with other fuels, especially gas, seems to be the major
controlling factor. The first cost of electric storage heaters is also greater
than for gas, owing to the need for larger tank storage due to off-peak
service and slower recuperating capacity.
It is often desirable to connect an electric heater to a residential
system having a coil in the fire-box of the furnace. In this case it is im-
portant to make the proper connections in order to benefit by any heat
obtained^ from the furnace and at the same time to prevent dangerous
overheating. The proper piping connections are shown in Fig. 10, and
in this case the electric heater will only furnish heat when insufficient
heat is supplied from the furnace. This arrangement has a further
advantage in the summertime in that the bare tank through which the
cold water passes on its way to the electric heater serves as a tempering
tank, absorbing considerable warmth from the basement air and re-
quiring the use of less energy in the electric heater.
Safety valve
Hot water
FIG. 10. PIPING ARRANGEMENT FOR
CONNECTING ELECTRIC WATER
HEATER TO FIRE-BOX COIL
FIG. 11. DOMESTIC HOT WATER
HEATER FOR OFF-PEAK
SERVICE
A typical domestic hot water heater as shown in Fig. 11 is arranged
with upper and lower heating elements for the usual type of off-peak
heating service for which most utilities have especially attractive low
power rates. ^The lower heating element is under the control of the off-
peak time switch. However, the upper heating element is usually con-
nected to the line so that in case the supply of hot water in the tank
becomes exhausted the top thermostat can turn on the top heater and
heat a small supply of water. The top heater will not heat the water in
the tank below its location, but when the off-peak period arrives the lower
heater is turned on and the entire tank becomes heated.
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL HEATING
Electric heating elements have been successfully developed for indus-
trial work such as annealing, brazing, carburizing, enameling, forging,
ceramic firing, hardening, metal melting, nitriding and process heating.
Industrial ovens and furnaces where precise control of temperature is
necessary can be very successfully operated with electric resistance cle-
748
CHAPTER 40. ELECTRICAL HEATING
merits at temperatures as high as 1800 F. For higher temperatures the
electric arc or high frequency induction methods are often used. Electric
heaters for heating oil to high temperatures for secondary circulation in
process work are used as a substitute for superheated steam. Special oil
can be electrically heated as high as 700 F and pumped at a pressure just
sufficient to cause flow. When used in heating coils or jacketed vessels,
this gives a safe and convenient automatic system for moderate-sized
installations. Pitch, waxes, and many chemicals are successfully heated
by electricity, but require careful design and adequate automatic control.
REVERSED CYCLE REFRIGERATION2
Reyersed refrigeration is frequently referred to as a heat pump since the
electric motor driving the refrigerating compressor furnishes the motive
power to transfer heat from one temperature to a higher temperature
level. The compressor acts as a reversible refrigerating unit to extract
heat from the outdoor air in winter and deliver it indoors for heating
purposes, and, by a reversal, to extract heat from the indoor air in summer
and discharge it outdoors.
In normal use a refrigerating machine is arranged to remove heat and
the heat removed is dissipated to the condenser cooling water. The
driving energy is converted into heat most of which is added to the heat
removed and extracted. In so-called reversed refrigeration the heat
removed together with the heat converted from the driving energy is
utilized to heat the building. This conservation of the heat converted
from the driving energy enables the reversed refrigeration to show a
better performance in heating service than straight refrigeration can show
in cooling service. For a detailed description of this cycle see Chapter 24.
AUXILIARY ELECTRIC HEATING
In conjunction with heating systems of other types, an auxiliary elec-
trical heating arrangement is a convenient means of caring for mild days
in the spring and fall which require little heat to make a building com-
fortable. Likewise, such electrical heating might be used on abnormally
cold days to help out the main heating system and by this means reduce
the necessary si/e of the system.
Because of the feeling of comfort that a radiant type heater gives,
bathrooms may be heated electrically with this type of heater while the
rest of the house is oared for by some other system. Offices and rooms
which require heat, at periods when the main heating plant is shut down
aCoolinpf Homes, A Held for Refrigeration, by A, R. Stevennoii, presented tit the symposium of the
Refrigeration with GUH Committee of Hit* American Gas Astttcittion. April 20, 1020.
The Heat Pump, An Economical Method of Producing Low-grade Heat from Electricity, by T. G. N.
Haldane (Mfrtric Keriew, Vol. 105, p, 1101-11 02, December 27, HI2H, and /. E. E. Journal, Vol. 08, p.
006-075, June, 1030).
Edison Buildinn Heated and Cooled by Klirtricity, by II. L, Dooltttle (Power, Vol. 74, p. 384, Septem-
ber 8, 1081).
House Heating by Pump with r> to 1 Pick-up Ratio, by Gilbert Wilkos and R. E. Marbury (Electrical
World, Vol. 100, p, 828, December 17, 1032).
An All Kleetriu Heating Cooling and Air Conditioning Sywtein, by Philip Snorn and D. W. McLcnegun.
(A.K.1LV.K. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 41, 11W5, p. 307),
UfiinR the Reversed Cycle Refrigerating Principle for a Self-Contained Heating and Cooling Unit, by
Henry L. Gulnon (A.S.H.VJC. JOURNAL SKCTION, llfatirtg, Piping and Air Conditioning, Otober, 1935,
p. 407).
740
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
can be conveniently cared for electrically. Fan^ type unit heaters de-
livering warm air at the floor zone are very effective.
CONTROL
Because the efficiency of electric heat production is the same for large
or small units, it is possible to reduce heat waste to a minimum by applying
local heating, locally controlled. Radiant heaters are usually controlled
manually but new methods for automatic control are described in
Chapter 41 on Radiant Heating. For all convection and fan circulation
heaters thermostatic control is essential for economical operation. For
duct systems having a variable volume of air flow, the electric heater
control must automatically vary the heat input in coordination with the
changes in air volume and demand for heat.
CALCULATING CAPACITIES
The methods of calculating heat losses outlined in Chapters 6, 7, and 8
may be used for electric heating exactly as for fuel heating. The total
heat requirements in Btu per hour may then be converted into the
electrical rating of an equivalent heating system by using the equation :
Total Btu per hour , , . .
- oTTe - ** kw rating of required electric heating
(1)
For comparison with steam radiation :
3415 Btu (one kwhr) . . n t , .. .
- 24Q - = 14.2 sq ft of steam radiation
While many empirical rules based on cubic contents, floor areas, etc.,
are used in steam heating practice, they should never be used to deter-
mine size of equipment for an electrical heating installation.
POWER PROBLEMS
The first point to determine is the cost of the power which is available
for electric heating. Unlike fuels, there is no uniform cost for electric
power because of the unequal cost of distribution to large and small
users. The fact that electricity cannot be economically stored, but must
be used as fast as it is generated, makes it impossible to operate power
plants at uniform loads; hence, even the time of use may affect the cost of
power.
Special low rates are sometimes available during certain prescribed
hours of use, but wherever the use of power is unrestricted a demand
charge based upon the rated connected load of each heating device must
form part of the basic rate structure, so that unlike fuel heating, the cost
of operating electric heating systems depends not only upon the actual
energy used but also upon the demand charge for the available electrical
service.
Homes are almost universally supplied with lighting current of 115
volts, which can only be used economically for small heaters. Usually
750
CHAPTER 40, ELECTRICAL HEATING
the service lines will not permit more than plug-in devices. The Under-
writers permit approved heaters of 1320 watts or less to be plugged into
approved baseboard receptacles. Where homes have 230 volt service for
cooking and water heating, and rates are favorable, larger heaters can be
installed. For industrial purposes, heaters should be designed to use
polyphase power, which is usually supplied at 220, 440 or 550 volts. All
polyphase heaters should be balanced between phases.
INSU1ATION
The value of building construction which incorporates built-in insu-
lation to reduce the outward heat loss in winter and the inward heat gain
in summer has been placed in the spotlight by the increasing adoption
of complete air conditioning. With electric heating, adequate insulation
is very important and will pay even better returns on the investment
than for less expensive fuels.
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Under what conditions are electric heaters most feasible?
a. When electric power rates are low and other fuels high in cost.
b. Where the total required heat i»s not great and cost of attention tends to offset the
higher actual energy cost of electricity.
c. Where saving of space, elimination of a chimney and lower first cost of equipment are
deciding factors.
d. Where intermittent and local auxiliary use avoids the necessity of keeping up steam
with large losses in long pipe lines.
c. Where accurate local automatic control reduces the total heat losses enough to com-
pensate for the higher energy rate for electricity over other fuels.
/. For isolated or unattended rooms and small buildings where other heat sources are
not readily available.
g. For underground rooms and vaults whore the return or disposal of condensation is
difficult or where freezing may occur at times.
h. Where corrosive conditions make pipe lines expensive to maintain.
«. Where th<» use of power for heating can be staggard to avoid periods of other use such
as large motors, and thus prevent an increase of the basic demand charges for electrical
service.
j. For fall and spring use, and as auxiliary to help out other heating systems at important
points during extremely cold weather.
k. When* dust, gases, odor, noise, or access for attendants must be excluded.
2 • On what bunis should electrical heating COM I. bo compared wilh other fuel**?
a. Initial investment, with interest and depreciation.
b. Operating cost for energy.
c. Saving in repairs and attendance.
d. Economy due to local accurate temperature regulation.
e. Safety, convenience, and cleanliness.
/. Saving in space.
751
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
3 • At what rate for electric power is electric heating feasible?
a. The answer is complicated because operating cost of electric heaters depends upon at
least three factors, namely, demand charge, energy charge, and the sliding scale accord-
ing to the amount of power used for all purposes.
b. For off-peak use which avoids the demand charge an energy rate of 1 cent per kilowatt-
hour is often attractive for heating systems of moderate size. Larger jobs usually require
a rate of about % cents per kilowatt-hour.
c. For unrestricted heating service for auxiliary purposes an average rate of 2 cents per
kilowatt-hour may be satisfactory for small installations.
d. Wherever other factors make electric heating especially desirable the rates may be
even higher than those mentioned above.
e. For domestic hot water supply a rate of 1 cent per kilowatt-hour is usually satisfactory.
4 • What advantages have electric fan unit systems over plain convection
heaters?
a. Better distribution of heat to the floor level.
b. Elimination of condensation on machinery, windows, and other cool surfaces.
c. Wider choice as to location of the heater, and reduced cost of wiring connections.
d. The fan can be operated for air circulation only, during periods when heat is not
required.
5 • In a fan type electric heating system, what important features are re-
quired that are not needed for a steam system?
a, A heating coil supplied with steam at constant pressure will remain at approximately
constant temperature regardless of the amount of air passing over it, but the conden-
sation rate will change. The temperature of an electric coil supplied with a constant
amount of energy will rise if the quantity of air is decreased, and fall if the quantity of
air is increased. This happens because the input of electrical energy is constant while
the input of steam energy varies with the condensation rate.
&. Because the temperature of an electrical coil will rise upon decreased air flow, the
Underwriters require the installation of an approved thermal safety trip switch located
in the heating chamber to cut off the electrical heating circuit automatically in case the
air flow should be interrupted. This switch should remain off until manually reset.
c. Electrical heating elements vary greatly in their capacity for storing heat units after
the power is shut off. In a fan system it is very important to use elements having the
lowest ^ possible heat storage capacity to avoid overheating motors and improperly
operating the thermal safety trip switches when air flow ceases due to normal shut-downs.
d. Because the input of an electric heater is constant for a given rating, it is necessary to
provide a modulating electrical control which will automatically compensate for vari-
ations in the volume of air flow. This cannot be done by mixing dampers alone as in
a steam system.
6 • What problems must he considered in connection with electric water
heating?
a. For the best available power rate consult the Electric Power Company supplying
service.
b. The maximum daily and hourly demand for hot water.
c. The size of storage tank necessary to carry over the peak load periods when no re-
heating is done.
d. The kilowatt rating required to reheat enough water during off-peak periods.
e. Standby radiation losses of the storage tank and hot water piping.
/. Cost of providing electrical supply lines of ample capacity with fuses, meters and
switches,
g. Tank materials and design to avoid expensive replacements due to corrosion.
752
Chapter 41
RADIANT HEATING
Physical and Physiological Factors, Control of Heat Losses,
Rate o£ Heat Production, British Equivalent Temperature,
Application Methods, Calculation Principles, Mean Radiant
Temperature, Measurement of Radiant Heating
HEATING for health and comfort is generally understood to mean
that heat must be supplied in order to control the rate of heat loss
from the human body so that the physiological reactions are conducive
to a feeling of comfort. In convection heating, it is generally the, function
of the heating medium to transfer the heat to the air and thence to the
occupant of the room, while the primary object of radiant heating is to
warm the surrounding surfaces without appreciably heating the air.
The difference between convection heating and radiant heating is there-
fore partly physical and partly physiological. Reference to low tempera-
ture radiation is actually not heating at.all, except in a secondary wsense.
Low temperature radiation is produced not to heat the individual in the
room, but to reduce the net rate at which the body surface loses heat
by radiation.
Comfort requires that heat be removed from the body at the same rate
as it is generated by the oxidation of food stuffs in the body tissue.
Furthermore, the heat should be dissipated in a manner conducive to the
physiological requirements of the human body. Actually the feeling of
heat and cold in an individual is not HO much a measure of the rate at
which body heat losses take place as compared with the heat generated
within the body, as it us an indication that the sensation of the body is
more susceptible to the manner in which the heat is abstracted from
the body. This principle is the basis upon which radiant heating is
founded.
CONTROL OF HEAT LOSSES
Heal is transferred from any warm dry body to cooler surroundings
principally by convection and by radiation, the approximate total being
the sum of the two. Where the body surface is moist as with the human
body, there is additional loss of heat through evaporation from both the
body surface and the respiratory tract.
The rate of heat loss by convection depends upon the difference between
the temperature of the body and of the surrounding air, and on the rate
of air motion over the body.
753
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The loss by radiation of a given surface depends entirely upon the
difference between the temperature of the body and the mean surface
temperature of the surrounding walls and objects. This latter tempera-
ture is called the mean radiant temperature (MRT).
Because these two types of heat losses act in a supplementary manner
toward each other, a required rate of heat loss can be secured by having a
relatively low air temperature and a relatively high MRT, or vice versa.
Thus, if the air is reduced from a given temperature to a lower tempera-
ture, the amount of heat lost from the body by convection is increased,
and this increase can be compensated for by raising the MRT. Similarly,
with a higher air temperature the same total heat loss will be maintained
by a correspondingly lower MRT.
Within limits the sensation of feeling cold can be avoided in two ways;
first, by raising the air temperature surrounding the body, and secondly,
by allowing the thermal radiation from warm objects to impinge on the
body with sufficient intensity to make up for a lower air temperature.
It is the object of a heating installation to avoid the necessity for human
body adaptation and also to provide comfort for those individuals doing
the least physical work. While some conditions may take care of the
heat loss from the body without controlling the generation of heat
within, other conditions stimulate the production of heat within us, which
enables the body to respond to the environment and generate more heat
to meet the conditions.
Rate of Heat Production
The normal rate of heat production in a sedentary individual is about
400 Btu1 per hour, or (since the entire surface area of an average adult
is 19.5 sq ft) about 20.5 Btu per square foot per hour. When considering
radiant heating, it is necessary to calculate the radiation and the con-
vection loss separately. The human body is of complicated shape, and
radiation only takes place freely from the exposed outer surface. There
are considerable portions of the body which radiate most of their heat to
other portions, such as: the legs, arms, lower part of head etc. It is
necessary to determine the equivalent surface of the body from which
heat is radiated and a similar value for convection. The total surface
for convection may be assumed as an approximate value of 19.5 sq ft
and 15.5 sq ft for radiation.
The heat generated in the average human body is approximately 400
Btu per hour of which 75 per cent or 300 Btu per hour is the approximate
value of the ^ heat given off by radiation and convection. While it is
difficult to Differentiate the 'exact proportion of these two values, it is
found that if the body gives off about 190 Btu per hour by radiation or
12.26 Btu per hour per square foot of radiant body surface, conditions of
greatest comfort will result . This leaves 110 Btu per hour to be released
by convection, or 5.64 Btu per hour per square foot of convected body
surface.
Moisture 'Losses from the Human Body and Their Relation to Air Conditioning Problems,
Ken> W' W' Teague' Wt E' Miller» and w* p' Yant (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS; Vol!
, p.
754
CHAPTER 41. RADIANT HEATING
The loss by evaporation, which depends on the air temperature, air
movement and humidity, together with the loss by respiration makes up
the balance of 100 Btu per hour. All of these values are relative because
the total will vary materially with change of position, occupation, age,
race, etc.
The mean normal surface temperature of the human body, taken over
the whole area, including not only the exposed skin surface but also
surfaces of the clothes and the hair, has been very extensively used as
75 F, particularly in England where radiant heating has been practiced
for nearly 30 years. However, results obtained by Aldrich2 in rooms in
which the air and wall surface temperatures were approximately 72 F
gave mean values nearer 83 F than 75 F. In both England and America
mean wall and air temperatures of 72 F seem to be unwarranted; so it is
not unreasonable to assume that a body surface temperature lower than
83 F may eventually be accepted. Some values have already been
suggested as being the most suitable for the American climate, but the
accepted standard for United States practice must be ultimately derived
from research and practical experience.
The mean surface temperature of an inert body which will maintain
the optimum heat loss by radiation and convection in a uniform environ-
ment of a given temperature may be calculated from fundamental
equations for radiation and natural convection by substituting com-
parable cylinders for the body. While it may be possible to produce
effects on a cylinder or any other body of a particular size and shape to
estimate similar effects on the human body, it should be remembered
that the heat loss from the body varies greatly with movement. Every
movement of the body not only alters its shape but also the velocity of
the air passing over it and the surface exposed to radiation. This fact
makes it difficult to compare the effect of any environment on a cylinder
to that of a human body. Heilman3 gives the following equations:
(2)
where
HT « heat loss by radiation, Btu per square foot per hour.
J5TC ~ heat loss by convection, Btu per square foot per hour.
Te - absolute temperature of the body surface, degrees Fahrenheit.
rw » absolute temperature of the walls, degrees Fahrenheit.
!Ta « absolute temperature of the air, degrees Fahrenheit.
D « diameter of cylinder, inches.
e *• the ratio of actual emission to black body emission.
If it is assumed that a normal adult has an average height of 5 ft 8 in.
*A Study «f Body Kucliution, by L. It. AUlrioh (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 81, No, 0,
December 1928).
•Surface Heat Transmtesion, by R. II. Heilman (A.S.M.K. Transactions, Fuels and Steam Power Section,
Vol. fll, No. 22, ScptumluT-Uccember, 1020).
755
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and an average body surface of 19.5 sq ft and 15.5 sq ft for convection
and radiation respectively, an equivalent effect can be considered on two
cylinders 5 ft 8 in. high by 13.15 in. diameter and 10.45 in. diameter
respectively.
BRITISH EQUIVALENT TEMPERATURE
The British Equivalent Temperature (BET) is the temperature of an
environment which is effective in controlling the rate of sensible heat loss
from a sizable black body in still air when the body has a maintained
surface temperature equal to that of the human body. The BET is,
therefore, a function of both the air temperature and the mean radiant
temperature. Its numerical value in a uniform environment (walls and
air at the same temperature) is equal to the temperature of the walls and
the air. In a non-uniform environment (walls and air at different tempera-
tures) the BET for America is at present considered to be equivalent to
that of a uniform environment in which an 83 F surface loses sensible heat at
the same rate as it does in the non-uniform environment. As originally
defined, the BET was based on a body surface temperature of 75 F, but
83 F has been accepted as giving results more nearly conforming with
American practice4. Temperatures selected depend on the clothes worn
by the individual, which explains why ladies in evening dress desire a
higher body surface temperature than a man dressed in evening suit
leaving only hands and head uncovered.
For accurate calculations it would be more logical to assume a body
surface temperature applicable to the room being occupied, but for
general purposes it is considered sufficient to take an average of 83 F for
all rooms. The higher the BET the less the heat loss from the body, as
the rate of loss in still air is approximately proportional to the difference
between the BET and the mean body surface temperature.
If the BET were 83 F, there could be no sensible heat loss from a
surface at that temperature; so the temperature of a normal body surface
would have to rise to a point where the heat generated in the tissues
could be dissipated.
APPLICATION METHODS
There are several methods of applying radiant heating, as follows:
1. By warming the interior surfaces of the building. Pipe coils are embedded in the
concrete or plaster of the walls or ceilings, the heating medium being hot water circu-
lating through the pipe coils. These coils are generally constructed of small pipe spaced
about 6 in. apart (Fig. 1). This has the effect of warming the entire concrete or plaster
surface in which the pipes are embedded. Since the temperature of the heating medium
should not exceed about 130 F due to the possibility of cracking the plaster, the area of
the panel must be sufficient to supply the requisite quantity of heat at this low tem-
perature. When carefully designed, this method produces comfortable and economical
results, but offers some slight obstacles when alterations or additions to the building are
desirable. Normally the hot water circulation is maintained by means of a circulating
Pynip and facilities have to be provided to eliminate all air at the top of the system.
r ™ „ plpes are welded together and tested after erection to a hydraulic pressure
of 500 Ib per square inch.
. 'Application of the Eupatheoscope for Measuring the Performance of Direct Radiators and Convectors
m Terms of Equivalent Temperatures, by A. C. Willard, A. P. Kratz and MI V°n™5<?™
, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 303).
756
CHAPTER 41. RADIANT HEATING
2. By placing hot water or steam pipes under the floor. With this arrangement the
whole floor surface of a room is raised to a temperature sufficient to give comfortable
conditions. This method is used extensively for schools and hospitals where large
quantities of outside air are desirable (Fig. 2). In some cases special floors are con-
FIG. 1. PIPE COILS LOCATED IN INTERIOR WALL SURFACES
Flow drop
pipe from
above
PLAN
Room with floor removed
• vj,r Flow drop pipe
I^Contro! valve Ptpwundef(|oor
;;fe^|g4/fp^j|^^^^
/'.'£" „ Return in trnnch "jJ.lJl
fcA. ...*««. j^ssaMrfX-tf
S* r?S'r?7S\'SSSV.'.->
SECTIONAL ELEVATION
FIG. 2. ARKANGHMKNT OF CONTINUOUS PIPK COIL IN FLOOR CONSTRUCTION
strutted in sections so that a whole floor can be lifted to examine the pipes. The floor
surface may be of concrete, wood blocks, marble or any other material unatfected by
heat. Pipes under the floor may be larger than those embedded in the plaster walls
and ceilings.
3. By circulating warm air through shallow ducts under the floor. In this design the
entire floor surface of a room is heated as in method 2. This method while being more
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
expensive in construction, is effective and quite suitable for cathedrals _ and large public
buildings (Fig. 3). To provide a uniform floor temperature, special consideration
should be given to the design of the air ducts so that equal distribution is obtained.
4. By attaching separate heated metal plates or panels to the interior surfaces. These
plates or panels are placed either in an insulated recess so that the surface of the panel is
flush with the surface of the walls or ceilings, or they may be secured to the face of the
wall. They may be covered with wood veneers and decorated to harmonize with other
parts of the room, or they can be cast into panels to imitate oak or other wood designs.
With flat plate panels it is a common practice to use a frame of plaster, wood, metal or
composition around the panels to allow for expansion. These plates may be heated
with either hot water or steam and connected similarly to an ordinary radiator system.
Slide adjusting inlet damper
irst floor- U L'lL -JT ~,^_-± .
a,rduct #b>ra 3 -* "^
^
PLAN
Air ducts in floor space
FIG. 3. DIAGRAM OF AIR DUCTS FOR FLOOR HEATING
5. By electric heated metal plates or panels. These plates or panels are either placed
in insulated recesses of walls or ceilings or fastened to the face as desirable. They should
not have a surface temperature above 160 to 200 F. Some electric panels have a much
higher surface temperature but a lower temperature gives a more comfortable condition
and is more efficient.
6. By electrically heated tapestry mounted on screens and on the wall. For this purpose
the screen is woven with an electric continuous conductor being the warp and wool or
silk being the weft. Such screens are useful to plug in at any position for emergency
local heating without taking care of a large room or office.
Note. If all of the heating panel is installed at one end of a large room there may be
a marked difference between the BET on the two sides of the body. It is usually desir-
able therefore that the heat be distributed at different parts in the room so that no
uncomfortable effects will be felt from unequal heating.
CALCULATION PRINCIPLES
The calculations for radiant heating are entirely different from those
for convective heating. The purpose of the latter is to determine the rate
of heat Joss from the room by conduction, convection, and radiation when
maintained in the desired condition ; radiant heating involves the regu-
lation of the rate of heat loss per square foot from the human body.
The first step in the calculations for radiant heating is to ascertain the
necessary mean radiant temperature (MRT) ; next, the size, temperature,
and disposition of the heating surfaces required in the room to produce
this MRT are estimated; and after this the determination of the convec-
tive heat is made.
Mean Radiant Temperature
If the whole of the interior surface of a room were at the same tempera-
ture, this temperature would represent the MRT. Such a condition
758
CHAPTER 41. RADIANT HEATING
TABLE 1. TOTAL BLACK BODY RADIATION TO SURROUNDINGS AT ABSOLUTE ZERO*
BODY
OR
MEAN
RADIANT
TEMPER-
ATtTRH
Deg
Fahr
Radiation in Btu per square foot per hour
emitted to surroundings with a tempera-
ture of absolute zero by bodies at various
temperatures and with emisaivity factor e
BODY
OR
MEAN
RADIANT
TEMPER-
ATURE
Deg
Fahr
Radiation in Btu per square foot per hour emitted
to surroundings with a temperature of absolute
zero by bodies at various temperatures and
with emissivity factor e
e
1.00
e
0.95
«
0.90
0.80
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.80
30
99.3
94.3
89.4
79.4
71
136.5
129.6
122.9
109.3
35
103.5
98.3
93.2
82.8
72
137.4
130.5
123.6
109.9
40
107.6
102.4
96.8
86.1
73
138.4
131.5
124.5
110.6
45
112.1
106.5
100.9
89.7
74
139.6
132.6
125.6
111.7
46
112.9
107.3
101.6
90.4
75
141.0
133.9
126.9
112.8
47
113.9
108.2
102.5
91.1
80
146.6
139.4
132.0
117.4
48
114.8
109.1
103.4
91.9
85
152.3
144.6
137.1
121.9
49
115.6
109.9
104.1
92.4
90
157.9
149.9
142.1
126.4
50
116.5
110.6
104.9
93.2
100
169.6
161.1
152.6
135.7
51
117.5
111.6
105,8
94.0
110
181.6
172.5
163.5
145.4
52
118.4
112.5
106.5
94.7
120
194.8
185.0
175.4
155.9
53
119.4
113.4
107.4
95.5
130
210.1
199.6
189.1
168.1
54
120.2
114.2
108.2
96.2
140
223.2
212.1
201.0
178.5
55
121.1
115.1
109.0
96.9
150
237.1
225.2
213.5
189.7
56
122.1
116.0
109.9
97.7
160
251.1
238.8
226.0
201.0
57
123.1
117.0
110.9
98.5
170
270.5
257.0
243.5
216.4
58
124.0
117.8
111.6
99.2
180
288.0
273.8
259.1
230.4
59
124.9
118.6
112.4
99.9
190
306.5
291.0
275.8
245.1
60
125.8
119,5
113.4
100.7
200
325.2
309.0
292.8
260,3
61
126.6
120.3
114.0
101.4
210
348.0
330.6
313.1
278,4
62
127.7
121.4
114.9
102.2
220
371.5
353.0
334.4
297,1
63
128.6
122.2
115.8
102.9
250
437.8
415.9
394.0
350.2
64
129.6
123.1
116.7
103.7
300
575.0
546.1
517.5
460.0
65
130.5
124.0
117.5
104.4
350
740.0
703.0
666.0
592.0
66
131.6
125,0
118.4
105.4
400
942.1
895.0
847.5
753.5
67
132.5
125.9
119.3
106.0
450
1176.0
1117.0
1059.0
941.0
68
133.5
126.8
120.1
106.8
500
1464.0
1390.0
1318.0
1171.0
69
134.5
127.8
121.1
107.6
550
1791.0
1701.0
1613.0
1434.0
70
135.5
128.8
121.9
108.4
600
2405.0
2284.0
2165.0
1925.0
"Those factor* are calculated from the formula
where
/ 0.1723 X T* \
c \ 100,000,000 /
0 •« total black body radiation, Btu por square foot per hour.
e «« emiesivity.
T •• abaolute temperatures dejjn'es Fahrenheit,
seldom exists, however, since the actual surface temperature in any
heated space having surfaces exposed to the outer air varies greatly for
different sides of the enclosure. It is therefore necessary to ascertain by
calculation the mean of these interior surface temperatures.
The mean temperature in this sense is not the arithmetic average of the
actual thermometric temperatures of the surfaces, but the temperature
corresponding to the average rate of heat emission per square foot of
surface. The temperature corresponding to this mean emission can be
taken from Table 1. Conversely, the emission at different temperatures
and also the emissivity factors can be obtained from this table. For
instance, 1 sq ft of surface at 50 F will emit 104.9 Btu per square foot per
hour to surroundings at absolute zero if the emissivity of the surface is 0.9.
759
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
If the area in square feet of each part of the space is multiplied by the
emission value corresponding to its actual temperature, and these products
are added together, the gross amount of radiant heat discharged into the
room by the wall surface per hour is obtained. This quantity, divided by
the total interior surface, gives the average amount of heat coming into
the room from the surface of the walls per square foot of surface per hour.
Interpolating in Table 1, the total radiation from a surface at 83 F for
an emissivity of 0.95 is 142 Btu per square foot per hour. The difference
between 142 Btu and the average amount of heat coming into the room is
the amount which will be lost per square foot per hour by radiation from
a body at 83 F. If a rate at which it is desired that heat be lost from the
body by radiation and convection be assumed, the mean radiant emission
from the walls required to give the desired result can be determined from
Table 1, as can also the required air temperature for the corresponding
convective effect.
The determination of the amount of radiant heating surface needed in
a room^requires knowledge of the climate, the type of structure, the type
of heating, and the surface temperature of the walls. This problem can
be solved only on an empirical basis. After some experience, however,
it is possible to estimate these variables with a considerable degree of
accuracy for any climate or construction.
Assume that a mean radiant temperature of 65 F is desired. Table 1
shows that with all the walls at this temperature, and with an emissivity
of 0.95, the gross heat emission is 124 Btu per square foot per hour. The
total emission of radiation into the room from that surface would there-
fore be A X 124, where A is the total inside area of the room. This is the
desired emission.
If the whole area be divided into a number of different parts which are
each at a uniform temperature— ajy a2, a,, — and each is multiplied by the
value of the heat emission corresponding to that temperature, and if all
these products are added together, their sum will represent the total
actual emission of radiation into the room at these temperatures without
the aid of any hot surface.
The difference between the desired emission and the actual emission
represents the additional heat which must be supplied by the hot surface.
The temperature of the proposed hot surface must then be selected, and
its emission per square foot at that temperature determined from Table 1.
This emission is divided into the additional amount of heat needed, ad-
justed for the fact that the heating units will shield the walls behind
them, and the quotient obtained will be the area of the required heating
surface.
It is evident that this method of calculation is approximate, and
depends for its accuracy on a correct estimate of the ultimate surface
temperatures attained by the actual wall surfaces.
It is necessary also to calculate how much heat will be given off by the
same surfaces by convection, and thereby to determine whether this
amount of converted heat will warm entering ventilating air to the tem-
perature maintained. If it will not, additional convection surfaces must
be introduced to make up the deficiency.
760
CHAPTER 41. RADIANT HEATING
TABLE 2. SURFACE AREAS, TEMPERATURES AND EMISSIONS FOR A ROOM OF 5760 Cu FT
AREA,
SQ FT
ASSUMED STTRFA.CK
TEMPERATURE
(DisG PAHR)
HBA.T EMISSION
(BTTT PER SQ FT
PER HOUR)
TOTAL HEAT EMISSION
FROM AREA
(BTU PER HOUR)
External Wall
297
50
110 6
32 850
Glass
279
45
106 5
2Q 710
Inner Wall
480
55
115 1
55 250
Ceiling
480
55
115 1
55 250
Floor
480
55
115*1
55 250
Total
2016
228 310
Example 1. The surface areas, temperatures, and emissions for a room having a
volume of 5700 cu ft are given in Table 2. The figures for temperatures are fairly
representative of American practice with well-built walls, and are based on an emissivity
of 0,95 which approximates that of most paints and building materials.
The mean radiant temperature of the room is 228,310/2016 = 113.2 Btu per square
foot per hour which, as seen from Table 1, corresponds to an MRT of 53 F for an average
emissivity of 0.95.
For an average individual having a body surface area of 15.5 sq ft under conditions of
comfort with a body surface temperature of 83 F, the heat given off by radiation when
calculated by means of Equation 1 is 217 Btu per hour, or 14 Btu per square foot per
hour. This corresponds to an environmental emission of 142 — 14 = 128 Btu per square
foot per hour, and, according to Table 1, to an MRT of 69.2 F.
If this body be placed in the room described, it will lose heat at the rate of 15.5 X
(142 - 1 13.2) = 440 Btu per hour. This loss is 229 Btu per hour more than the 217 Btu
per hour calculated, or 14.77 Btu per square foot per hour, more than the rate of heat
loss for comfort.
In order to determine the amount of radiating surface necessary to maintain the MRT
at 69.2 F, assume the surface temperature of the hot plates to be installed to be 160 F,
which is approximately the temperature they would have if heated by hot water.
The 2010 sq ft total area of the surfaces of the room multiplied by 128 which is the
emission in Btu per square foot per hour necessary to maintain a body surface tempera-
ture of 83 K, #ives a total desired emission of 258,048 Btu per hour. It is necessary to
supply enough radiant heating surface to increase, the total actual mean radiant heat
emission by the room from 228,310, as shown in Table 2, to the 258,048 Btu desired.
The additional heat needed is the difference between these figures, or 29,738 Btu. Since,
from Table 1, the emission per square, foot at 100 F is 238.8 Btu, the required radiant
heating surface needed is 29,738/238.8 = 124 sq ft. 'Hie effect of this surface suitably
placed would be to raise immediately the mean radiant temperature to the required
degree and to maintain it at that value as long as the surfaces remained at the values
assumed.
The calculation may be simplified by preparing tables showing, at the
usual temperatures, the area of hot surface required to bring each square
foot of actual wall surface at various temperatures up to a general
standard of from 60 F to 70 V. It would then be necessary only to
multiply the respective areas by the appropriate factors, and to acid the
results, to obtain the required total.
MEASUREMENT OF RADIANT HEATING
Convection heating, having as its object the raising of the air tempera-
ture to a specified degree, must be measured by thermomctric methods
which indicate essentially the* air temperature, and^not the rate of heat
loss from the human body. Radiant heating, having as its object the
control of the rate of heat loss from the human body, can be measured
761
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
only by methods which basically are calorimetric, that is, which measure
directly the rate of heat loss from an object maintained at the temperature
of the body, irrespective of air temperature.
The apparatus for this purpose consists essentially of a hollow sphere,
or cylinder, containing a fluid which can be maintained accurately at the
accepted mean surface temperature of the human body, with an accurate
means of measuring the rate of heat supply required to maintain the
temperature at that exact point. The latter measurement can be made
with sufficient accuracy by electrical methods. Although a definite BET
is desirable, the mean radiant and air temperatures may both vary,
provided the heat loss by radiation and convection from a surface at 83 F
is maintained at the correct proportion or within reasonable limits.
This instrument, the eupaiheoscope, can readily be adapted as a thermo-
stat by electrical control to shut off or turn on heat when the critical
temperature of 83 F or any other predetermined temperature on the
surface of the vessel is increased or decreased. A modification of the
instrument is called the eupatheostat.
Another instrument for maintaining comfort conditions is at present
available only in a model adapted to British practice as it is designed for a
temperature of 75 F. It consists of a blackened copper sphere of approxi-
mately 6^in. diameter in which is housed a cylindrical sump containing a
volatile liquid. ^ In operation, a small electric heating coil drawing about
5 watts creates in the sphere a vapor pressure which is constant as long as
the heat losses from the sphere are standard. If the temperature of the
air or the MRT becomes too high for comfort, a greater pressure is
created, owing to a smaller loss of heat from the sphere. This increase of
pressure acts on a diaphragm and shuts off the supply of heat to the room.
For testing work, the globe thermometer is a very useful instrument. It
consists of an ordinary mercury thermometer, with its bulb placed in the
center of a sphere from 6 to 9 in. in diameter, usually made of thin
copper and painted black. The temperature thus recorded is termed the
radiation-convection temperature.
REFERENCES
Panel Warming, by L. J. Fowler (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 287).
ioQ^oom^nmingby Radiation» bVA- H- Barker (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 38J
LaoZ} p. ool).
What will be the Future Development of Heating and Air Conditioning, by W. H
Carrier (Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, January, 1933, p. 16).
American Practice in Panel Heating, by L. L, Munier (Heating, Piping and Air
Conditioning, June, 1937, p. 424).
r Radiant Heatin£' b? T- NaPier Adlar* (Heating and Ventilating,
Notes on Electric Warming with Special Reference to Low Temperature Panel
°f Tke InsMi°n °f He^ «« ******
r- °f Radiant.7H.eating, by C. G. Heys Hallett (Proceedings of
The Institution of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, London, Vol. 29 1930)
°f The Institution of IIeaiins and
' of The InstiMon ofHeatins and Ventila~
762
CHAPTER 41. RADIANT HEATING
Principles of Calculation of Low Temperature Radiant Heating, by A. H. Barker
(Proceedings of The Institution of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, London, Vol. 30,
1931).
Radiant Heat, by A. F. Dufton (Proceedings of The Institution of Heating and Ven-
tilating Engineers, London, Vol. 31, 1932).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • Where did radiant heating derive its name?
The term radiant heaters was introduced about 28 years ago to designate flat heating
surfaces made to give off practically all their heat by radiant ether waves instead of
relying on convected warm air.
2 • What is actually meant by radiant heating and what are its underlying
principles?
The term radiant heating now applies to methods of heating where, instead of heating
the air in a room to a predetermined temperature, flat heating surfaces are placed in a
room so that the average effective temperature of walls, ceiling, glass and floor surfaces
exposed to the body is just sufficient to prevent the body losing too much heat by radi-
ation. It takes into consideration that the body generates more heat than it requires,
so that it does not require any heat from without. The surplus heat, however, must be
given off according to the physiological requirement of the body.
3 • What kind of heating surfaces are in general use?
The heating units may have flat iron surfaces heated with steam or hot water and placed
in side walls or under windows, or they may be supported on the ceiling and suitably
decorated and connected as ordinary steam or hot water radiators. Hot water pipes
may be embedded in the floor, walls or ceiling, and when in the floors they may be
covered with concrete and wood blocks or other suitable material; the finish of the
surface being more important than the composition of the material. When in the ceiling
or walls, they can be covered with plaster to harmonize with the rest of the room, _ Elec-
trical radiant heaters are made by embedding resistance elements in porcelain, or
electric conductors may be woven into thick paper and fastened to the walls and ceilings,
electric wires may be woven with tapestry to form portable screens for local heating.
4 • What surface temperatures arc generally used?
Where hot water pipes are embedded in plaster, the surface temperature varies from
90 to 130 F. Where flat iron plates are used these may vary from 140 to 220 F. With
electric resjstanccs embedded in porcelain the surface temperature may vary from 200 to
500 F. High surface temperatures are not recommended.
5 • What kind of heat ray« are commonly generated for radiant heating?
All heat rays arc generally assumed to be the same as light rays ; they travel at the speed
of light, but they are invisible and longer. The rays used in heating are 0.00005 to
0.0001 in. long, compared with invisible red rays of about 0.000027 in.
6 • When and why does the human body feel cold?
The body feels cold not only when it loses heat at a greater rate than it can generate it
but also when heat is abstracted from the body^ disproportionately. Since the human
body generates more heat than is necessary, it is only necessary to provide conditions
that will regulate the correct ratio of losses; the provision of suitable radiant heating
surfaces is one way to establish these conditions.
7 • Why is the heat lo«» from the body by radiation important?
The heat loss by radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature dif-
ference between the surface of the body and the average surface temperature of the
surrounding walls, windows, etc.; whereas, for convection losses, it is only proportional
to the 1.25 power*
763
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
8 • What is the approximate relation for heat losses?
Heat losses from the body when in a sedentary position are approximately as follows:
radiation 49 per cent, convection 23 per cent, evaporation 15 per cent, respiration 11
per cent, and miscellaneous 2 per cent. Actually, it depends upon age, environment and
other conditions.
9 • What generally is the air temperature necessary to give equal comfort
effect for sedentary conditions?
With radiant heating, 64 to 66 F. With convection heating, 70 to 72 F.
10 • Why is there a saving in fuel consumption with radiant heating?
A saving is effected because the differential between inside and outside temperature is
much less for radiant heating. Less ventilating air is necessary and this can be supplied
at a much lower temperature.
11 • Describe how to calculate the required amount of radiant heating surface.
a. Obtain the mean heat emission in Btu per square foot per hour for room surfaces X,
using values in Table 1, and surface temperatures as shown in second column of
Table 2.
b. Deduct X from 142 (142 being the emission per square foot given off by the human
body at 83 F surface temperature) = Y in Btu per square foot per hour.
c. From (142-X) deduct 11.1 (11.1 being the average radiation which the human body
should lose per square foot for comfort conditions) = (142-J%M1.1) = Z.
d. Multiply total interior surface of room by Z and divide by the emission per square
foot from radiant heater, giving the surface S of radiant heater in square feet.
12 • Give a simple formula to calculate radiant heating surface reauired. and
explain.
<? (143 - * - 11.1) A
S = B
where
S - surface of radiant heater, square feet.
142 = Heat emission, Btu per square foot per hour which the human body would give
off at 83 F, with surroundings at absolute zero.
X = mean heat emission, Btu per square foot per hour from surfaces of room.
11.1 = heat emission, Btu per square foot per hour from human body.
A = total surface, square feet of walls, ceilings, windows, etc., in room.
3 — heat emission per square foot from radiant heater surface.
*§ * What natural evidence have we that air temperature alone is no criterion
ot comfort and that radiant heat affects the body more quickly?
When standing in the sunshine on a cool spring day, a person feels perfectly comfortable
but when a cloud passes over the sun, he instantly feels much cooler as the shadow reaches
him. A shielded thermometer recording the temperature of the air shows no reduction
in air temperature m so short a period, so that the person actually feels a sensation of
cold which an ordinary thermometer cannot register. This shows that light and heat
rays are shut off simultaneously and travel at the same speed; it also proves that radiant
rays affect the comfort of the body quicker than air temperature does
764
Chapter 42
DISTRICT HEATING
Piping Distribution, Selection o£ Pipe Sizes, Provision for Ex-
pansion, Capacity of Returns with Various Grades, Conduits
for Piping, Pipe Tunnels, Building Service Connections, Steam
Consumption, Fluid Meters and Metering, Rates
THOSE phases of district heating which frequently fall within the
province of the heating engineer are outlined here with data and
information for solving incidental problems in connection with institutions
and factories and for the design of heating systems for buildings which are
to be supplied with purchased steam. A complete district heating instal-
lation should not be attempted without a thorough study of the entire
problem by men competent and experienced in that industry.
PIPING DISTRIBUTION
The methods used in district heating work for the distribution of steam
are applicable to any problem involving the supply of steam to a group of
buildings. The first step is to establish the route of the pipes, and in this
matter the local conditions so fully control the layout that little can be
said regarding it.
Having established the route of the pipes, the next step is to calculate
the pipe sizes. In district heating work it is common practice to design
the piping system on the basis of pressure drop* The initial pressure and
the minimum permissible terminal pressure are specified and the pipe
sizes are so chosen that the required amount of steam, with suitable
allowances for future increases, will be transmitted without exceeding
this pressure drop. The steam velocity is therefore almost disregarded
and may reach a very high figure. Velocities of 35,000 fpm are not con-
sidered high. By the use of this method the pipe sizes are kept to a
minimum with consequent savings in investment.
The steam flowing through any section of the piping can be computed
from a study of the requirements of the several buildings served. In
general a condensation rate of 0.25 Ib per hour per square foot of equiva-
lent heating surface is a safe figure. This allows for line condensation
which, however, is a small part of the total at times of maximum load.
Any unusual requirements such as those for process steam should be
individually calculated.
The steam requirements for water heating should be taken into account,
but in most types of buildings this load will be relatively small compared
with the heating load and will seldom occur at the time of the heating
765
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
peak. Unusual features such as large heaters for swimming pools should
not be overlooked.
The pressure at which the steam is to be distributed will depend, in
part, upon whether or not it has been passed through electrical generating
units. If it has, the pressure will be considerably lower than if live steam,
direct from the boilers, is used. The advantages of low pressure distribu-
tion (2 to 30 Ib per square inch) are (1) smaller heat loss from the pipes,
(2) less trouble with traps and valves, and (3) simpler problems in pressure
reduction at the buildings. With distribution pressures not exceeding
40 Ib per square inch there is little danger even if the full distribution
pressure should build up in the radiators through the faulty operation of
a reducing valve; but with pressures higher than this a second reducing
valve or some form of emergency relief is usually desirable to prevent
excessive pressures in the radiators. The advantages of high pressure
distribution are (1) smaller pipe sizes and (2) greater adaptability of the
steam to various operations other than building heating.
The different kinds of apparatus which frequently must be served
require various minimum pressures. Kitchen equipment requires from
5 to 15 Ib per square inch, the higher pressures being necessary for
apparatus in which water is boiled, such as stock kettles and coffee urns.
An increased amount of heating surface, which is easily obtained in some
kinds of apparatus, results in quicker and more satisfactory operation at
low pressures. For laundry equipment, particularly the mangle, a pres-
sure of 75 Ib per square inch is usually demanded although 30 Ib per square
inch is sufficient if the mangle is equipped with a large number of rolls and
if a slow rate of operation is permissible. Pressing machines and hospital
sterilizers require about 50 Ib per square inch.
PIPE SIZES
The lengths of pipe, steam quantities, and initial and terminal pressures
having been chosen, the pipe sizes can readily be calculated by means of
the Unwin pressure drop formula. This formula, which gives pressure
drops slightly larger than actual test results, is as follows:
0.0001306 W*L fl-f ^\ ,^
p \ *J / (1)
dD*
where
P — pressure drop, pounds per square inch.
W = weight of steam flowing, pounds per minute.
L = length of pipe, feet.
D = inside diameter of pipe, inches.
d — average density of steam, pounds per cubic foot.
This formula is similar to the Babcock formula given in Chapter 16.
Information on provision for expansion will be found in Chapter 18.
In general, return lines when installed follow the contour of the land,
and Table 1 gives sizes of return pipes for various grades. It is evident
that at points where the grade is great, smaller pipes can be installed.
766
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
CONDUITS FOR PIPING
Conduits for steam pipes buried underground should be reasonably
waterproof, able to withstand^ earth loads and to take care of the expan-
sion and contraction of the piping without strain or stress on the couplings,
or without effecting the insulation or conduit. Expansion of the piping
must be carefully controlled by means of anchors and expansion joints
or bends so that the pipes can never come in contact with the conduit.
Anchors can be anchor fittings or U-shaped steel straps which partially
encircle the pipes and are firmly bolted to a short length of structural
steel set in concrete.
TABLE 1.
CAPACITY OF RETURNS FOR UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS IN
POUNDS OF CONDENSATE PER HOUR
SIZE*
OF PIPB
PITCH OB- PIPB PER 100 FT
IN.
6*
1'
2'
3'
5'
10'
20'
1
448
998
1890
2240
3490
5490
7490
IJ^t
1740
2490
3990
4880
6480
9480
13500
1J^
2700
4190
5740
7480
9480
14500
20900
2
4980
7380
10700
13900
16900
24900
36900
3
13900
22500
30900
37400
50400
74800
105000
4
30900
44800
64800
79700
105000
154000
229000
5
54800
79800
120000
144800
195000
294000
418000
6
90000
138000
187000
237000
312000
449000
8
190000
277000
404000
508000
660000
938000
10
344000
498000
724000
900000
1190000
wn
12
555000
798000
1148000
1499000
1990000
pipe should be increased if it carries any steam.
In laying out conduits of this type the following points should be
borne in mind :
1. An expansion joint, offset, or bend should be placed between each two anchors.
2. If the distance between buildings is 150 Ft or less and the steam line contains high-
pressure steam, the line may be anchored in the basement of one building and allowed to
expand into the basement of the second building. If the steam line contains low-pressure
steam (up to 4-lb pressure) t this method may be used if buildings are 250 ft or less apart.
3. If the distance between buildings is between 150 ft and 300 ft and the steam line
contains high-pressure steam, the lines should be anchored midway between the buildings
and allowed to expand into the basements of both buildings. If the steam line contains
low-pressure steam this method may be used if buildings are between 250 ft and 600 ft
apart. No manhole is required at the anchor, and a blind pit is all that is necessary.
4. For longer lines, manholes must be located according to judgment and depending
upon the expansion value of the type of expansion joint or bend that is used. The
minimum number of manholes will be required when an expansion bend or an anchor
with double expansion joint is placed in each manhole and the pipes are anchored mid-
way between manholes.
5. A proper hydrostatic test should be made on the assembled line before the insula-
tion and the top of the conduit are applied. The hydrostatic pressure should be one-
and-one-half times the maximum allowable pressure and it should be held for a period of
at least two hours without evidence of leakage. In any case the pressure should be no
less than 100 Ib per square inch.
The styles and construction of conduits commonly used may be classi-
fied as follows. Some of the more common forms arp illustrated in Fig. 1.
a Wood Casing: The pipe is enclosed in a cylindrical casing usually having a wall 4 in.
thick and built of segments which are bound together by a wire wrapped spirally around
767
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the casing. The casing is lined with bright tin and coated with asphaltum. The pipe is
supported on rollers carried in a bracket which fits into the casing. The lengths ot
casing are tightly fitted together with a male and female joint. This form of conduit is
illustrated in Fig. 1 at A . The casing rests on a bed of crushed stone with tile dramsjaid
below. The tile drains are of 4-in. field tile or vitrified sewer tile, laid with open joints.
Filler Type: The pipes are supported on expansion rollers properly supported from
the conduit or independent masonry base. The pipes are protected by a split-tile conduit,
and the entire space between the pipes and the tile is filled with an insulating hller. I hus
the pipes are nested and the insulation between them and the tile effectively prevents
circulation of air. The conduit is placed on a bed of gravel or crushed rock from 4 to 6 in.
shown two forms of tile conduit of the filler type.
Circular Tile or Cast-Iron Conduit: The pipes are carried on expansion rollers sup-
ported on a frame which rests entirely on the side shoulders of the base dram foundation.
Air space
(D)
FIG. 1. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF CONDUITS COMMONLY USED
The pipes are protected by a sectional tile conduit, scored for splitting, or a cast-iron
conduit, both being of the bell and spigot type. The conduit has a longitudinal side joint
for cementing, after the upper half of conduit is in place, so shaped that the cement is
keyed in place while locking the top and bottom half of the conduit together with t a
water-tight vertical side joint. The cast-iron conduit has special side locking clamps in
addition to the vertical side joint. The entire space between the conduit and the pipes is
filled with a water-proofed asbestos insulation. The conduit is supported on the base
drain foundation, each section resting on two sections of the base drain, thus inter-
locking. The base drain is so shaped that it provides a cradle for the conduit, resting
solidly on the trench bottom and providing adequate drainage area immediately under the
conduit. The underdrain is connected to sewers or some other point of free discharge.
For tile conduit the base drain is vitrified salt glazed tile and for cast-iron conduit it is
either extra heavy tile or cast-iron. A free internal drainage area is also provided to carry
away any water that may collect on the inside of the conduit from a leaky pipe or joint in
the conduit. Broken stone is filled in around the base drain and up to the vertical side
joint. f The broken stone is covered with an asphalted filter cloth to prevent sand
from sifting through the broken stone. and clogging the drainage area of the base dram.
The tile conduit is made in 2-ft lengths and the cast-iron conduit in 4-ft lengths, cast in
768
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
separate top and bottom halves. Special reinforcing ribs give the cast-iron conduit ample
strength with minimum weight.
Insulated Tile Type:t The insulating material, diatomaceous earth, is molded to the
inside of the sectional tile conduit. The space between the pipes and the insulating con-
duit lining may also be filled with insulation. The pipes are carried on expansion rollers
supported on a frame which rests on the side shoulders of the base drain foundation.
This type of conduit has the same mechanical features as those described under the
heading Circular Tile or Cast-iron Conduit.
Sectional Insulation Type (Tile or Cast-iron): Each pioe is insulated in the usual way
with any desired type of sectional pipe insulation over which is placed a standard water-
proof jacket with cemented joints. The pipes are enclosed in a sectional tile or cast-iron
conduit as described under the heading Circular Tile or Cast-iron Conduit.
Sectional Insulation Type (Tile or Concrete Trench) : A type of construction frequently
used in city streets, where service connections are required at frequent intervals, the
pipes are insulated as described in the preceding paragraph, and are enclosed in a box
or trench made either entirely of concrete, or with concrete bottom and specially con-
structed tile sides and tops. The pipes are supported on roller frames secured in the
concrete. At C and Et Fig. 1, are shown two tile conduits using sectional insulation. In
these particular designs the space surrounding the pipe is filled partially or wholly with a
loose insulating material. The use of loose material in addition to the sectional insula-
tion is, of course, optional and is only justifiable where high pressure steam is used. The
conduit shown at F is of a similar type and has the advantage of being made entirely of
concrete and other common materials.
Sectional Insulation Type (Bituminized Fibre Conduit): Each pipe is individually
insulated and encased in a bituminized fibre conduit. The insulating material is 85
per cent carbonate of magnesia sectional pipe covering, applied in the usual manner as
on overhead pipes, except that bands are omitted. After every fifth section of magnesia
covering there is applied a short, hollow section of very hard asbestos material in the
bottom portion of which rests a grooved-iron plate carrying ball-bearings upon which
the pipe rides when expanding or contracting. This short expansion section is of the
same outside diameter as the adjacent 85 per cent magnesia covering. Over the pipe
covering and expansion device there are placed two layers of bituminized^fibre conduit
with all joints staggered, and the surface of each conduit is finished with Hquid cement.
Conduits are placed on a bed of crushed rock or gravel, approximately 6 in. deep, and
this is extended upward to about the center line of the conduit when trench is backfilled.
Underdrains leading to points of free discharge are placed in the gravel or crushed
rock beds.
Special Water-Tight Designs: It is occasionally necessary to install pipes in a very wet
ground, which calls for special construction. The ordinary tile or concrete conduit is not
absolutely water tight even when laid with the utmost care. The conduit shown at G,
Fig. 1, is of cast-iron with lead-calked joints and is water tight if properly laid. It is
obviously expensive and is justified only in exceptional cases. A reasonably satisfactory
construction in wet ground is the concrete or tile conduit with a waterproof jacket
enclosing the pipe and its insulation, and with the interior of the conduit carefully
drained to a manhole or sump having an automatic pump. It is useless to install external
drain tile when the conduit is actually submerged,
PIPE TUNNELS
Where steam heating lines are installed in tunnels large enough to
provide walking space, the pipes are supported by means of hangers or
roller frames on brackets or frame racks at the side or sides of the tunnel.
The pipes are insulated with sectional pipe insulation over which is
placed a sewed-on, painted canvas jacket or a jacket of asphalt-saturated
asbestos water-proofing felt. The tunnel itself is usually built of concrete
or brick and water-proofed on the outside with membrane water-proofing.
On account of their relatively high first cost as compared with smaller
conduits, walking tunnels are sometimes not installed where provision for
the heating lines is the only consideration, but only where they are required
709
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
to accommodate miscellaneous other services or provide underground
passage between buildings.
BUILDING SERVICE CONNECTIONS
Most district heating companies enforce certain regulations regarding
the consumer's installation, partly to safeguard their own interests but
principally to insure satisfactory and economical service to the consumer.
Heating main
Unions "~
Service pipe
Pipe to connect into steam mam not less
. than 10 feet from reducing valve, if possible
FIG. 2. CONNECTIONS FOR REDUCING VALVES OF SIZE LESS THAN 4 IN.
There are certain fundamental principles that should be followed in the
design of a building heating system which is to be supplied from street
mams. Although some of these apply to any building, they have been
demonstrated to be especially important when steam is purchased.
Heating main
Service valve
Balance pipe
Pipe to connect into steam mam not less
than 10 feet from reducing valve, if possible
FIG. 3. CONNECTIONS FOR REDUCING VALVES OF SIZE 4 IN AND
LARGER, AND FOR EXPANDED VALVES
Figs. 2 and 3 show typical service connections used for low pressure
steam service. As shown in Fig. 2, no by-pass is used around the reducing
valve on sizes less than 4 in. Fig. 3 illustrates the use of a by-pass around
reducing valves 4 in. and larger. This latter construction permits the
770
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
operation of the line in case of failure in the reducing valve. In the smaller
sizes, the reducing valve can be removed, a filler installed, and the house
valve used to throttle the flow of steam.
Fig. 4 shows a typical installation used for high pressure steam service.
The first reducing valve, usually furnished by the utility company,
Pressure reducing valve
- At least 12 feet of pipe
Customer's work
starts here
Pitch
Note.- All valves, fittings, and traps up to
and including customer's control
valve to be at least equal to
American Standard 175 Ib S. S P.
Pipe to be standard weight.
Continuous-flow type
float trap
FIG. 4. STEAM SUPPLY CONNECTION WHEN USING CONDENSATION METER
effects the initial pressure reduction. The second reducing valve, usually
furnished by the customer, reduces the steam pressure to that required.
L Provision should be made for conveniently shutting off the steam supply
at night and at other times when heat is not needed.
It has been thoroughly demonstrated that a considerable amount of
heat can be saved by shutting off steam at night. Although there is, in
Return mam
Condensation meter
and manifold casting
Vent
•~ -Carry full size to sewer
Gas teal
FIG. 5, RETURN PIPING FOR CONDENSATION METER
some cases, an increased consumption of heat when steam is again turned
on in the morning, there is a large net saving which may be^explained by
the fact that the lower inside temperature maintained during the night
obviously results in lower heat loss from the building, and less heat need
therefore be supplied.
Steam can be entirely shut off at night in most buildings even in very
771
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
cold weather without endangering plumbing. It is necessary, however, to
have an ample amount of heating surface so that the building can be
quickly warmed in the morning. Where the hours of occupancy differ in
various parts of the building, it is good practice to install separate supply
pipes to the different parts. For example, in an office building with
stores or restaurants on the first floor which are open in the evening, a
separate main supplying the first floor will permit the steam to be shut off
from the remainder of the building in the late afternoon. The division of
the building into zones each with a separately controlled heat supply is
sometimes desirable, as it permits the heat to be adjusted according to
variations in sunshine and wind.
2. Residual heat in the condensate should be salvaged.
This heat may be salvaged by means of a cooling radiator, or as is more
frequently done, by a water heating economizer (see Fig. 5) which pre-
heats the hot water supply to the building. Fig. 6 shows a typical steam
service installation for high pressure steam, complete for steam flow
metering, water heating, preheating, automatic heating control, and for
using steam for other purposes.
The condensation from the heating system, after leaving the trap,
passes through the preheater on its way to the meter. The supply to the
hot water heater passes through the preheater, absorbing heat from the
condensation. If the hot water system in the building is of the recircu-
lating type, the recirculating connection should be tied in between the
preheater and the water heater proper, not at the preheater inlet, because
the recirculated hot water is itself at a high temperature. The number of
square feet of heating surface in the preheater should be approximately
equal to one per cent of the equivalent square feet of heating surface in the
building.
Because of the lack of coincidence between the heating system load and
the hot water demand, a greater amount of heat can be extracted from the
condensation if storage capacity is provided for the preheated water.
Frequently a type of preheater is used in which the coils are submerged
in a storage tank.
8. Heat supply should be graduated according, to variations in the outside
temperature.
This may be done in several ways, as by the use of thermostats of
various types or by orifice systems. Another method which is very simple
is the use of an ordinary vacuum return line system in which the pressure
in the radiators is varied between a high vacuum and a few pounds pres-
sure, thus producing some control over the heat output. One form of con-
trol which appears to be well suited for controlling district steam service
to a building is the weather compensating thermostat. It regulates the
steam supply automatically according to the outdoor temperature, and
gives frequent short intervals of intermittent steam supply, and at the
same time insures delivery of steam to all the radiators.
Another form of regulation, known as the time-limit control, is sometimes
employed for regulating the steam supply from the central station main to
the building. Such a control provides an intermittent supply of steam to
the radiators cither throughout the 24 hours of the day or during the day-
773
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ime hours only. The setting of a switch may provide no service, con-
inuous service, or periodic service. For the latter, by means of several
ntermittent settings, steam will be supplied during each period in in-
xements of a certain number of minutes for each successive setting of the
witch, steam being shut off during the balance of the period. These
iettings afford from 15 to 80 per cent of the maximum heating effect
•equired on days of -zero temperature. A night switch with a variety of
iettings may be adjusted so as to maintain throughout the night the
ntermittent supply called for by the day switch setting, or may be set to
nterrupt the operation of the day switch and entirely cut off the supply
>f steam to the radiation at night during certain hours which are selected
>y the operating engineer.
FLUE) METERS
No one thing has contributed more to the advancement of district
icating than the perfection of fluid meters, which may be classified as
'ollows:
1. Positive Meters: The fluid passes in successive isolated quantities — either weights
>r volumes. These quantities are separated froni the stream and isolated by alternately
illing and emptying containers of known capacity.
2. Differential Meters: The fluid does not pass in isolated separately-counted quan-
tities but in a continuous stream which may flow through the line without actuating
Lhe primary device of the meter. In the differential meter, the ^quantity of flow is not
determined by simple counting, as with the positive meter, but is determined from the
iction of the steam on the primary element.
Additional subdivisions of these two general classifications can be made
as follows:
Fluid
Meters
Weighing <
f Weighers
Tilting trap
Positive - quantity
Volumetric <
r Rotary
[ Bellows
Quantity - Current - Turbine
Venturi
c__,._4.;rti
Head
Flow nozzle
terential <
(Kinetic)
Orifice
Pitot tube
Rate of
flow
Area ,
(Geometric)
Orifice and plug
Cylinder and piston
Head area
' V-notch
(Weir) <
Special notch
In selecting a meter for a particular installation, the number of different
makes and types of meters suitable for the job is usually limited by
one or more of the following considerations :
1. Its use in a new or an old installation.
2. Method to be used in charging for the service.
3. Location of the meter.
4. Large or small quantity to be measured.
5. Temporary or permanent installation.
774
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
Pressure reducing valve
.Drill and tap
yor 1" nipple
Customer's
control valve
-Vents and loops unnecessary
where meter is 5 feet or
more below pipe
Note Alt valves, fittings, and traps up to
and including customer's control
valve to be at least equal to
American Standard 175 Ib S. S. P.
Pipe to be standard weight
FIG. 7, ORIFICE METER STEAM SUPPLY CONNECTION
6. Cleanliness of the fluid to be measured.
7. Temperature of the fluid to be measured.
8. Accuracy expected.
9. Nature of flow: turbulent, pulsating, or steady.
10. Cost.
(a) Purchase price.
(b) Installation cost.
(c) Calibration cost*
(d) Maintenance cost,
11. Servicing facilities of the manufacturer.
12. Pressure at which fluid is to be metered.
13. Type of record desired as to indicating, recording or totalizing.
14. Stocking of repair parts.
15. Use of open jets where steam is to be metered.
16. Metering to be done by one meter or by a combination of meters.
17. Use as a check meter.
18. Its facilities for determining or recording information other than flow.
Condensation Meiers
The majority of the meters used by district heating companies in the
sale of steam to their customers are of the condensation or flow types.
The condensation meter is a popular type for use on small and medium
sized installations, where all of the condensate can be^brought to a com-
mon point for metering purposes. Its simplicity of design, ease in testing,
accuracy at all loads, low cost, and adaptability to low pressure distri-
bution has made it standard equipment with many heating companies.
Two types of condensation meters are in general use; the tilting bucket
meter and the revolving drum or rotor meter of which there are several
makes on the market. Condensation meters should not be operated under
775
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
pressure; they are made for either gravity or vacuum installation. Con-
tinuous flow traps are necessary ahead of the meter if a vented receiver is
not used. Where bucket traps are used, a vented receiver before the
meter is essential. If desirable a receiver may be used with a continuous
flow trap, but this is not necessary.
Steam flow meters are available in many types and combinations, as
indicated in the sub-division covering fluid meters on page 774.
The orifice and plug meter is one in which the steam flow varies directly
as the area of the orifice. The vertical lift of the plug, which is proportional
to the flow, is transmitted by means of a lever to an indicator and to a
\
FIG. 8. GRAVITY INSTALLATION FOR CONDENSATION METER
USING VENTED RECEIVERS
pencil arm which records the flow on a strip chart. The total flow over a
given period is obtained by measuring the area by using a planimeter
on the chart and applying the meter constant.
Fig. 7 shows a typical orifice type meter connection and indicates
typical requirements in the installation of this type of meter. Fig. 8
illustrates a gravity installation using a vented receiver ahead of the
meter, while Fig. 9 shows a vacuum installation without a master trap.
Flow meters using an orifice, Venturi tube, flow nozzle, or Pitot tube
as the primary device are made by a number of manufacturers and can
be obtained in either the mechanically or electrically operated type. The
electric flow meter makes it possible to locate the instruments at some
distance from the primary element.
Flow meters employing the orifice, Venturi tube, flow nozzle or Pitot
tube should be so selected as to keep the lower operating range of the
load above 20 per cent of the capacity of the meter. This is desirable for
accuracy as the differential pressure at light loads is too small to properly
actuate the meter. A few general points to be considered in installing a
meter of this type are :
1. It is desirable to place the differential medium in a horizontal pipe in preference
to a vertical one, where either location is available.
g 2. Reservoirs should always be on the same level and installed in accordance with the
instructions of the meter company.
776
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
3. The meter body should be placed at a lower level than that of the pressure differ-
ential medium. Special instructions are furnished where the meter body is above.
4. Meter piping should be kept free from leaks.
5. Sludge should not be permitted to collect in the meter body.
6. The meter body and meter piping should be kept above freezing temperatures.
7. It is best not to connect a meter body to more than one service.
8. Special instructions are furnished for metering a turbulent or pulsating flow.
STEAM CONSUMPTION
The following factors are used in New York City for the different classes
of buildings listed. The factors are based on maintaining an inside tem-
Air by-pass
-To vacuum pump
FIG. 9. VACUUM CONDENSATION METER INSTALLATION WITHOUT MASTER TRAP
perature of 70 F for certain hours, with a minimum outside temperature of
0 F and an average of 43 F for the heating season of eight months (October
1 to June 1). In this group are six types of buildings:
Manufacturing or commercial loft type where steam is used to heat the premises during
the day hours to maintain 65 to 68 F from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. No Sunday or holiday use
and no night use. Factor: 325 Ib per square foot of heating surface per season.
Office buildings using steam during daylight hours to maintain 70 F from 9 a.m. to
6 p.m. for approximately 240 days (heating season). No night use. Factor: 400 Ib per
square foot of heating surface per season.
Office buildings using steam during day hours and at night when required to 7, 8 and
9 p.m. (customary where there are stock brokers or banking offices), 240 days. Factor:
500 Ib per square foot of heating surface per season.
Residences of the block type (not detached) where high-class heating service is re-
quired; somewhat similar to apartment buildings. Factor: 550 Ib per square foot of
heating surface per season.
777
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Apartment houses where high-class heating service is required. (Steam off at mid-
night.) Factor: 650 Ib per square foot of heating surface per season.
Hotels (commercial type) where very high-class service is required for 24 hours.
Factor: 800 Ib per square foot of heating surface per season.
By assuming one square foot of equivalent heating surface for each
100 cu ft of space heated, which seems a fair ratio in New York City, it is
possible roughly to estimate the steam required per cubic foot of space,
information which is often more easily obtained than the square feet of
heating surface. Additional data on the heating requirements of various
types of buildings in a number of cities may be found in the Handbook
of the National District Heating Association.
RATES
Fundamentally, district heating rates are based upon the same princi-
ples as those recognized in the electric light and power industry, the main
object being a reasonable return on the investment. However, there are
other requirements to be met; the rate for each class of service should be
based upon the cost to the utility company of the service supplied and
upon the value of the service to the consumer, and it must be between
these two limits. The profit need not be divided proportionately among
the rate groups, but should be established from a competitive stand-
point. District heating rates should be designed to produce a sufficient
return on the investment regardless of weather conditions, although
existing rate schedules do not conform with this principle. Lastly, the
rate schedule must be reasonably easy for the intelligent layman to
comprehend.
Depreciation should be based on a careful estimate of the life of various
elements of the property. Appropriations to reserves should be made,
with generosity in good years and with discretion in less favorable years.
Glossary of Terms
Load Factor. ^ The ratio, in per cent, of the average load to the maxi-
mum load. This is usually based on a one year period but may be applied
to any specified period.
Demand Factor. The relation between the connected radiator surface
or required radiator surface and the demand of the particular installation.
It varies from 0.25 to 0.3 Ib per hour per square foot of surface.
Diversity Factor. The ratio of the sum of the individual demands of a
number of buildings to the actual composite demand of the group.
Types of Rates
A. Flat Rates.
1. Radiator surface charge, Obsolescent.
B. Meter Rates.
1. Straight-line.
2. Step. Obsolescent.
3. Block.
(a) Class rates.
C. Demand Rates.
1. Flat demand.
2. Wright.
3. Hopkinson.
4. Doherty (or Three charge).
778
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
Straight-Line Meter ^ Rate. The price charged per unit is constant, and the consumer
pays in direct proportion to his consumption without regard to the difference in costs of
supplying the individual customers.
Block Meter Rate The pounds of steam consumed by a customer are divided into
blocks of M Ib each, and lower rates are charged for each successive block consumed.
This type of charge predominates in steam heating rate schedules for it has the ad-
vantage of proportioning the bill according to the consumption and the cost of service.
It has the disadvantage of not discriminating between customers having a high load
factor (relatively low demand) and those having a low load factor (relatively high
demand). The utility company must maintain sufficient capacity to serve the high
demand customers and the cost of the increased plant investment is divided equally
among the users, so the high demand customers are benefitted at the expense of the
others.
Demand Rates. These refer to' any method of charge based on a measured maximum
load during a specified period of time.
The flat demand rate is usually expressed in dollars per M Ib of demand per
month or per annum. It is based on the size of a customer's installation, and is
seldom used except where a flow meter is not practicable.
The Wright demand rate is similar in calculation to the block rate except that it is
expressed in terms of hours' use of the maximum demand. It is seldom used but
forms the basis for other forms of rates.
The Hopkinson demand rate is divided into two elements:
(a) A charge based upon the demand, either estimated or measured;
(b) A charge based upon the amount of steam consumed.
This rate may be modified by dividing the quantities of steam demanded and
consumed into blocks charged for at different rates.
Demand rates are comparatively new and are not yet widely used; though they are
equitable and competitive they are difficult for the average layman to understand.
They are of benefit to utility companies and to consumers because the investment and
operating costs can be divided to suit the particular circumstances into demand^ cus-
tomer, and consumption groups through the use of some modification of the Hopkinson
rate.
Fuel Price Surcharge. It is usually desirable to establish a rate upon a specified basic
cost of fuel to the utility company. Where there are wide variations in the price of fuel,
it is also desirable to add a definite charge per M Ib of steam sold for each increment of
increase in the price of fuel. This surcharge automatically compensates for the variations
without necessitating frequent changing of the whole rate structure.
REFERENCES
Pipe Line Design for Central Station Heating, by B. T. Gifford (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 17, 1911, p. 84).
Engineering and Cost Data Relative to the Installation of Steam Distributing Systems
in a Large City, by F. H. Valentine (A.S.H.V.K. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 22, 1916, p. ,547).
Transmission of Steam in ?i Central Heating System, by ]. H. Walker (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 23, 1917, p. 161).
Efficiency of Underground Conduit, by G. I*. Nichols (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS,
Vol.23, 1917, p. 173).
Economical Utilization of Heat from Central Plants, by N. W. Calvert and J. E.
Seiter (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 30, 1924, p. 21).
Standard Connections for Condensation Meters, (N.D.ILA. Proceedings, Vol. XII,
pp. 63-76).
Installation and Maintenance of Steam Meters, (N.D.ILA. Proceedings, Vol. XIII,
pp. 177-183).
Inaccuracy in Flow Meter Calculations, (N.DJIA. Proceedings, Vol. XI H, pp.
183-193).
Testing of Steam Meters, (N.D.ILA. Proceedings, Vol. XIV pp. 272-276).
779
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Meter Accuracy Guarantees, (N.D.H.A. Proceedings, Vol. XIV, pp. 276-277).
Effect of Pulsations on the Flow of Gases, (N.D.H.A. Proceedings, Vol. XIV, pp.
277-281}.
Meter Connections, (N.D.H.A. Proceedings, Vol. XX, pp. 126-143).
Layout for Testing Meters, (N.D.H.A. Proceedings, Vol. XX, pp. 391-392).
Characteristic Meter Calibration Curves, (N.D.H.A. Proceedings, Vol. XX, pp.
444-453).
Rates, (N.D.H.A. Handbook, 1932, Chapter 10).
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • What is the common method of determining the size of mains in a dis-
tribution system?
On the basis of pressure drop: The initial pressure and the minimum permissible
terminal pressure are specified, and the pipe sizes are so chosen that the maximum
estimated amount of steam may be transmitted without exceeding this pressure dif-
ference. The steam's velocity is disregarded and it may reach a magnitude in excess of
35,000 fpm which is not considered high.
2 • a. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a low pressure distribu-
tion system?
b. High pressure?
a. The advantages of a low pressure distribution system include:
1. Smaller heat loss from the pipes.
2. Less trouble with traps and valves.
3. Simpler problems with pressure reducing equipment at the buildings.
4. No danger to building heating equipment from high pressure through failure of the
reducing valves.
The disadvantages of a low pressure system are:
1. Larger pipe sizes.
2. Decreased field of usefulness owing to small pressure range.
b. The advantages of a high pressure system are:
1. Smaller pipe sizes.
2. Greater adaptability of the steam to various uses other than building heating.
The disadvantages of a high pressure system are:
1. Large heat loss from the pipes.
2. The high pressure traps and valves required often give more trouble than low
pressure traps and valves do.
3. Extra heavy fittings are required.
4. Usually two reducing valves or some form of emergency relief is necessary to
protect the building piping system.
3 • Determine the size of pipe from the following data using Unwin's formula-
Length of pipe, 600 ft.
Steam to be carried, 90,000 Ib per hour, dry saturated.
Initial pressure, 100 Ib per square inch, gage.
Final pressure, 40 Ib per square inch, gage.
Using the formula:
0.0001306 W*L
The pressure drop P = 100 - 40 « 60 Ib per square inch.
780
CHAPTER 42. DISTRICT HEATING
on nnn
The weight of steam per minute W = I" = 1500.
ou
The length of pipe in feet L « 600
The average density of steam d in pounds per cubic foot, taken from Keenan's Table:
At 100-lb gage, d = 0.2578
At 40-lb gage, d - 0.1285
Average, d = 0,1932
The diameter of the pipe in inches = D.
Substituting the values in the formula:
0.0001306 X 15002 X 600 ( 1 + -
«n - _________ V __ D
_________ __
0.1932 X &
D - 7.35 in.
Therefore, an 8-in. pipe should be used.
4 • What points should he borne in mind when laying out an underground
steam conduit?
The conduit should^be reasonably waterproof, able to withstand earth loads and to take
care of the expansion and contraction of the piping without strain or stress on the
couplings, or without affecting the insulation or the conduit. Expansion of the piping
must be carefully controlled by means of anchors and expansion joints or bends so that
the pipes can never come in contact with the conduit.
5 • What is considered the proper pressure for a hydrostatic test before com-
pleting the conduit?
In the case of any underground piping which is to be buried or otherwise made inacces-
sible, the assembled lines shall first be tested hydrostatically at a pressure of one and one-
half times the maximum allowable service pressure and held for a period of at least two
hours without evidence of leakage. In any case the hydrostatic pressure should not be
less than 100 Ib per square inch.
6 • What factors should be considered before determining the route of a steam
line?
1. The line should be so located that it will bring in the greatest revenue (or supply the
most steam) with the least cost.
2. The ultimate length and size of services and branches necessary with each possible
location should be estimated, for mains should be run near to the big loads.
3. The location of the boiler room or piping center of present and future buildings to be
served should be considered,
4. Where possible, make the lines straight between manholes,
5. Avoid such obstructions as other lines, sewers, ducts, curb drains, manholes, valve
boxes, catch basins, fire hydrants, and poles; especially avoid electric ducts and water
lines.
6. Avoid locating lines near where pile driving and foundation construction for new
buildings will take place.
7. Consider construction difficulties such as traffic, hard rock, and wet earth, which
increase time and labor,
8. Consider the economies of using available sidewalk vaults of buildings. Weigh the
advantage of less excavation against the cost of obstruction removal.
9. Consider all operating difficulties.
10. Consider the difficulties of negotiating agreements for lines on private property
where public and private rights-of-way are available.
11. Consider the effect of proposed municipal and other improvements.
12. Consider municipal regulations.
781
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
7. • State the advantages and disadvantages of tunnels over conduits.
The advantages of pipe tunnels over conduits are:
1. Accommodation for miscellaneous services other than steam.
2. Provision of an underground passage between buildings.
3. Easy installation of additional pipes and easy replacement of existing pipes with
larger sizes.
4. Easy inspection and maintenance of pipes.
The disadvantages of pipe tunnels over conduits are:
1. Higher first cost.
2. Higher maintenance cost in general.
8 • Is the steam consumption less in a building that shuts off its steam at
night than in one that does not? Why?
It has been thoroughly demonstrated that the steam consumption is less in a building
where the steam is shut off at night. Although there is, in some cases, an increased con-
sumption of heat when steam is again turned on in the morning, there is a large net
saving which may be explained by lie fact that the lower inside^temperature maintained
during the night obviously results in lower heat loss from the building, and less heat need
therefore be supplied.
9 • Is the condensate from a building supplied with purchased steam always
discharged to the sewer?
No. In some cities where the customers are not spread over too wide a territory and
where natural water conditions make the treatment of boiler feed water expensive, the
steam company provides mains for the return of the condensate to the boilers.
10 • What are the common methods for salvaging heat in condensate?
The most common methods are:
1. The use of a water heating economizer for preheating the hot water supply to the
building.
2, The use of a cooling radiator.
11 • What are the common means used to graduate the heat supply according
to variations in outside temperature?
a. A weather compensating thermostat regulates the steam supply automatically
according to the outdoor temperature, and gives frequent short intervals of inter-
mittent steam supply; at the same time it insures delivery of steam to all the radiators.
b. Another method which is very simple is the use of an ordinary vacuum return line
system in which the pressure in the radiators is varied between a high vacuum and a
few pounds to produce some control over the heat output.
c. The use of an orifice system graduates heat supply.
d. The time-limit control which may be set to provide no service, continuous service, or
periodic service, is also used. For periodic service, steam may be supplied during
each period in increments of a certain number of minutes for each successive setting
of the switch, steam being shut off during the balance of the period. This type of
service is provided by several intermittent settings. A night switch will maintain
the intermittent day setting, or interrupt the day operation and cut off the supply of
steam at night during any desired hours.
782
Chapter 43
WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER
HEATING
Maximum Possible Flow, Maximum Probable Flow, Average
Probable Flow, Factor of Usage, Kind of Pipe Used, Sizing of
Risers. Sizing of Mains, Sizing of Systems, Hot Water Supply,
Hot Water Heating, Hot Water Storage, Swimming Pool Heat-
ing Requirements
DOMESTIC water supply systems present the engineer with a design
problem that requires combining the somewhat empirical rules and
formulae in use with the more or less exact hydraulir principles involved.
Unlike heating and ventilating layouts, there are practically no definite
data for estimating the quantity of water likely tn be consumed or the
probable rate of water flow at any particular moment.
Metered results in one building often show two or three times the
metered amount in another building of the same size and with the same
type of tenants. In hotels, one riser will often have an almost constant
flow that may never be reached by another at peak load. In office
buildings, the women's toilets show a far greater daily consumption than
those of the men, yet at no time will they approach the hourly consump-
tion of the men's toilet during the first hour of the day. This condition
has led to a multiplicity of rules of practice which vary as much as the
data used. All must of necessity be based on an assumed rate of con-
sumption and on an assumed probability of simultaneous use, and while
the formulae employed may have been derived on sound technical basis
the assumptions are often in error.
To arrive at a safe standard, the approximate rate of flow of each
fixture to be supplied must be known and the probable number of fixtures
in use at any one time must be assumed. Obviously, the maximum
number of fixtures assumed to be in use must be taken at the peak of
demand and the lines must be made adequate to supply such a peak
regardless of the riser or branch on which the demand may occur. This
means that all water piping under the usual conditions will be over-sized.
In tall buildings it is customary to divide the water supply systems,
both hot and cold, into sections of 10 to 20 stories. Such zoning1 or
llt is impractical to attempt to size piping »> a« to produce the proper pressuie on fixtures at different
levels by employing friction, owing to tho fact that thin friction will be built up to the amount desired only
in times of maximum demand and at all cither times the friction will be only a fraction of the maximum
friction so that the fixtures by this method arc subjected to a varying pressure on the water supply line. A
much more practical method is to throttle the How at the fixture, or to use flow regulators, so that the
quantity of water delivered will approximate the fixture demands and so that this is accomplished without
splashing or noise.
783
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
sectionalizing is for the purpose of avoiding excessive pressures on the
fixtures in the lower stories of each system. This limits the consideration
of water pipe sizes to horizontal mains and to risers not exceeding 20
stories in height or about 200 ft.
For the purpose of this chapter the following terms will be used and
should be clearly distinguished from one another:
Maximum Possible Flow : The flow which would occur if the outlets on all fixtures
were opened simultaneously. This condition is seldom, if ever, obtained in actual
practice except in cases of gang showers controlled from one common valve, and similar
conditions.
Maximum Probable Flow : The maximum flow which any pipe is likely to carry
under the peak conditions. This is the most important amount to be considered in
pipe sizing.
Average Probable Flow: The flow likely to be required through the line under
normal conditions.
It is evident that any pipe adequate to take care of the maximum
VENTAGE OF USE
5 8 H
\
i
\
,
\
\
\ Us<
i this c
ush va
urve
Ives
for
and
mixed
ordma
systems with
\
\
V'
ry fixtures
B
5 40
X
"V
\
"^
\
2
2 20
Uset
use
ing.
urvc
10 f
j for pi
ushva
Ding systems -
^
X
\^
haw
Ive fixtures
""
*•-,
^*n
1
'^-\,
•*•—
«- —
— «.
•—
•-» —
5 2
) 40 60
100 200 400 600 1000 2000 40
MAXIMUM POSSIBLE FLOW G PM
30
6000
10000
FIG. 1. CHART SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN MAXIMUM POSSIBLE FLOW AND
MAXIMUM PROBABLE PERCENTAGE OF USE
probable flow will also be more than able to take care of the average
probable flow, and hence the latter has no bearing on the pipe size.
MAXIMUM PROBABLE FLOW
There are two factors to be considered in calculating the maximum
probable flow, namely, (1) the quantity of water that will flow from the
outlets when^they are open, and (2) the number of outlets likely to be open
at the same time. Table 1 shows the maximum approximate rate of flow
from each fixture when it is in use, and will serve as a guide in estimating
maximum probable flow demands although there is considerable variation
m different fixtures and valves. Probably the flow under normal water
pressures, or with the pressure properly throttled, will not differ greatly
from the values stated. With the aid of this table it is possible to calculate
the maximum possible flow with all outlets open in both the hot and cold
water lines.
784
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
To obtain the maximum probable flow it is necessary to multiply the
maximum possible flow by a factor of usage, and this factor varies with the
installation and the number of fixtures in the installation. It is evident
that with two fixtures it is quite possible that both will at some time be in
operation simultaneously. With 200 fixtures, it is unlikely the entire
200 would ever operate at the same time. Consequently, the factor of
usage reduces as the number of fixtures becomes greater, all other things
being equal.
TABLE 1. APPROXIMATE FLOW FROM FIXTURES UNDER NORMAL WATER PRESSURES
FIXTURES
COLD WATER
(GALLONS PEE
MINUTE)
HOT WATBR
(GALLONS PER
MINUTE)
Water-closets, flush valve . ..
45a
0
Water-closets, flush tank
• 10
. 0
Urinals, flush valve
30a
0
Urinals, flush tank.
Urinals automatic tank
10
1
0
o
Urinals, perforated pipe per foot
10
0
Lavatories ...
3
3
Showers, 4 in. heads, }^ in. inlets
3
3
Showers, 6 in. heads or larger
6
6
Needle bath
30
30
Shampoo spray
1
1
Liver spray .
2
2
Manicure table ...
1J^
11A
Baths, tub
5
5
Kitchen sink
4
4
Pantry sink, ordinary ... .. .
2
2
Pantry sink, large bibb
6
(>
Slop sinks
6
6
Wash trays . . .
3
3
Laundry tray
6
(>
Garden hose bibb
10
0
aActual tests on water-closet flush valves indicate 40 gpra as the maximum rate of flow with 30 lb pres-
sure at the valve; this would increase to 60 gpm (about 50 per cent) at 90 lb pressure. The 45 gpm has been
taken as an average flow; possibly, with very low pressures just sufficient to operate the flush valve, 30 gpm
could be allowed with safety. Urinal flush valves would vary proportionately in the same manner.
In practice all the elements will vary according to conditions; in the case
of flush valve closets the duration of flush with the kind and condition of
supply apparatus, the interval between flushes with the number of people
using the system and their habits; and the length of the rush period with
the type of installation and its location. The effect of each of these time
elements on the results should be considered in connection with any data
on which it is based before passing judgment on the selection of the
factor of usage. The longer the duration of the flush the greater is the
probability of overlapping flow. In selecting the factor of usage shown in
Fig. 1 for systems having flush valves, 10 seconds was chosen as the
maximum duration of flush, a value that represents an approximate
average as water closets are installed.
While the curve has been calculated for systems composed of watei
closets alone, it is possible to calculate probabilities for -mixed systems oi
water closets and other smaller fixtures. It has been found however that
for two systems both having the same maximum possible flow, one com-
posed entirely of water closets and the other a mixed system of watei
785
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
closets and smaller fixtures, the probability of a given rate of flow is
greater for the system composed of water closets than for the mixed
CO <N (N
J<QBS
1 1 1 1 tt n 1 11 1 in 1 1 1 1
<•£,
ciw
ag
t g
system. The use of this chart then would produce results which would be
on the safe side for mixed systems.
For systems composed entirely of fixtures other than flush valve
fixtures the curve has been extended for smaller maximum possible flow
values.
786
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
This chart applies to a normal building and not to installations where
the inmates may all be required, for instance to bathe on certain days of
the week and at certain hours of those days; or in schools for example
where all the showers in the gymnasium may be used simultaneously
after instruction periods. In such special cases a new factor of usage must
be developed based on the maximum probable usage under the conditions
involved,
Example 1. Assume that in a normal building, such as a residential hotel or an apart-
ment house, there are 50 flush valve water-closets, 50 lavatories, 50 sinks and 50 baths,
and that it is desired to determine the maximum probable flow in a line supplying all of
these fixtures with both hot and cold water.
Cold Water Hot Water
50 W. C. x 45 gpm ............ 2250 gpm 52 Lava- x 3 gpm .............. i50 8pm
50 I-5W3. x 3 gpm .............. 150 gprn 50 Sinks x 4 gpm ................ 200 gpm
50 Sinks x 4 gpm 200 gpra 50 Baths x 5 gpm ............... 250 gpm
50 Bath, x 5 gPm ............... .250 gpm
Maximum possible flow ..... 2850 gpm Fig. 1 shows a factor of
usage of 23 per cent.
f Maximum probable flow of hot
water is 000 X 0.23 ......................... 138 gpm
Maximum probable flow of TotalJS
cold water is 2«50 X 0.09 ............... 257 gpm S8o) Xoa ..................... 276 gpm
It should be noted that this is a rate of flow or
an instantaneous demand.
KIND OF PIPE USED
Before entering into the actual sizing of pipe, it is necessary to consider
the kind of pipe to be used, and to make suitable allowance for corrosion
and fouling during the lifetime of the system. For example, if brass,
copper or alloy pipe is contemplated, it is probable that the quantities
indicated in Example 1 are ample; if galvanized pipe is to be used, then it
is quite likely that after a period of say 15 years the area may be decreased
as much as 25 per cent and the quantities of water assumed should be
increased by 35 per cent to allow for this reduction of area ; if the water
contains lime it is possible that 50 per cent of the area may be lost and in
such cases the flow should be doubled and no branch pipe connected to
fixtures should be less than % in. In all of the following calculations, the
assumption is made that the water is fairly good and that a corrosion
resistant type of pipe is to be used.
SIZING A DOWN-FEED RISER
Down-feed systems are commonly used for tall buildings. In sizing a
riser arranged for down-feed, the gravity head permits a pressure drop
that is almost prohibitive in an up-feed riser. There is a gain in riser head
of 0.43 X 100 or 43 Ib per 100 ft of run and hence it is quite permissible
to size such a riser on the basis of a pressure drop of 30 Ib per 100 ft of run,
as the difference between the 43 Ib generated and the 30-lb drop under
maximum probable demand is ample to take care of the friction caused by
the fittings. This method applied to the typical riser shown in Fig. 2
gives the schedule of sizes indicated in Table 2 for any flow from 5 to 250
gal.
787
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SIZING AN UP-FEED RISER
When the riser is an up-feed, the opposite condition occurs; that is,
there is a drop in pressure as the top of the riser is approached, due to the
natural reduction in the gravity pressure, and to this must be added the
pipe friction plus that introduced by the pipe fittings, all of which produce
an excessive drop when compared to the conditions existing with a down-
feed riser.
To size an up-feed riser the minimum pressure of the street main, or
other source of supply, should be ascertained and from this should be
subtracted the pressure to be maintained at the highest fixture, namely,
15 Ib per square inch, plus the height in feet above the source of water
pressure, multiplied by 0.43 to change from feet of head to pounds of
pressure. The total length of run from the source of pressure to the
farthest and highest fixture should be ascertained, and this should be
changed to equivalent length of run to allow for the loss occasioned by
TABLE 3. APPROXIMATE ALLOWANCES FOR FITTINGS AND VALVES
IN FEET OF STRAIGHT PIPE
TYPE OP FITTING OR VALVE
SIZE OF PIPE
(INCHES)
90-Deg
Elbow
45-Deg
Elbow
Return
Bend
Gate
Valve
Globe
Valve
Angle
Valve
Vz
4
3
8
2
48
8
%
5
3
10
3
60
10
1
5
3
10
3
60
10
1J€
6
4
12
3
72
12
ijl
7
5
14
4
84
14
2
7
5
14
4
84
14
%
10
7
20
5
120
20
3
12
8
24
6
144
24
4
18
13
36
9
216
36
5
25
18
50
13
300
50
6
30
21
60
15
360
60
the pipe fittings. Table 3 gives the additional lengths necessary to allow
for the various fittings and valves. The drop allowable in pressure per
100 ft of run may then be obtained by multiplying the surplus pressure
(over that required for the gravity head and to supply 15 Ib at the fixture)
by 100 and by dividing this by the equivalent length of run to the farthest
or highest fixture.
Where street water pressures are available the pressure drop through
the meter and service pipe must be taken into consideration. Table 4
shows the pressure loss through meters. It also gives the minimum sizes
of recommended service and maximum meter deliveries.
Example 2. Assume a street pressure of 60 Ib, the height of the highest fixture 50 ft,
and the length of the longest run 200 ft. Without knowing the additional length of pipe
to be added for the fittings it will be assumed that this is about 100 ft. The surplus
win then be 60 lb " (15 lb + 50 ft x
To change this into drop per 100 ft:
200
tf = 7'8 lb per 10° ft'
The pipe may then be sized from the maximum probable flow by selecting a size that
does not give a drop in excess of 7.8 lb per 100 ft.
788
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
It will be seen from^ Example 2 that it is impossible to size up-feed
risers without determining the drop allowable in both the horizontal feed
mains and the toilet room branches. Having once ascertained this allow-
able drop, it is simply a matter of applying it throughout the system.
TABLE 4. PRESSURE Loss THROUGH WATER Disc METERS**
A.W.W.A. Standards
RATE OF
FLOW
GPM
APPRO*. PRESSURE Loss THROUGH METERS,
LB PER SQ IN
PIPE SIZE (IN.)
M
X
i
IK
2
3
4
6
5
10
15
20
1.5
6.0
14.0
25.0
0.5
2.0
5.0
9.0
0.2
1.0
2.0
3.5
0.2
0.6
1.0
0.2
0.4
25
30
35
40
13.5
19.5
5.5
8.0
11.0
14.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.6
0.9
1.0
1.5
45
50
75
100
18.0
22.0
5.0
6.0
14.0
25,0
2.0
2.5
5.5
10.0
0.7
1.5
2.8
1.0
125
150
175
200
15.0
22.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.4
1.5
2,2
3.0
4.0
1.0
250
300
350
400
16.0
23.0
1.5
2.2
3.0
4.0
500
600
800
1000
MK
*
6.5
9.0
,16.0
25.0
IMUM SMB OF SERVICE RECOMMENDED SAFD MAXIMUM DELIVERY OF METERS
FLOW
QPM
APPROX. MINIMUM PIPE SIZE OF SERVICE,
MAIN TO METIH (!N.) Murraa CAPACITY GPM
MAXIMUM LENGTH (FT) SIZE BASED ON 25 i LB Loss
IN. THROUGH MBTEII
30 75 100 | 150 j 200
1-20
20-30
H l 1
! i : : i % 20
1HJ IK i* 11
30-50
50-100
100-150
l IX IX
IX IX 2
IX 2 2
IX j IX 2^ 160
2J^ j 2^ 8 1000
^Pressure loss through compound and current meters are less than shown in table. For exact Inf ormatl
consult manufacturers.
789
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HORIZONTAL SUPPLY MAINS
The horizontal mains supplying the risers at the top of a down-feed
system must be liberally sized unless the house tank is set at a much
higher elevation than usual. To provide a gravity head on the highest
fixtures of 15 Ib per square inch it is necessary for the water line in the
house tank to be nearly 40 ft higher, and with the line loss considered this
becomes about 45 ft. Such heights are not often practical and as a result
the pressure on the highest fixtures either is reduced to 7 Ib (which is
sufficient to operate a flush valve), or flush tank water-closets are sub-
stituted, or a separate cold and hot water supply is installed with a small
pneumatic tank to give the increase in pressure necessary. The chief
objection to the use of a pneumatic tank is that a separate hot water
heater is required and this heater must be located either sufficiently
below the highest fixtures to obtain a gravity circulation, or it must be
provided with a circulating pump in order to force the hot water to the
top floor level.
The most common solution is to place the house tank as high as the
structural and architectural conditions will permit and then to use
liberally-sized lines between the house tank and the upper fixtures, say for
the two top stories, below which the riser sizes may be reduced to those
indicated in Fig. 2 and Table 2. Where the house tank is only one story
above the top fixtures, flush tank water-closets must be used and the
drop in the entire run from the house tank down to the farthest fixture
should not exceed 1 Ib ; the less, the better. This means that if the total
equivalent run to the farthest top fixtures supplied is 300 ft, the drop per
100 ft should not exceed * lbg*0 1Q° or 0.33 Ib per 100 ft. The friction
curves shown in Fig. 3 may be used for quickly determining the proper
size of pipe to give any desired drop in pounds per 100 ft of equivalent run.
OVERHEAD DISTRIBUTION MAIN
Example S. Suppose an installation has a house tank in which the water line is 20 ft
above the level of the top fixtures to be supplied and that the length of run to the
farthest fixtures on this level is 400 ft with the pipe fittings adding another 200 ft,
making an equivalent length of 600 ft. What would be the size of main coming out
of the tank where a maximum flow rate of 400 gpm may be expected, of the horizontal
main where a maximum flow rate of 200 gpm may be expected, and of the riser down to
the fixture level where the maximum flow rate is approximately 100 gpm?
Here the level of the water in the house tank is 20 ft above the faucet of the highest
fixture and the gravity pressure will be 0,43 Ib X 20 ft = S.6 Ib and, if a total pressure
drop of 1 Ib is assumed, the pressure on the farthest fixture under times of peak load
will be 8.6 Ib - 1 Ib = 7.6 Ib while the drop per 100 ft of equivalent run will have to be
1 Ib6* 1Q° - 0.1667 Ib.
Referring to Fig. 3 it will be noted that where the flow through the main is 400 gpm, an
8-in. pipe would be required; that where the flow is reduced to 200 gpm, a 6-in. pipe
would be sufficient; and that where the flow is 100 gpm in the riser branch and riser, a
5-in. size would be correct. Of course these are somewhat excessive flows and the head
from the tank is small so that large sizes are to be expected. It would be necessary to
carry a 5-in. riser- down to the branch to the top floor, then reduce to 4 in. for the
branch to the floor below the top, and below this the sizes in Table 2 could be followed.
In such a case, flush tank closets should doubtless be substituted.
Had the tank been set 10 ft higher, the head available to be used up in friction, but
790
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
1400i
1200
1000
Based on Saph and
Schoder formula
(2 orn)156
^ ~ " Z PRESSURE DROP PER 100 FT STRAIGHT PPE IMPOUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
FIG 3 CHART Givuro PRESSURE DROP FOR VARIOUS RATES OF FLOW OF WATER
791
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
,lst_
FIG. 4. TYPICAL LAYOUT FOR House Tan
DOWN-FEED SYSTEM
' House Supply
.. •*' Fire Reserve
k-l-' JL_
* 1
*** 5"
•' 197 4" '"
' 255 5"
197 4"
8th. : •-*•
4W.C.-F.V.
2 U.-F.V. 215
3 Lav.
4" SL0''™ 122
3" 1 S. S.
166 2'
7th. :H»*
4W.C.-F.V.
2 U.-F.V. 211
3 Lav.
2i 4La'vC'~F'V' 121
*->• ;
2 1 S. S.
145 2"
6th. : *-**
4W.C.-F.V.
2U.-F.V. 196
3 Lav.
* ^C-F.V.
2" 1 S. S.
117 2"
5th. : M-
4W.C.-F.V.
2 U.-F.V. 180
3 Lav.
^ |La-,,
2" 1 S. S.
25 1"
4th. :*->•
10 Lav. 160
4W.C.-F.V.
2 2 U.-F.V. 119
^ 3 Lav.
3 W.C.-F.V.
2 1 Lav.
+^ 1S.S.
11 r
3rd. :»-*•
1S.S. 130
rtll 4W.C.-F.V.
2 ^U.-F.V. 90
^ 3Lav'
2" 2 Lav.
8f
2nd. : >•*•
1 S. S. 98
.H 2W.C.-F.V.
If 1 U.-F.V. 89
1 Lav. '
ii* 3W.C.-F.V.
2 1 Lav.
'It
1 S. S. 45
17 1W. C.-F.V. 4
f 1 S. S.
(J)
(2)
(3)
and, with this drop, the sizes according to the chart (Fig. 3) are 6 in., 5 in., and 4 in.,
respectively, while if the run is reduced to 200 ft instead of 600 ft, the allowable drop will
be - — goo = 2l7 lb per 10° ft- This Siyes 5 in-» 4 **•> and 3 in-» respectively, for
the flows of 400, 200, and 100 gpm.
From Example o^it is evident that, while the down-feed system possesses
certain economies in size for the riser portion, it is quite likely to involve
large distribution main sizes, especially when the tank is not elevated to a
considerable degree.
SIZING A PIPING SYSTEM
t Example 4. Fig. 4 shows a typical layout with three risers extending eight stories and
with the fixtures noted on each floor. First this will be solved for a down-feed arrange-
ment assuming that the level of the water in the house tank is 30 ft above the fixtures on
the top floor, that the length of run from the tank to the farthest fixture is 200 ft. equiva-
lent length of fittings 100 ft, and the pressure required at the fixture is 7 Ib.
792
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
TABLE 5. TYPICAL CALCULATION OF PIPE SIZES ON DOWN-FEED RISER WITH
FLUSH VALVE WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS
(Riser No. L Fig. 4)
FLOOR
OF
BLDG.
FIXTURES
ON
FLOOR
GPM
PER
FIXTURE
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
FLOOR
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
RISER
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
DEMAND
RISER
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER
100 FT
PIPE
SIZE
IN.
1st
IS. S.
4
4
4
100
4
30
%
2nd
1 S. S.
4
4
8
100
8
30
%
3rd
1 S. S.
4
4
12
92
11
30
H
4th
10 Lav.
3
30
42
58
25
30
1
5th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
291
40
117
30
2
6th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
540
27
145
30
2
7th
4W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
789
21
166
30
2
8th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
M
249
1038
19
197
2
4
The 30-ft head is equal to a static pressure of 0.43 X 30 or 12.9 Ib per square inch and
to maintain a pressure of 7 Ib at the highest fixtures the drop allowable in pressure is
12.9 — 7.0 Ib or 5.9 Ib. As the total equivalent run is 300 ft, this is a drop per 100 ft of
1.97 Ib, or practically 2 Ib. Therefore, all risers and mains from the top floor back to the
tank must be sized on the basis of a drop of 2 Ib per 100 ft. Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8 show the
schedule for Risers Nos. 1, 2 and 3 with the maximum possible flow taken from Table 1,
the percentage of use at the peak taken from Fig. 1, and the maximum probable flow at
the peak worked out for each portion of the riser, the riser sizes being taken from Table 2
as far as possible and from Fig. 3 where the amounts exceed the values given in this
table; a drop of 30 Ib per 100 ft is used except on the riser from the top floor back to the
tank where 2 Ib per 100 ft is the allowable limit.
The reduction in pipe size which would occur if flush tank water-closets were used on
the top floor and only 3 Ib pressure used on the fixtures is given in Tables 9 and 10.
This illustrates why flush tank closets so frequently are substituted on the uppermost
floor when a house tank is the source of water pressure.
If it is now assumed that Riser No. 1 is to be fed from the bottom and the minimum
street pressure is 75 Ib with the top fixture of the riser 80 ft above the main, the problem
would be solved by determining the maximum rate of flow in each portion of the riser as
shown in Table 11 and then finding the allowable drop which can be used per 100 ft.
The 80 ft of riser height will use up 0.43 Ib X 80 = 34,4 Ib and the pressure at the top of
tKe required 15 Ib will make the total reduction 49,4 Ib, leaving a balance of 25.C Ib
which may be used up in friction. If the distance from the street main to the bottom of
the riser, which will be assumed to be the farthest one on the horizontal line, is 100 ft, and
if the fittings are sufficient to add another 100 ft, as well as the 80 ft of vertical distance up
the riser, the total equivalent run will be 280 ft, which will be taken as an even 300 ft.
793
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 6. TYPICAL CALCULATION OF PIPE SIZES ON DOWN-FEED RISER WITH
FLUSH VALVE WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS
(Riser No. 2. Fig. 4)
FLOOR
OF
BLDG.
FIXTURES
ON
FLOOR
GPM
PER
FIXTURE
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
FLOOR
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
RISER
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
DEMAND
RISER
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER
100 FT
PIPE
SIZE
IN.
1st
1 W. C.
45
45
45
100
45
30
IX
2nd
2 W. C.
1 U.
1 Lav.
45
30
3
90
30
3
123
168
58
98
30
W
3rd
4W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
417
31
130
30
2
4th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
666
24
160
30
2
5th
6W. C.
4 Lav.
45
3
270
12
282
948
19
180
30
2
6th
6 W. C.
4 Lav.
45
3
270
12
282
1230
16
196
30
2X
7th
6 W. C.
4 Lav.
45
3
270
12
282
1512
14
211
30
W
8th
6 W. C.
4 Lav.
45
3
270
12
282
1794
12
215
2
4
25.6 lb X 100
s= 8.5 lb and the sizes shown
Then the allowable drop per 100 ft will be
in Fig. 5 are based on this amount of drop. Of course the other risers will have the same
maximum flows at the bottom as they formerly had at the top, namely 215 and 122 gal,
respectively, for Risers Nos. 2 and 3. Combining these maximum flows in the same man-
ner as pursued in the down-feed system it is seen that the maximum flow between Riser
No. 2 and Riser No. 3 is 255 gpm, and between Riser No. 3 and the street main, 282 gpm
which at a drop of 8.5 lb gives the main sizes indicated. It will be noted that in determin-
ing the maximum flow in an up-feed riser it is necessary to begin at the top floor and
work down instead of beginning at the bottom floor and working up as was done in the
down-feed sizing.
SIZING UP-FEED AND DOWN-FEED HOT WATER SYSTEMS
Hot water supply systems, when of the circulating type, have a few
differences to be considered although the same general principles of sizing
apply to these lines as to the cold water lines. Owing to the fact that
there are no flush valves on the hot water piping and also because many
plumbing fixtures have no hot water connections, the sizes of the hot
water piping in general will be considerably less than the cold water
piping in the same building. On the other hand it is almost invariably
794
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
TABLE 7. TYPICAL CALCULATION OF PIPE SIZES ON DOWN-FEED RISER WITH
FLUSH VALVE WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS
(Riser No. 3. Fig. 4)
FLOOR
OF
BLDG.
FIXTURES
ON
FLOOR
GPM
PER
FIXTURE
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
FLOOR
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
RISER
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
DEMAND
RISER
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER
100 FT
PIPE
SIZE
IN.
1st
IS. S.
4
4
4
100
4
30
H
2nd
3 W. C.
1 Lav.
45
3
135
3
138
142
63
89
30
IX
3rd
2 Lav,
3
0
148
61
90
30
IX
4th
3W. C.
1 Lav.
1 S. S.
45
3
4
135
3
4
~H2
290
41
119
30
2
5th
IS. S.
4
4
294
41
120
30
2
6th
IS. S.
4
4
29S
40
120
30
2
7th
1 S. S.
4
4
302
40
121
30
2
8th
1 S. S.
4
4
300
40
122
2
3
required that a gravity circulation be kept up in such hot water lines and
this often has a considerable influence on the size. There are three
methods of arranging circulation lines, as follows:
1. By using the plain up-feed with a return carried back from the top of the riser and
paralleling it.
2. By carrying a supply riser up in one location thus supplying fixtures on up-feed,
then crossing over at the top and coming down past another collection of fixtures and
supplying these by a down-feed.
3. By carrying all of the water to the top of the building and dropping risers wherever
needed, feeding all hot water on a down-feed system.
TABLE 8. SIZE OF DISTRIBUTION MAIN FOR DOWN-FEED SYSTEMS (SEE FIG. 4)
RlSKR
No,
MAXIMUM
GPM
RlSKK
MAXIMUM
GPM
MAIN
PROKABLE
USB
(PKR CKNT)
PROBAHLE
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER 100 FT
SIZE OF
MAIN
IN.
I
2
a
1(W
1704
aoo
103H
2*m
ai«»
18
9
9
187
255
282
2
2
2
4
4
5
In the first instance the up-feed riser may be sized for the same pressure
drop as used for the cold water riser and, from the top of the riser just
below the top fixture connection, a return circulation line may be carried
back to the main return line in the basement and connected through a
check valve, set on a 45-deg angle, and a gate valve; these return circu-
lation lines should never be less than % in., and on the farther half of the
risers, not less than 1 in. to favor circulation in the far end. Typical top
and bottom connections for such risers are shown in Fig. 6.
795
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 9. TYPICAL CALCULATION OF PIPE SIZES ON DOWN-FEED RISERS WITH
FLUSH TANK WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS ON TOP FLOOR ONLY (SEE bio. 4)
FLOOR
OF
BLDG.
FIXTURES
ON
FLOOR
GPM
PER
FIXTURE
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
FLOOR
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
RISER
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
DEMAND
RISER
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER
100 FT
PIPE
SIZE
IN.
Riser No. 1
7th and
below
789
21
166
30
2
8th
4 W. C.
2 U.
3 Lav.
10
10
3
40
20
9
~69
858
20
172
3.3
4
Riser No. %
7th and
below
1512
14
211
30
2H
8th
6 W. C.
4 Lav.
10
3
60
12
82
1594
14
223
3.3
4
Riser No. 3
7th and
below
302
40
121
30
2
8th
1 S. S.
4
4
306
40
122
3.3
3
For the second arrangement of hot water risers (Fig. 7&) , circulation lines
are run back from the last fixture supplied to the main return circulation
line in the same manner as just described, using % in. for the near risers and
1 in. for the far risers. The sizing is much more difficult, as it is necessary
to start at the bottom floor of the return riser and work back to the top of
this riser and then carry the maximum flow across on to the top of the
corresponding supply riser and work down on this riser from the top floor
to the bottom. Naturally this gives a much greater flow in the supply
riser and aids circulation by reducing pipe friction. The allowable loss
per 100 ft in such lines must be made about half that used for the cold
water risers which do not have the combined up- and down-travel which
the hot water must make.
In the third and most common arrangement (Fig. 7c) all of the water is car-
ried from the tank or heater directly to the top of the building and is there
distributed to the risers which are down-feed and may be sized in the
TABLE 10. SUMMARY OF RISER SIZES TO GIVEN MAIN SIZES WITH FLUSH TANK
WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS ON TOP FLOOR ONLY. (SEE FIG. 4)
RISER
No.
MAXIMUM
GPM
RISER
MAXIMUM
GPM
MAIN
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER 100 FT
SIZE OF
MAIN
IN.
1
2
3
858
1594
306
858
2452
2758
20
10
9
172
245
248
3.3
3.3
3.3
4
4
4
796
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
regular down-feed manner if the total equivalent run either from the
street main or house tank is taken into consideration. The return
circulation lines from the bottom of each riser should be arranged in the
manner already outlined and any riser not going to the basement to
supply fixtures must have these returns carried down to the basement
from the termination of the supply riser at whatever level it may end.
Top Fixture Connection and Air Vent 7
4W. C.-F.V.
2U.-F.V.
3 Lav.
8th. |
< — >•
„ 4W.C.-FV.
7th. :
2i 2U.-FV.
JL 3Lav-
6th.
|M 4W.C.-RV.
2? 2U.-F.V.
3 Lav.
4W.C.-F.V.
3 2U.-F.V.
L 3 Lav.
5th. :
3" 10 Lav.
4th. :
•*->•
3" 1 S, 8.
3rd.
*-*•
3" 1 S. S.
2nd.
H*.
3" 1 S. S,
1st.
>->-
3" 3" Mam
(0
FIG. 5. UP-FEED
SYSTEM
p&3?
•F '•
\ t
1
|
j-*-
1
t
\
*-*~
1
I
t
I
M*>
\
t
?-*-
''Return Main ''-Supply Main
FIG. 6. SUPPLY AND RETURN
MAIN CONNECTIONS FOR HOT
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM
All risers, both hot and cold, should be valved at the main with an
extra check valve on the hot water return circulation so that the risers
may be cut off and repaired when necessary without disturbing the
service in the remainder of the system,
HOT WATER SUPPLY
Having designed the service hot water piping, the next step is to furnish
some means of heating the water and in this respect it is necessary to pass
from the maximum probable flow to the maximum probable hourly
demand, which is quite different. If an instantaneous heater were used,
it would require adequate capacity to provide for the heating of the water
as fast as it is drawn and a heater of this type should be sized on the basis
of the maximum probable flow with the accompanying heavy drafts on
the heating device and with intervals of no draft at all. To balance these
inequalities of flow the storage-type heater is often utilized so that the
797
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TABLE 11. TYPICAL CALCULATION OF PIPE SIZES ON UP-FEED RISER WITH
FLUSH VALVE WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS (SEE FIG. 5)
FLOOR
OF
BLDG.
FIXTURES
ON
FLOOR
GPM
PER
FIXTURE
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
FLOOR
MAXIMUM
GPM
ON
RISER
PROBABLE
USE
(PER CENT)
PROBABLE
DEMAND
RISER
GPM
ALLOWABLE
DROP
LB PER
100 FT
PIPE
SIZE
IN.
8th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
249
44
109
8.5
2H
7th
4W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
CO
9
249
498
28
139
8.5
2H
6th
4 W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
747
22
164
S.5
3
5th
4W. C.
2U.
3 Lav.
45
30
3
180
60
9
249
996
18
179
8.5
3
4th
10 Lav.
3
30
1026
18
185
8.5
3
3rd
IS. S.
4
4
1030
18
186
8.5
3
2nd
IS. S.
4
4
1034
18
187
8.6
3
1st
IS. S.
4
4
1038
18
188
8.5
3
TABLE 12. SUGGESTED STORAGE TANK SIZES FOR HOMES AND APARTMENTS
ALL YEAR SERVICE
BASED ON BOILER WATER AT 180 F
Tank
Capacity
Gal
Piping Connections
Number of
Baths or
Families
Tank
Cavity
Piping Connections
Number of
Baths or
Families
Boiler, In.
Tank, In.
Boiler, In.
Tank, In,
30
1 ,
%
1
30
1
K
1
35
IK
%
1
40
1
X
1
40
IK
%
1-2
52
1
%
1
50
IK
%
1-2
66
IK
1-2
60
IK
1-2
82
IK
1
2-3
72
1H
2-3
100
IK
1
3
80
2
2-3
120
1
4
100
2
K
3-4
144
lj^
1
5
125
2
K
4r-5
160
2
IK
6
150
2
K
5-6
200
2
IK
6-7
200
2
H
6-7
250
2
ij^
7-9
250
2^
L£
7-9
300
2
V4
9-11
300
2H
H
9-11
400
VA
2
11-15
400
3
2
11-15
500
%
2
15-18
500
3
2
15-18
600
2J^
18-21
SERVICE DURING HEATING SEASON
BASED ON BOILER WATER AT 215 F
798
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
water demand can be heated during periods of light demand and stored
up for use during the periods of heavy demand. The total water con-
sumption per person usually varies between 100 and 150 gal per day when
laundry and culinary operations for the occupants are carried out on the
same premises. The maximum hourly demand under these conditions
will be found to be about one-tenth of the average daily consumption.
If one-third of the total water used is hot water and 125 gal per day is
assumed as a fair average of consumption per person, it is apparent that
each person uses about 40 gal of hot water per day. If one-tenth of this
represents the peak hourly load, then 4 gph must be allowed per person
for the heaviest demand. If the average occupancy of apartments is
3 persons, the peak hour demand per apartment will be about 12 gph. It
is customary to allow 10 gph of heating capacity per apartment. Water
in excess of this heating capacity drawn out during the peak hours is
Vent
»i
;
-*-
t
-**
1
-
1
-^
(
t
t
/
(a)
(c)
FIG, 7. METHODS OF ARRANGING HOT WATER CIRCULATION LINES
provided for by storage in the hot water tank where this water is heated
during hours when the demand is below the average. Table 12 gives
suggested storage tank sizes for homes and apartments based on the
number of families or baths.
HOT WATER HEATERS
Various types of heaters are available for supplying the hot water for
domestic service in buildings. In any hot water supply system the watei
should be heated to a temperature between 150 and 180 F. Where the
hot water requirements include supplies for kitchens, laundries or process
work, the higher temperatures are used. In buildings where steam i*
available throughout the year, the hot water supply is usually taken fron
this source. In smaller domestic installations the fuel-burning device i
generally automatically arranged so that hot water is supplied the entin
year and not merely when the boiler is used for heating purposes.
799
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Water is heated by various methods using heat exchangers arranged so
that the boiler heating medium gives up its heat to the water in the hot
water circulating system. These heat exchangers may be classified as
follows:
1. Submerged steam heating coil in storage tank.
2. Submerged water heating coil in storage tank. (Fig. 8).
3. Indirect water heater, mounted on side of boiler below water line. (Fig. 9).
4. Submerged indirect water heater, placed in boiler below water line. (Fig. 10).
The efficiency of these heaters may be estimated as nearly 100 per cent
as the heat loss from surface radiation of the heater and tank shell when
covered with insulating material is generally reduced to a minimum. The
capacities of these heaters are usually available from manufacturers
Hot water to fixtures
Boiler water (L-Thermometer
temperature control
&
FIG. 8. HOT WATER HEATING COIL SUBMERGED IN STORAGE TANK
rating tables. The area of the inside surface of a heating coil may be
determined from the following equation:
where
A = Q X 8.33 (to
*MD X ^m
(1)
A = surface area of coil, square feet.
Q = quantity of water heated, gallons per hour.
to = hot water outlet temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
/i = cold water inlet temperature, degrees Fahrenheit.
KO = coefficient of heat transmission, Btu per hour per square foot surface.
For copper or brass coils K0 = 240 (steam) and 100 (hot water).
For iron coils K0 = 160 (steam) and 67 (hot water).
tm = logarithmic mean of the difference between the temperature of the heating
medium and the average water temperature. tm is approximately =
Equation 1 may also be used for determining revised heating coil
ratings under different temperature conditions as stated in the manu-
facturers ratings. When selecting a water heater, the conditions of
operation should be carefully considered, as well as the location of the
800
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
storage tank and the piping arrangement between the boiler, heater and
tank.^ It is generally good practice to allow a margin of safety when
selecting an indirect heater of the proper size to provide for loss of
efficiency due to the accumulation of scaling on the coils and piping. Heat
exchangers classified according to (3) and (4) may be used with or without
ai_St°irJale t-ank7 but when tanks are omitted, the indirect water heaters
should be increased in size so as to heat the water instantaneously as
it is needed.
The storage tank should be installed as high as possible. Horizontal
tanks are preferable for all medium size installations and absolutely
essential on larger installations. Where possible the storage tank should
be installed with the bottom of the tank at or above the boiler water line.
Horizontal storage tanks smaller than 18 or 20 in, diameter are not
j" hot water to fixtures
Boiler water
temperature control
's/s / / s / S // // / /
FIG. 9. INDIRECT WATER HEATER MOUNTED ON
SIDE OF BOILER
FIG. 10. INDIRECT WATER
HEATER PLACED IN BOILER
recommended because of the difficulty of preventing the hot and cold
water from mixing, and especially is this an important consideration when
large quantities of water are withdrawn.
Pipe sizes between the water heater and boiler should be full size of the
heater tappings (Table 12). When a heater is connected to a horizontal
sectional boiler, it is recommended that connections be made to all
sections and joined together a few inches below the water line as shown
in Fig. 8, so that steaming is prevented in those sections which are not
connected to the header.
When a steam coil is used for heating the water, an automatic ther-
mostatic valve may be installed in the steam supply to the coil. The
operation of this automatic valve is controlled by a thermostat located in
the storage tank which permits the proper amount of steam to enter the
coil so as to maintain an even water temperature.
An indirect water heater may be used on either a steam or hot water
system, and generally this type of heater is provided with a temperature
control device located in the boiler water circulating connection to the
water heater. The setting on this thermostatic valve may be as low as
801
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
140 F or as high as 180 F and may be readily adjusted to meet particular
requirements. With this type of control it is impossible to overheat the
hot water supply which is an important safety consideration in some
installations. This type of system may also be conveniently used during
the non-heating season with the operation of the fuel burning device
controlled by the water heater thermostat. (See Chapter 37). During
the heating season the water heater temperature control functions as a
low limit control.
When an indirect water heater is applied to a gravity hot water system,
it is necessary to provide a valve in the supply to the heating system to
prevent the flow of hot water from the boiler when heat is not required
in the house. This valve may be controlled from a room thermostat and
the automatic fuel-burning device controlled from the water heater
thermostat. To prevent circulation in a forced hot water heating system
flow control valves may be installed in the flow and return lines which act
merely as check valves when the circulating pump is not operating. In
this arrangement the pump is controlled by the room thermostat and the
automatic fuel -burning device is controlled from the water heater
thermostat.
STORAGE CAPACITY AND BOILER ALLOWANCES
The amount of storage provided in the hot water tank or heater is
somewhat a matter of choice but is usually made ample to carry over the
peak shortage which is likely to occur and is based on the assumption that
only 75 per cent of the storage capacity will be available, as it has been
found that if more than this amount is withdrawn from storage, the tank
is so cooled down as to make the balance useless. The general rule may
be cited that the less the heating capacity the greater must be the storage,
and the greater the storage the less may be the heating capacity down to a
point where the heating capacity will fail to be sufficient to heat up the
tank storage during the periods of small load.
Example 5. A heater to supply 500 persons will have an average daily use of about
500 X 40 gal = 20,000 gal and this is an average of ^^J.11 = 833 gph but the peak
hour will require Ho of 20,000 = 2000 gal and the shortage during the peak hour, if the
heating capacity is made to suit the average hourly use of 833 gal, will be 2000 — 833 =
1167 gal so that the storage capacity, based on 75 per cent being available from this
1167
capacity without cooling the tank excessively, will be ~~? = 1556 gal.
Should it be desired to reduce the size of storage tanks and to use a greater heating
capacity, it is only necessary to increase the heating capacity to say 1200 gph which then
gives 2000 - 1200 - 800 gal as the shortage during the peak hour, and the necessary
storage will be — ^— *= 1067 gal ; or the heating capacity can be increased to 1500 gal,
leaving a shortage of 2000 - 1500 « 500 gal.
Good design requires that the heating capacity be made as small as
possible without introducing undesirable amounts of storage, as the
heating capacity directly determines the load on the source of heat.
802
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
As indicated in Example 5, the heating load is proportional to the
heating capacity and the boiler capacity must be increased for higher
heating capacities and may be reduced for smaller heating capacities with
greater storage. It may be assumed that a boiler capacity of about 4
sq ft of equivalent steam heating surface3 (radiation) must be provided
for every gallon of water heated 100 F or from 50 F to 150 F, which is
the temperature rise most commonly assumed and required. On this
basis it will be seen that the various conditions cited in Example 5 will
require additional boiler capacity as follows:
Heating Capacity Additional Boiler Capacity
(gph) (Sq Ft EDR)
833 3332
1200 4800
1500 6000
From this it is apparent that it is less costly to provide ample storage
and to reduce boiler capacity than to diminish the storage and supply a
greatly increased boiler capacity to compensate.
The boiler allowance value of 4 sq ft of equivalent steam radiation for
each gallon of water heated through a temperature range of 100 F is
based on an hourly heating rate. When reduced heating Capacities are
desired for economic reasons of boiler design and selection, engineers
frequently recommend that the heating rate be extended over a period of
two hours in which case the boiler allowance value would be reduced to
2 sq ft of equivalent steam radiation. Similarly any other heating rate
may be established and a corresponding value of boiler allowance deter-
mined.
Reliable information based upon the installations of several heaters in
existing heating systems indicates varying arbitrary values of boiler
allowances to be used. When these values are selected for usage, a careful
analysis of the varying factors involved in determining these values should
be considered so that the proper heating allowances may be provided.
ESTIMATING HOT WATER DEMAND BY FIXTURES
In buildings where the occupancy is doubtful and only the number of
plumbing fixtures can serve as a basis for determining the probable hot
water demand, the problem is not so simple owing to the fact that a
fixture gives no information as to how heavy a service may be demanded
from the fixture and this amount of service is really the governing factor
in making an estimate of the probable hot water demand. Table 13 may
prove of some value in this respect as it gives the maximum assumed
quantity of hot water per hour which will be demanded of any fixture and
then gives a percentage of this amount which may be assumed as probable
in different types of buildings. Table 14 gives approximate hot water re-
quirements in various types of buildings.
Example 6. Let it be assumed that an apartment house with 20 apartments has 20
baths, 20 lavatories, 20 kitchen sinks and 20 laundry trays; what is the probable maxi-
mum hourly demand for hot water?
'Actual requirement for KK)-dc« temperature; difference - ^Q "'" "" :U3 SQ ft per saUon o£
water heated.
803
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
20 Baths at 40 gal and 33 per cent
20 Lavs, at 20 gal and 25 per cent
20 Sinks at 30 gal and 33 per cent .
20 Trays at 50 gal and 60 per cent
Total
Probable peak use at'oiie time./.."....
Probable actual peak demand..
. 270 gal
. 100 gal
200 gal
.... 600 gal
1170 gal
35 per cent
409 gph
If three persons are assumed to an apartment the total daily use of hot water should
approximate 20 X 3 X 40 gal = 2400 gal and if the peak hour is 10 per cent of this
amount, the peak hour by this method shows a probable demand of one-tenth of 2400
gal, which indicates that the values in Table 13 are safe.
SWIMMING POOL HEATING REQUIREMENTS
Swimming pools present a problem of hot water heating demand which
is frequently overestimated. Few outdoor swimming pools require
water heating, and in some cases they require the addition of cold water
to regulate the temperature. The recirculation system of a swimming
pool consists of the pumps, hair and lint catchers, and filters together
with all necessary pipe connections to the inlets and outlets of the pool.
The water heater, the sterilizing equipment and suction cleaner are usually
installed or connected to the recirculation system and may be considered
as integral parts of the system.
The recirculation system and all its component parts should be designed
to provide the required volume of circulation so that the water turnover
ratio is at least two times per day and where heavy loads are anticipated
the turnover ratio should be increased to three times or more. Many
states have regulations prescribing the circulation turnover.
The water heaters for swimming pools are usually instantaneous steam
TABLE 13. ORDINARY MAXIMUM HOURLY DEMAND FOR HOT WATER FOR VARIOUS
FIXTURES IN GALLONS AND PROBABLE PERCENTAGE OF USAGE
TTPBOF
BUILDING
LAVATORIES
BATHS
SHOWERS
SLOP
SINKS
KITCHEN
SINKS
PANTRT
SINKS
FOOT
BATHS
WASH
TRAtS
Av.
MAX.
UOT»
Private
Public
MAXIMUM
PROBABLE
USAGE
20
20
40
300
30
30
20
20
50
GPH
Probable Usage in Per Cent of Maximum Ordinary Use
Apt. house
Club
25
25
50
75
33
50
67
67
67
67
33
67
50
100
25
25
60
80
35
60
Gym.
25
100
100
100
100
80
Hospital
25
75
50
33
67
67
100
25
80
45
Hotel
25
100
50
33
100
67
100
25
80
70
Industrial
Laundries
25
25
150
100
100
100
67
33
67
100
100
90
100
Office building
25
75
50
20
Baths
25
150
150
100
50
100
Residences
25
50
33
50
33
50
50
60
50
Schools
25
75
100
67
33
100
50
25
Y. M. C. A.
25
100
100
100
67
67
100
100
80
75
•Percentage of fixtures likely to be demanding maximum probable usage at any one time.
804
CHAPTER 43. WATER SUPPLY PIPING AND WATER HEATING
coil heaters. These heaters should be sized so that they will have suf-
ficient capacity to heat the water delivered by the circulating pump 15 F
per hour.
The water temperature in a pool is usually maintained at about 72 F.
A few states have regulations prohibiting higher water temperatures than
70 F. The room temperature should be approximately 5 F higher, but
not more than 8 F higher nor less than 2 F lower, than the water tem-
perature.
Example 6. Assume a swimming pool 75 ft long, 30 ft wide with an average depth of
6 ft. If the water is to be heated from a temperature of 50 to 65 F, what capacity heater
and steam consumption is required with a turnover ratio of two times per day?
Pool volume: 75 X 30 X 6 X 7.5 - 100,000 gal.
100 000 X 2
With a turnover ratio of twice in 24 hr, the heating capacity is: --- ~~*>A --
gal per hour.
The steam consumption would be:
8333 X 8 33 (65 _ 50}
' - -
1080 Ib steam per hour.
Regulation of swimming pool temperatures is essential for successful
operation and economy. It is therefore recommended that the steam
supply to the heater be provided with a by -pass which may be used for
pool filling and initial heating and that a smaller by-pass be installed
with an automatic control valve having the capacity to heat the cir-
culation water approximately 5 F per hour.
TABLE 14. HOT WATER CONSUMPTION IN VARIOUS TYPES OF BUILDINGS
FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES
TTPH OF BUILDING
CONDITIONS
GALLONS
Hotels
Room with basin only
Room with bath
(Transient)
(Men)
(Mixed)
(Women)
Two-room suite and bath
Three-room suite and bath
10 (per day)
40 (per day)
40 (per day)
60 (per day)
80 (per day)
80 (per day)
100 (per day)
Public
Buildings
Public bath or lavatory
Public shower
Public lavatory with attendant
150 (per day per fixture)
200 (per day per fixture)
200 (per day per fixture)
Industrial
Buildings
Per office employee
Per factory employee
Cleaning floors
2 (per day)
5 (per day)
3 (per 1000 sq ft per day)
Restaurants
$0.50 Meals
$1.00 Meals
$1.50 Meals
0.5 (per customer with hand washing)
1.0 (per customer with machine
washing)
1.0 (per customer with hand washing)
2.0 (per customer with machine
washing)
1.5 (per customer with hand washing)
4.0 (per customer with machine
washing)
805
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • The heating capacity of an indirect water heater is 100 gal per hour, using
steam at 215 F and raising the water from a temperature of 50 to 150 F. Deter-
mine the heating capacity of the same water heater using water at a tem-
perature of 180 F for the heating medium.
Using Equation 1, and because the surface area of the water heater is the same for
each condition, the two conditions may be equated as follows:
100 X 8.33 (150 - 50) _ Q X 8.33 (150 - 50)
240
_
[215 - 0*0 + «0] = 100 [180 -
Q = 28.98 gal per hour, capacity of heater using water at a temperature of 180 F.
2 • Why is it unpractical to size water supply piping so pipe friction will pro-
duce an equal pressure on each fixture?
Because the friction would be built up only in periods of maximum flow and at all other
times it would be only a fraction of that required.
3 • What is the purpose of zoning water supply systems in tall buildings?
To avoid excessive pressures in the lower stories.
4 • Define the maximum possible flow, the maximum probable flow, and the
average probable flow.
The maximum possible flow is the flow which would occur if all of the outlets on the
system were opened at one and the same time. The maximum probable flow is the flow
which will occur with probable peak conditions. The average probable flow is the flow
likely to occur under a normal condition of use.
5 • What is the factor of usage?
This is the percentage of the maximum possible flow which is likely to occur at peak load.
6 • How many feet higher than the uppermost fixtures must the water line in
a house tank be to provide about 15 Ib per square inch pressure at the fixture
outlet?
Allowing for pipe losses, about 45 ft.
7 • What methods of hot water circulation commonly are employed with hot
water supply systems?
a. Up-feed risers with returns having no connections paralleling the risers.
b. Up-feed risers with returns in other locations, and with connections taken off both
supply and return.
c. One main up-feed riser, without connections, supplying all down-feed risers for all
fixtures.
8 • Which method of hot water supply generally is the most satisfactory?
The single main up-feed riser supplying drop risers for all fixtures.
9 • How much of the water stored in a hot water storage tank really is available
for use?
About 75 per cent, because when only 25 per cent of the original water remains in the
tank it has been so cooled down by the entering water that it is too cold for satisfactory
use.
10 • In cases of intermittent demand, does a large hot water storage tank
increase or decrease the steam load for water heating?
It decreases the steam load in cases of intermittent demand but causes no change in the
steam load if the demand is constant,
Chapter 44
TEST METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
Pressure Measurement, Temperature Measurement, Air Move-
ment, Humidity Measurement, Carbon Dioxide Determina-
tion, Dust Determination, Flue Gas Analysis, Measurement
of Smoke Density, Heat Transmission, Eupatheoscope
SEVERAL types of measuring apparatus are available for accur
determining the thermal capacity and air movement of gaseous v
and homogeneous materials. This chapter gives a brief description <
principal instruments used in connection with the proper contro
testing of heating and air conditioning installations.
TEST METHODS
The SOCIETY has adopted standard test methods or codes for t<
and rating most heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment.
A list of the titles of these test codes may be referred to on pages 839
and 840. Many of the test instruments required are specified and des-
cribed in these codes.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Atmospheric pressure is usually measured by a mercurial barometer
which, in its simplest form, consists of a glass tube about 3 ft long, closed
at the upper end, filled with mercury and inverted in a shallow bath of
mercury. The pressure of the atmosphere on the exposed top of the mer-
cury in the cistern supports a column of mercury in the tube to a height of
about 30 in. Readings are taken of the height of the column between the
levels of mercury in the tube and in the cistern. Atmospheric pressure is
the same as the pressure exerted by this supported column of mercury,
and, in pounds per square inch, is equal to its height in inches times 0.491,
which is the weight in pounds of 1 cu in. of mercury at 32 F. At latitude
45 deg and sea level, and at a temperature of 32 F, the atmosphere will
support a column of mercury 29.921 in. in height. The pressure of 14,7 lb
per square inch, derived by multiplying 29.921 by 0.491, is called standard
or normal barometric pressure. Since the height of the barometer depends
on the density of the mercury as well as on the pressure of the atmosphere,
and since the density is dependent on the temperature, mercurial baro-
meter readings should always be corrected for temperature.
807
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The following equation may be used to make corrections for temperature :
h = & [1 - 0.000101 (/i - 01 (1)
where
h = height of mercury column corrected to temperature I, inches.
h\ = actual height of mercury column, inches,
h = actual temperature of mercury column, degrees Fahrenheit.
t = temperature to which column is to be corrected, degrees Fahrenheit.
Atmospheric pressure may also be measured by means of an aneroid
barometer. In this instrument atmospheric pressure is made to move an
indicating pointer either by bending the thin corrugated top of a partially
exhausted metallic box, or by distorting a bent, thin-walled metal tube.
The aneroid barometer contains no liquids, is portable but is less accurate
than the mercurial barometer.
Pressures above or below atmospheric are usually measured by means
of gages which indicate the difference between the pressure being measured
and atmospheric pressure at the same time and place. A gage which
indicates pressures higher than atmospheric is known as a pressure gage,
and a gage which indicates pressures lower than atmospheric is known as a
vacuum gage. The most common type of these gages contains a flexible
hollow metal tube of oval cross section, known as a Bourdon tube. When
subjected to unequal inside and outside pressures, this tube tends to
straighten out, and a pointer motivated by this straightening indicates
the pressure difference on a suitable graduated scale.
High vacuum readings such as are encountered in condenser and steam
jet refrigeration practice are commonly obtained by the use of mercury
column vacuum gages. When the readings obtained with the mercurial
barometer and those with the mercury vacuum gage have both been
corrected to 32 F, the difference in the two readings will give the absolute
vacuum in inches of mercury. Equation 1 may be used to make cor-
rections for temperature.
In the measurement of small pressure differences, the U tube in one of
its many forms is convenient, inexpensive and it may be built for any
desired degree of accuracy. U tube manometers may be fabricated from
glass and rubber tubing or any of the numerous commerical forms may
be used.
A gage which indicates pressures slightly above or below atmospheric is
known as a draft gage. It is essentially a U tube containing either water,
kerosene, alcohol, or mercury, with one leg exposed to the air and the
other connected to a point where the pressure is to be determined. When
the pressure being read is equal to atmospheric, the level of the liquid in
the legs will be the same, indicating a zero gage pressure. When a pres-
sure is applied to one leg, one side will fall and the other will rise an equal
amount. The difference in height between the two liquid levels indicates
the pressure expressed in inches of liquid used in the gage.
Various forms of high sensitivity draft gages1 frequently called micro-
manometers2 are available for the measurement of small pressure differen-
lFluid Velocity and Pressure, by J. R. Pannell (Edward Arnold and Co., London, 1924),
^Illinois Micromanometer, University of Illinois (Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 120, p. 91).
808
CHAPTER. 44. TEST METHODS. AND INSTRUMENTS
tials and may be sensitive to pressures as small as 0.001 in. of water.
These gages are often useful where measurements are to be made on
pressure differentials less than 0.1 in. of water, although their total range
may extend as high as 5 to 10 in. of water.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
In engineering work, thermometers are largely employed to measure the
intensity of heat. Those most commonly used are liquid-in-glass ther-
mometers. Mercury and alcohol are the liquids most frequently used.
Mercurial thermometers depend on the uniform expansion of mercury to
indicate changes in temperature. An amount of mercury held in a sealed
tube with a bulb at one end will rise to one definite level when immersed
in melting ice, and to another definite level when immersed in boiling
water. These two points are marked, and the space between them is
divided into a number of equal portions, each of which is called a degree.
In the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 deg thus obtained, while the centi-
grade scale has 100 and the Reaumur has 80. Like divisions are marked
off on the column above and below these two determined points in order
that a greater range of temperature may be read.
Mercurial thermometers may be used in a temperature range from —40
to +932 F.
Alcohol thermometers are similar in construction to mercurial thermo-
meters but are useful in a lower temperature range ( — 94 to +248 F).
Industrial thermometers in a large number of designs are available, but
for test purposes etched stem thermometers are most frequently used.
The etched stem thermometer has greater sensitivity and less lag than
most industrial thermometers.
For precision temperature measurements, it is necessary to correct the
thermometer reading for emergence of the stem if any part of the mercury
column is. exposed to a temperature other than that being measured
(unless the thermometer has been calibrated under like conditions). The
emergent stem correction may be calculated by the following equation:
K = 0.00009 D ft - fe). (2)
'where
K = correction to be added, degrees Fahrenheit.
D ~ length of emergent stern, degrees Fahrenheit on thermometer stem.
ti « temperature indicated on the thermometer, degrees Fahrenheit.
it — temperature of exposed mercury stem, degrees Fahrenheit.
Thermocouple^ may be used to measure any range of temperatures up
to 2,900 F* When two dissimilar metals are joined at two points and a
temperature difference exists between these junctions, an electromotive
force will be developed. Its magnitude depends on the character of the
metals and the difference in temperature between the junctions. A poten-
tiometer or sensitive galvanometer of high resistance connected to the
thermocouple will give a deflection which is a function of the temperature
difference between the hot and cold junctions. Thermocouples con-
*Study of the Application of Thermocouples to the Measurement of Wall Surface Temperatures, by
A, P. Krati and E.I. Brodcrick (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1033, p. 55).
809
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
nected in series are called thermopiles. Thermocouples for the measure-
ment of high temperatures are calibrated with the aid of the known
melting points of pure metals.
Resistance thermometers are suitable for temperature measurements up
to 1800 F. These thermometers depend for their operation on the change
of resistance with temperature of a platinum, nickel, or copper wire coil,
and they are calibrated in the same way as thermocouples.
Pyrometers of various types may be used for temperatures above 500 F.
The mercurial pyrometer is a thermometer with an inert gas, such as
nitrogen or carbon dioxide, above the mercury column to prevent the
mercury from boiling^ The radiation pyrometer consists of a thermopile
upon which the radiation from a hot source is focused by a concave mirror
or lens. A sensitive galvanometer or potentiometer with a calibrated
temperature scale indicates the thermo-electromotive force created by the
heat on the thermopile. The optical pyrometer measures radiant energy
by comparing the intensity of a narrow spectral band, usually red light
emitted by the object, with that emitted by a standard light source
(electric lamp). Thermo-electric pyrometers operate on the same principle
as thermocouples. ^ When measuring high temperatures, it is customary to
hold the cold junction at room temperature and this may cause some error
if the room temperature is above or below the calibration point. For
extremely precise temperature measurements, the cold junction is usually
immersed in melting ice to fix the cold junction temperature. Various
forms of hand-operated and automatic cold junction temperature com-
pensators are also available.
. In the measuring of room temperature care must be exercised to pre-
vent _ the results from being affected by the body heat of the observer,
by air currents from doors, windows and other openings, or by radiant
heat from some local source such as a radiator or wall. All glass thermo-
meters should be mercury thermometers with engraved stems. The total
graduations of the thermometers should be from 20 to 120 F, in one degree
graduations. No ten degrees should occupy a space of less than one-half
inch. The accuracy throughout the whole scale must be within one-half
degree. The operator should take hold of the top and no part of the body,
including the hand, should be nearer than 10 in. to the bulb. The ther-
mometer should not be closer than 5 ft to any door, window, or other
opening; should not be closer than 12 in, to any wall; and should be
between 3 and 5 ft from the floor. A sling instrument should be used for
extreme accuracy. Thermocouples or resistance thermometers may also
be used for room temperature measurements, an advantage being that the
operator can read temperatures from outside the room if desired, and thus
eliminate the errors which might be caused by his presence close to the
temperature measuring device.
For measuring duct temperatures a duct thermometer should be used,
with the bulb extending into the duct at least 6 in. When the thermo-
meter is to be permanently located in the duct, a pipe flange or nipple
should be used to receive the threaded portion of the thermometer stem.
When the thermometer is not to be permanently located, a cork or rubber
stopper may be placed around the stem to prevent errors from air leakage.
Readings should be taken at various locations in a duct so due con-
sideration may be given to temperature stratification. Other forms of
810
CHAPTER 44. TEST METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
temperature measuring devices may be used, but the active part must be
at least 6 in, from the duct wall.
Recording instruments may be used for testing and for making con-
tinuous records of operation. Potentiometer and Wheatstone bridge
recorders for thermocouples and resistance thermometers respectively
may have accuracies of =±= J^ per cent of their range, or, for example, to
^ 1 F in a range of 0 to 300 F. This accuracy compares favorably with
that of other forms of temperature measuring devices.
AIR MOVEMENT MEASUREMENT
The quantity, velocity and pressure of air moved by a fan or flowing
through a duct or grille may be determined by various methods. The
instruments in common use are the Pitot tube, anemometer, direct
reading velocity meter, and Kata-thermometer, the latter being suitable
for low air velocities and being commonly used for measurements at
points where the air is not confined in a duct. Electrical anemometers are
also available, operating on the principle of measurement of the variation
of resistance of a hot wire cooled to various degrees by air velocities past
the wire. The use of calibrated nozzles, orifice plates, and Venturi meters
are recognized methods, which, however, have little application in con-
nection with ventilation practice.
Pitot Tube
This usually consists of two tubes, one within the other, which when
properly held in the air stream will register the total or impact pressure
and the static pressure, respectively. If these tubes are connected to
opposite sides of a draft gage, or other type of U tube, the recorded pres-
sure will be the differential or velocity pressure. Volume measurements
may thus be made in a duct of known area. Pitot tube measurements are
preferably used for air velocities exceeding 20 fps. Volumetric determi-
nations from Pitot tube readings should take into account the barometric
pressure and the temperature and humidity of the air measured.
Air flow in ventilation practice is generally in the turbulent range.
When stratification of velocity, vortex motion, or violent eddy currents
of air in ducts exist, accurate velocity pressure measurements are difficult.
To insure accuracy a straight section of duct from 5 to 10 times its own
diameter is desirable in order to straighten out the air currents. If it is
necessary to take Pitot tube readings in shorter sections of straight duct,
the results must be considered subject to some doubt and checked accor-
dingly. For accurate work it is necessary to make a traverse of the duct,
dividing its cross section into a number of imaginary equal areas and
taking a reading in the center of each, the average of the velocities cor-
responding to these pressures giving the true velocity in the duct.
A pitot tube of standard design and the traverse method of obtaining
average velocity are completely described in the A.S.H.V.E. Standard
Test Code for Disc and Propeller Fans, Centrifugal Fans and Blowers,4
For precise work the shape, size and calibration of the pitot tube are
important considerations in the determination of the correct air flow.
<A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS. Vol. 29, 1923, p. 407. Amended June, 1931.
811
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Extensive .test results comparing the characteristics of several pi tot
tube types are available in the published reports5 of the government.
Anemometer
The vane-type anemometer is most frequently used for test work. It
consists of a small, delicate, fan-like rotor connected to a revolution
counter. The instrument is held in the air stream where the velocity is
to be measured. It is calibrated to read directly in linear feet. The velo-
city in feet per minute is obtained by dividing the reading (linear feet)
by the elapsed time, in minutes.
The vane anemometer is delicate, requires frequent calibration and is
suited only to low velocities (less than 3000 fpm). The vanes of the
instrument should never be touched.
The following procedure for obtaining anemometer readings is based
on research conducted at Armour Institute of Technology in cooperation
with the A.S.H.V.E. Research Laboratory6.
Supply Grilles, The surface of the grille should be marked off into a
number of equal areas approximately 6 in, square. A 4-in. anemometer
should be used and should be held at the center of each section m contact
with the grille (or as close as possible) for a period of time sufficient to
insure an average reading. In the case of supply grilles, the instrument
should always be held with the dial facing the operator. The average of
the .corrected readings should then be used in the following formula to
obtain the flow in cubic feet per minute:
where
V — average of corrected anemometer readings, feet per minute.
A = gross area of grille, square feet.
a = net free area of grille, square feet.
p = percentage of free area of grille expressed as a decimal.
C — a coefficient that varies with the velocity from grille and may vary slightly
with type of grille. For average use, with supply grilles, C can be taken
as 0.97 at velocities from 150 to 600 fpm, and as 1.00 at higher velocities.
Particular care should be exercised in the case of long, narrow grilles.
The nature of the approach sometimes results in there being a narrow
strip along the top or bottom of the grille through which no air will be
flowing. This may be detected by holding the anemometer completely
out of the air stream and then moving it slowly inward over the grille until
the vanes just start to move. The distance which the vanes extend over
the grille opening at this moment will indicate the width of the dead strip.
Only the remaining portion of the grille should be considered in making
the calculations for gross and free area.
Exhaust Grilles. The surface of the grille should be marked off and
readings taken in the same manner as with supply grilles, except that the
instrument should be held with the dial facing the grille, and in contact
with it. The traverse should be taken at a uniform rate, allowing suf-
5TechnicaI Notes No. 546, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, November, 1935.
•Measurement of the Flow of Air through Registers and Grilles, by L. E. Davies (A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 36, 1930, p. 201, Vol. 37, 1931, p. 619, and Vol. 39, 1933, p. 373).
812
CHAPTER 44. TEST METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
ficient time in each space to minimize the percentage of error. In the case
of exhaust grilles it is found that the formula :
cfm - KVA (4)
in which
V = average indicated velocity obtained by the anemometer traverse.
A = gross area of grille, square feet.
K — coefficient determined by experiment. For average use, with exhaust grilles,
K may be taken as 0.8 for all usual velocities.
This formula is of advantage, especially with ornamental grilles, in
that the free area need not be measured.
The flow of air through registers and grilles is of considerable impor-
tance, being frequently the only convenient method of measuring the
volume of supply air to a room. While duct measurements, if available,
are more dependable, grille measurements provide a fairly accurate
method, if care is taken in the technique of using the anemometer.
Direct Reading Velocity Meter
An instantaneous direct reading air velocity instrument available
in a portable case is used for recording air movement on a calibrated
scale. Air entering the meter actuates a vane movement to which is
attached a pointer with control hair springs and a magnetic damping
arrangement.
Velocity meters are available in either orifice, shutter or tube types.
The orifice unit is used where the instrument can be placed in the air
stream when obtaining a reading such as in rooms or large spaces or
at unrestricted outlets of ducts. The use of the shutter type is similar
to the orifice style except that it has means for changing the scale range.
The shutter is adjusted so that the large ports are fully open for low
velocity readings. For high range readings the shutter is turned until
the large openings are closed and only a small port is open. The shutter
is omitted in the tube type of meter and in place of this fitting a tube
attachment is threaded to the case. A flexible rubber tube and specially
designed metal jets are used for obtaining high range readings. Jets
may be secured for unusual applications such as in obscure locations,
surging air currents or leakage from ducts and similar requirements.
Due to the connecting tube flexibility, the jet can be moved as required
while the instrument is held stationary.
Where it is desired to obtain air velocity readings within a duct, special
jet and additional meter fittings are used which indicate directly the
true air velocity with no corrections being essential for static pressure
conditions. Air enters the meter through one side of the jet and is
discharged back into the duct through the other side of the jet.
Kata-Thermometer
The Kata-thermometer can be used to determine air velocities pro-
vided the walls and surrounding objects are at or near the room tem-
perature. Especially at low velocities it constitutes a useful instrument
for readily detecting drafts.
813
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
The instrument is essentially an alcohol thermometer with a bulb
approximately % in. in diameter and % in. long with a stem 8 in. long
reading from 100 F to 95 F, graduated to tenths of a degree. To take
readings the bulb is heated in water until the alcohol expands and rises
into a top reservoir. The time in seconds required for the liquid to
fall from 100 F to 95 F is recorded with a stop watch and this time is a
measure of the rate of cooling.
The dry Kata loses its heat by radiation and by convection so for
constant velocities the time of cooling is a function of the dry-bulb tem-
perature of the surrounding air. The wet Kata, which has a cloth covering
fitted snugly around its bulb, loses heat by radiation, convection, and
evaporation, and for constant velocities its rate of cooling is a function of
the wet-bulb temperature of the air irrespective of the dry-bulb tem-
perature or relative humidity. It does not follow, however, that the
difference in rate of cooling of the dry and the wet Kata is caused by
evaporation. A change in the wet-bulb temperature produces a change in
the surface temperature of the wet Kata which in turn affects the heat
lost by radiation and by convection.
Several precautions should be taken to obtain the best results with this
instrument:
1. To obtain velocity readings use the dry Kata since the error in timing is reduced.
2. The instrument should be heated and allowed to cool two or three times before
recording the final time of cooling. The first reading is not reliable.
3. All traces of moisture must be removed from the dry Kata before timing to eli-
minate error introduced by evaporation.
4. ^Use only the formula applying to a particular instrument. Each Kata receives an
individual calibration.
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
The sling psychrometer is the recognized standard instrument for
determining humidities. In order to obtain accurate readings considerable
skill is required on the part of the operator. The wicking and water must
be clean and the temperature of the water should be slightly above the
wet-bulb temperature of the surrounding air. The psychrometer should
be swung rapidly and several and frequent observations should be made
to see that the wet-bulb temperature has become stationary before the
final reading is noted. Care should be taken that the wet-bulb has
reached a minimum temperature, but the wick must still be moist.
Standard psychrometric tables should be used7.
In making wet-bulb measurements below 32 F the same procedure is
followed as above 32 F. The water is liquid at the start, but as the sling
is operated it will freeze rapidly enough so that in quickly giving up the
latent heat of fusion, the indicated wet-bulb temperature may drop
below the actual wet-bulb temperature. After the liquid on the bulb has
become thoroughly frozen the wet-bulb temperature will rise to normal.
A very thin film of ice is more desirable than a thick film. Care must be
taken to read the temperatures in the region below 32 F accurately
because the spread between the wet- and dry-bulb is small.
7Paychrometric Tables for Vapor Pressure, Relative Humidity and Temperatures of the Dew Point:
U. S. Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C.
814
CHAPTER 44. TEST METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
In taking humidity readings in ducts it is usually impracticable to use
a sling psychrometer. For this work the stationary hygrodeik arranged
for bolting on to the side of the duct, with two bulbs extending into the
duct, will be found very convenient. Owing to the velocity of the air
passing over the bulbs within the duct an accurate reading will be secured,
corresponding to that given by the sling psychrometer.
Various forms of humidity recorders are available, some merely re-
cording wet- and dry-bulb temperatures, and others recording relative
humidity directly. Any form of wet- and dry-bulb device must have
sufficient air velocity over the thermometer bulbs to insure accurate
readings; this velocity should be secured by a fan if the air is not itself in
motion. A minimum velocity of 900 fpm is usually recommended but
velocities from 300 to 1000 fpm have been found suitable under favorable
conditions8. For extremely low humidities, or for humidity measure-
ments above 212 F, a thermal conductivity method is available9.
CARBON DIOXIDE DETERMINATION10
At ordinary concentrations carbon dioxide is not harmful. The amount
of carbon dioxide in the air is a convenient index of the rate of air supply,
and of the distribution of the air within rooms. Unequal carbon dioxide
concentrations in parts of a room indicate improper air distribution.
The Petterson-Palmquist apparatus has been generally accepted as the
standard device for the determination of carbon dioxide in air investiga-
tions. The principle involved is the measurement of a given volume of
air, the absorption of the contained carbon dioxide in a caustic potash
solution, and the remeasurement of the volume of air at the original
pressure in a finely graduated capillary tube, the difference in volume
representing the absorbed carbon dioxide. (See Report of Committee on
Standard Methods for Examination of Air, American Public Health Asso-
ciation, Vol. 7, No. 1; American Journal of Public Health, Jan., 1917.)
A thermal conductivity method may also be used to measure carbon
dioxide in air over a range of 0 to 1.5 per cent11.
Where field conditions are such that this apparatus may not be con-
veniently used, as in street cars, air samples may be collected in clean
bottles having mercury-sealed rubber stoppers, and these may be sub-
jected to laboratory analysis.
DUST DETERMINATION
Many laboratory methods have been developed to measure the dust in
the air. These involve the collection of dust on sticky plates, on filter
paper, in water, on porous crucibles, or by electric precipitation,' and the
subsequent determination of the amount of dust by microscopic counting,
weighing, or titration. While there is no standard method, the Hill
"Discussion, W. H. Carrier and C. O. Mackey (A.S.M.E. Transactions, Vol. 59, No. 6, August, 1937,
p. 528-30).
»Gaa Analysis by Measurement of Thermal Conductivity, by H. A. Daynes (Cambridge Press, 1933).
"Indices of Air Changes and Air Distribution, by F. C. Houghten and J. L. Blackshaw (A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 201).
"Loc. Cit. Note 9.
815
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
dust-counter, using a microscope, the impinger12, using chemical changes
in water, and the Lewis sampling tube13, involving the analytical weighing
of a porous crucible, are accepted. All test results should be accompanied
by the name of the instrument used as great variation in counts with the
different instruments will be obtained. The SOCIETY has developed a
code14 for the testing and rating of air cleaning devices used in general
ventilation work.
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
The analysis of flue gases by chemical means is made with the Orsat
apparatus. A solution of KOH is used to absorb the C02. Free oxygen is
absorbed by a mixture of pyrogallic acid and KOH. The solution for
absorbing the CO is cuprous chloride. The apparatus consists of a
burette surrounded by a water jacket, to receive and measure the volume
FlG. 1. RlNGELMANN SMOKE CHART
of gas. The burette is connected by a manifold of glass to pipettes con-
taining liquids for absorbing 00%, 02 and CO.
Various forms of automatic indicating and recording gas analysis
devices are available, operating on either chemical or physical principles.
Such devices are convenient for plant operation.
MEASUREMENT OF SMOKE DENSITY
Relative smoke density is usually measured by comparison with the
Ringelmann Chart (Fig. 1). In making observations of the smoke issuing
from a chimney, four cards ruled like those in Fig. 1, together with a card
printed in solid black and another left entirely white, are placed in a
horizontal row and hung at a point 50 ft from the observer and con-
veniently in line with the chimney. At this distance, the lines become
invisible, and the cards appear to be of different shades of gray, ranging
from very light gray to almost black. The observer glances from the
smoke coming from the chimney to the cards, which are numbered from
0 to 5, determines which card most nearly corresponds with the color of
"Public Health Bulletin, No. 144, 1925, U. S. Public Health Service.
"Testing and Rating of Air Cleaning Devices Used for General Ventilation Work, by Samuel R. Lewis
(A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 270).
"A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Testing and Rating Air Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation
Work (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 39, 1933, p. 225).
816
CHAPTER 44. TEST METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS
the smoke, and makes a record accordingly, noting the time. Observa-
tions are made continuously during one minute, and the estimated average
density during that minute recorded. The average of all the records
made during a boiler test is taken as the average figure for the smoke
density during the test, and the entire record is plotted on cross-section
paper in order to show how the smoke varied in density from time to time.
Smoke recorders are available which give a much more accurate in-
dication of the amount of smoke being produced than does the Ringel-
mann Chart. They all depend upon projecting a beam of light through
the smoke flue or through a separate compartment from which a sample of
the flue gas is drawn continuously. The light of the beam which passes
through without being absorbed by the smoke is measured to determine
the smoke density. Most of these instruments make use of a photo-
electric cell or a thermopile to measure the relative amount of light which
has not been absorbed. Standard electrical instruments serve for in-
dicating or recording.
MEASUREMENT OF RATE OF HEAT TRANSMISSION
The standard methods of testing built-up wall sections are by means of
the guarded hot-box1* and the guarded hot-plate1*. The Nicholls heat-flow
meter may be used for testing actual walls of buildings.
It would be obviously impossible to determine the air-to-air heat trans-
mission coefficients of every type of wall construction in use with the
heat-flow meter, the guarded hot-box or the guarded hot-plate on account
of the great amount of time involved. Hence, the method of computing
the coefficients from the fundamental constants must be resorted to in
most cases. The guarded hot-plate is used to determine the fundamental
constants. The heat-flow meter, guarded hot-box and guarded hot-plate
tests can be used to good advantage in checking the accuracy of the
computed values.
If the hot-box or hot-plate methods are used, tests are usually run under
still air conditions, which means there is no wind movement over the
surfaces of the wall during the test. In the hot-plate method of test the
inside surface coefficient is eliminated by the plates being in direct contact
with the wall. In practice, some wind movement over the exterior surface
of the wall should always be allowed for; hence, still-air coefficients cannot
be used over the outside of the building during the heating season.
Moreover, still-air transmission coefficients cannot be corrected to provide
for moving-air conditions by applying a single constant factor. Computed
coefficients of transmission for various types of construction are given
in Chapter 5.
EOPATHEOSCOPE
The eupatheoscope affords a means of evaluating the combined effect of
radiation and convection in a given environment in terms of a standard
environment and in some terms related to human comfort. See Chapter
41.
"Standard Code for Hi-at Transmission through Walla (A.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 3-i, 1928, p. 253)
and Report of the Committee on Heat Transmission, National Research Council.
"Measuring Heat Transmission in Building Structures and a Heat Transmission Meter, by P. Nicholla
CA.S.H.V.E. TRANSACTIONS, Vol. 30, 3924, p. 65).
817
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
PROBLEMS IN PRACTICE
1 • The hand on a pressure gage attached to a steam line indicates a pressure
of 15 Ib per square inch and the barometric pressure is 14.7 Ib per square inch.
What is the absolute pressure, in pounds per square inch, being exerted by
the steam?
The absolute pressure exerted by the steam in the pipe is equal to the pressure indicated
by the gage plus that exerted by the atmosphere.
Total pressure = 15 + 14.7 = 29.7 Ib per square inch.
2 • Whal is the corrected barometric pressure of the atmosphere at 32 F when
a mercurial barometer reading of 29.51 in. Hg, is determined in a room having
a temperature of 91 F?
Substitute in Equation 1. fc - 29.51 [1 - 0.000101 (91 - 32)].
H = 29.33 in. Hg.
3 • Outline the procedure to be followed in taking room temperatures.
In taking room temperatures, a standard mercury thermometer should be used, with
care taken that no part of the observer's body is nearer than 10 in. to the thermometer
bulb. The thermometer should be held at least 5 ft away from any window, door or
opening; it should be at least 12 in. away from any wall, and should be between 3 and
5 ft from the floor.
4 • What advantages other than its sensitiveness, has the U tube draft gage or
manomeler for measurement of low pressures?
Inherent accuracy without calibration and low cost of the essential parts, which are
glass tubing and an ordinary scale.
5 • Are thermocouples as accurate as mercury thermometers?
Within the range which can be measured with both instruments (below 1000 F) either
one may be made as sensitive as the service requires. The accuracy of a thermocouple
temperature measurement depends chiefly on: (1) an accurate calibration of the wire,
(2) the sensitiveness of the electrical instrument, (3) accurate cold-junction control,
and (4) proper placement of the sensitive junction.
6 • When an anemometer is used for measuring the air discharged from a
grille or register, does it read the velocity through the gross face area or the
velocity through the net free area?
Neither. If either of these velocities is required, it should be calculated by means of
Equation 3.
7 • Do common errors made in humidity determination produce a result that
is too high or too low?
A higher relative humidity than the true value is likely to be found, either because there
is insufficient velocity over the wet-bulb or because the reading is not taken at the right
time.
8 • What is the purpose of the carbon dioxide determination?
It is an index of the adequacy of fresh air supply and also an indicator of air distribution.
818
Chapter 45
TERMINOLOGY
Glossary of Physical and Heating, Ventilating and Air Condi -
£oningyTermsUSed in the Text, Standard /bbrevmtions
Conversion Equations, Drafting Symbols, A.S.H.V.E. Codes
Absolute Humidity: See Humidity.
Absolute Pressure: The sum, at any particular time, of the gage
pressure and the atmospheric pressure.
Absolute Temperature: The temperature of a substance measured
above absolute zero. . -
Absolute Zero: The temperature (-459.6 F) at which the molecular
motion of a substance theoretically ceases. This is the temperature at
which the substance theoretically contains no heat energy.
Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity. In the fps system
this is expressed in units of one foot per second per second.
V
Acceleration Due to Gravity : The rate of gain in velocity of a freely
fait g body ?n the fps system this is 32.174 ft per second per second.
vott^s^^^
eneTg^ and therefore its temperature, falls; similarly, when it » adia,
batically compressed its temperature rises.
Adsorption: The adhesion of the molecules of gases or dissolved sub-
stances tothe surfaces of solid bodies, resulting in a concentration of the
gas or solution at the place of contact.
Air Cleaner- A device designed for the purpose of removing air-borne
im^riSTSS as dusts, furls and smokes. (Air cleaners include air
washers and air filters.) -.i^^+^firQt
™&
health or comfort.
819
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Air Infiltration: The inleakage of air through cracks and crevices,
and through doors, windows and other openings, caused by wind pressure
or temperature difference.
Air Inlet and Air Outlet: Used to designate that point or location
in an air handling device or system where air enters or leaves. These
' terms are ^misleading and meaningless standing by themselves; must be
accompanied by other words to designate location, space, or device which
the air is entering or leaving. Thus, air inlet to a room may be opening
in end of a duct leading from the air outlet of a fan.
Air Washer: An enclosure in which air is forced through a spray of
water in order to cleanse, humidify, or dehumidify the air.
Anemometer: An instrument for measuring the velocity of moving
air.
Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure exerted by the atmosphere in
all directions, as indicated by a barometer. Standard atmospheric pressure
is considered to be 14.7 Ib per square inch, which is equivalent to 29.92 in.
of mercury.
Baffle: A plate or wall for deflecting gases or fluids.
Blast: This word was formerly used to denote forced air circulation,
particularly in connection with central fan systems using steam or hot
water as the heating medium. As applied in this sense, the word blast
is now obsolete.
Boiler : A closed vessel in which steam is generated or in which water is
heated.
Boiler Heating Surface: That portion of the surface of the heat-
transfer apparatus in contact with the fluid being heated on one side and
the gas or refractory being cooled on the other, in which the fluid being
heated forms part of the circulating system ; this surface shall be measured
on the side receiving heat. This includes the boiler, water walls, water
screens, and water floor. (A.S.MJE. Power Test Codes, Series 1929.)
Boiler Horsepower: The equivalent evaporation of 34.5 Ib of water
per hour from and at 212 F. This is equal to a heat output of 970.2 X
34.5 = 33,471.9 Btu per hour.
British Thermal Unit: The mean British thermal unit is * of the
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib of water from 32 F to 212 F.
It is substantially equal to the quantity of heat required to raise 1 Ib of
water from 63 F to 64 F. One Btu « —^— kwhr
3415
By-pass: A pipe or duct, usually controlled by valve or damper, for
short-circuiting fluid flow.
Calorie: The mean calorie is -^ of the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water from Zero C to 100 C. It is substantially
equal to the quantity of heat required to raise one gram of water from
14.5 C to 15.5 C.
Central Fan System: A mechanical indirect system of heating,
ventilating, or air conditioning, in which the air is treated or handled by
820
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
equipment located outside the rooms served, usually at a central location,
and is conveyed to and from the rooms by means of a fan and a system of
distribution ducts. See Chapters 21 and 22.
Chimney Effect: The tendency in a duct or other vertical air passage
for air to rise when heated, owing to its decrease in density.
Coefficient of Transmission : The amount of heat (Btu) transmitted
from air to air in one hour per square foot of the wall, floor, roof or ceiling
for a difference in temperature of 1 F between the air on the inside and that
on the outside of the wall, floor, roof or ceiling.
Column Radiator : A type of direct radiator. This radiator has not
been listed by manufacturers since 1926.
Comfort Line: The effective temperature at which the largest per-
centage of adults feel comfortable.
Comfort Zone (Average): The range of effective temperatures over
which the majority (50 per cent or more) of adults feel comfortable.
Comfort Zone (Extreme): The range of effective temperatures over which
one or more adults feel comfortable. (See Chapter 3.)
Concealed Radiator: A heating device located within, adjacent to,
or exterior to the room being heated but so covered or enclosed or con-
cealed that the heat transfer surface of the device, which may be either
a radiator or a convector, does not see the room. Such a device transfers
its heat to the room largely by convection air currents.
Conductance: The amount of heat (Btu) transmitted from surface
to surface in one hour through one square foot of a material or construc-
tion, whatever its thickness, when the temperature difference is 1 F
between the two surfaces.
Conduction: The transmission of heat through and by means of
matter unaccompanied by any obvious motion of the matter.
Conductivity: The amount of heat (Btu) transmitted in one hour
through one square foot of a homogeneous material 1 in. thick for a
difference in temperature of 1 F between the two surfaces of the material.
Conductor (heat): A material capable of readily conducting heat
The opposite of an insulator or insulation,
Constant Relative Humidity Line: Any line on the psychrometric
chart representing a series of conditions which may be evaluated by one
percentage of relative humidity; there are also constant dry-bulb lines,
wet-bulb lines, effective temperature lines, vapor pressure lines, and
lines showing other physical properties of air mixed with water vapor.
Control: Any manual or automatic device for the regulation of a
machine to keep it at normal operation. If automatic, it is considered
that the device is motivated by variations in temperature, pressure,
time, light, or other influences.
Convection: The transmission of heat by the circulation of a liquid
or a gas such as air. Convection may be natural or forced.
Convector: A heat transfer surface designed to transfer its heat tc
surrounding air largely or wholly by convection currents. Such a surfaa
may or may not be enclosed or concealed. When concealed and enclosec
821
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
the resulting device is sometimes referred to as a concealed radiator.
(See also definition of Radiator. See also Chapter 14.)
Corrosive: Having the power to wear away or gradually change the
texture or substance of a material.
Decibel: The standard unit for noise or sound intensity. One decibel
is equal to ten times the logarithm to the base e of the ratio of the sound
intensities.
Degree-Day: A unit, based upon temperature difference and time,
used in specifying the nominal heating load in winter. For any one day
there exists as many degree-days as there are degrees Fahrenheit dif-
ference in temperature between the average outside air temperature,
taken over a 24-hour period, and a temperature of 65 F.
Dehumidify: To remove water vapor from the atmosphere; to
remove water vapor or moisture from any material.
Density: The weight of a unit volume, expressed in pounds per cubic
foot, d = -^-.
Dew-Point Temperature: The temperature corresponding to satura-
tion (100 per cent relative humidity) for a given moisture content.
Diffuser: A vaned device placed at an air supply opening to direct the
air flow.
Direct-Indirect Heating Unit: A heating unit located in the room
or space to be heated and partially enclosed, the enclosed portion being
used to heat air which enters from outside the room.
Direct Radiator: Same as Radiator.
Direct-Return System (Hot water): A hot water system in which the
water, after it has passed through a heating unit, is returned to the boiler
along a direct path so that the total distance traveled by the water is the
shortest feasible, and so that there are considerable differences in the
lengths of the several circuits composing the system.
Down-Feed One-Pipe Riser (Steam): A pipe which carries steam
downward to the heating units and into which the condensation from the
heating units drain.
Down-Feed System (Steam): A steam heating system in which the
supply mains are above the level of the heating units which they serve.
Draft Head (Side Outlet Enclosure) : The height of a gravity con vector
between the bottom of the heating unit and the bottom of the air outlet
opening.
Draft Head (Top Outlet Enclosure) : The height of a gravity con vector
between the bottom of the heating unit and the top of the enclosure.
Drip: A pipe, or a steam trap and a pipe, considered as a unit, which
conducts condensation from the steam side of a piping system to the
water or return side of the system.
Dry Air: Air^with which no water vapor is mixed. This term is used
comparatively, since in nature there is always some water vapor included
in air, and such water vapor, being a gas, is dry.
822
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
Dry-Bulb Temperature: The temperature of the air indicated by
any type of thermometer not affected by the water vapor content or
relative humidity of the air.
Dry Return: A return pipe in a steam heating system which carries
both water of condensation and air. The dry return is above the level
of the water line in the boiler in a gravity system. See Wet Return.
Dust: Solid material in a finely divided state, the particles of which
are large and heavy enough to fall with increasing velocity, due to gravity
in still air. For instance, particles of fine sand or grit, the average
diameter of which is approximately 0.01 centimeter, such as are blown
on a windy day, may be called dust.
Dynamic Head or Pressure : The total or impact pressure. This is
the sum of the radial pressure and the velocity pressure at the point of
measurement.
Effective Temperature : An arbitrary index of the degree of warmth
or cold felt by the human body in response to temperature, humidity,
and movement of the air. Effective temperature is a composite index
which combines the readings of temperature, humidity, and air motion
into a single value. The numerical value of the effective temperature
scale has been fixed by the temperature of saturated air which induces an
identical sensation of warmth.
Enthalpy: Total heat or thermal potential.
Entropy: A ratio, evaluated for practical purposes by dividing the
heat content of a unit weight of a substance by its absolute temperature.
Useful in examining changes during a heat cycle. Entropy is constant
during a reversible adiabatic change of state.
Equivalent Evaporation: The amount of water a boiler would
evaporate, in pounds per hour, if it received feed water at 212 F and
vaporized it at the same temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Estimated Design Load: The load, stated in Btu per hour or equiv-
alent direct radiation, as estimated by the purchaser for the conditions of
inside and outside temperature for which the amount of installed radiation
was determined. It is the sum of the heat emission of the radiation to^be
actually installed plus the allowance for the heat loss of the connecting
piping plus the heat requirement for any apparatus requiring heat con-
nected with the system. (A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Rating Steam
Heating Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers— edition of April 1932.)
Estimated Maximum Load: Construed to mean the load stated in
Btu per hour or equivalent direct radiation that has been estimated by
the purchaser to be the greatest or maximum load that the boiler will be
called upon to carry. (A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for Rating Steam
Heating Solid Fuel Hand-Fired Boilers— edition of April 1932.)
Extended Heating Surface: See Heating Surface.
Extended Surface Heating Unit: A heating unit having a relatively
large amount of extended surface which may be integral with the core
containing the heating medium or assembled over such a core, making
good thermal contact by pressure or by being soldered to the core or by
both pressure and soldering. An extended surface heating unit is usually
placed within an enclosure and therefore functions as a convector.
823
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Fan Furnace System: See Warm Air Heating System.
Force: The action on a body which tends to change its relative con-
WV
dition as to rest or motion. F = — 7-.
g
Fumes: Particles of solid matter resulting from such chemical pro-
cesses as combustion, explosion, and distillation, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0
micron in size.
Furnace: That part of a boiler or warm air heating plant in which
combustion takes place. Also, a firepot.
Furnace Volume (total): The total furnace volume for horizontal-
return tubular boilers and water-tube boilers is the cubical contents of the
furnace between the grate and the first plane of entry into or between
tubes. It therefore includes the volume behind the bridge wall as in
ordinary horizontal-return tubular boiler settings, unless manifestly in-
effective (i.e., no gas flow taking place through it), as in the case of waste-
heat boilers with auxiliary coal furnaces, where one part of the furnace is
out of action when the other is being used. For Scotch or other internally
fired boilers it is the cubical contents of the furnace, flues and combustion
chamber, up to the plane of first entry into the tubes. (A.S.M.E. Power
Test Codes, Series 1929.)
Gage Pressure: Pressure measured from atmospheric pressure as a
base. Gage pressure may be indicated by a manometer which has one leg
connected to the pressure source and the other exposed to atmospheric
pressure.
Grate Area: The area of the grate surface, measured in square feet,
to be used in estimating the rate of burning fuel. This area is construed
to mean the area measured in the plane of the top surface of the grate,
except that with special furnaces, such as those having magazine feed, or
special shapes, the grate area shall be the mean area of the active part of
the fuel bed taken perpendicular to the path of the gases through it.
For furnaces having a secondary grate, such as those in double-grate
down-draft boilers, the effective area shall be taken as the area of the
upper grate plus one-eighth of the area of the lower grate, both areas
being estimated as defined above. (A.S.H.V.E. Standard and Short
Form Heat Balance Codes for Testing Low-Pressure Steam Heating
Solid Fuel Boilers.)
Gravity Warm Air Heating System : See Warm Air Heating System.
Grille: A perforated covering for an air inlet or outlet usually made
of wire screen, pressed steel, cast-iron or plaster. Grilles may be plain
or ornamental.
Heat: A form of energy generated by the transformation of some other
form of energy, as by combustion, chemical action, or friction. Accord-
ing to the molecular theory, heat consists of the kinetic and potential
energy of the molecules of a substance. The addition of heat energy to a
body increases the temperature or the kinetic energy of motion of its
molecules (sensible heat) or increases their potential energy of position but
does not increase the temperature, as when melting or boiling occurs
(latent heat).
824
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
Heat Capacity: The amount of heat (Btu or calories) required to
raise the temperature of a body of any mass and variety of parts one
degree (Fahrenheit or centigrade). This will depend on the masses and
specific heats of the various parts of the body.
Therefore
S = mi $i -|- mt $s -f- ms $t etc.
where
S is the heat capacity and mi, m*, mt, and s\t $*, s9 stand for the masses and cor-
responding specific heats of the parts, respectively.
Heating Medium: A substance such as water, steam, air, electricity
or furnace gas used to convey heat from the boiler, furnace or other source
of heat or energy to the heating unit from which the heat is dissipated.
Heating Surface: The exterior surface of a heating unit. Extended
heatMig surface (or extended surface): Heating surface having air on both
sides ^and heated by conduction from the prime surface. Prime Surface:
Heating surface having the heating medium on one side and air (or
extended surface) on the other. (See also Boiler Heating Surface.)
Heat of the Liquid: The sensible heat of a mass of liquid above an
arbitrary zero.
Horsepower: A unit to indicate the time rate of doing work equal to
550 ft-lb per second or 33,000 ft-lb per minute. (One horsepower «
745.8 watts. In practice this is considered 746 watts.)
Hot Water Heating System: A heating system in which water is
used as the medium by which heat is carried through pipes from the boiler
to the heating units.
Humidify: To add water vapor to the atmosphere; to add water
vapor or moisture to any material.
Humidity: The water vapor mixed with dry air in the atmosphere. Ab-
solute humidity refers to the weight of water vapor per unit volume of space
occupied, expressed in grains or pounds per cubic foot. Specific humidity
refers to the weight of water vapor in pounds carried by one pound of
dry air. Relative humidity is a ratio, usually expressed in per cent, used to
indicate the degree of saturation existing in any given space resulting
from the water vapor present in that space. Relative humidity is either
the ratio of the actual partial pressure of the water vapor in the air to the
saturation pressure at the dry-bulb temperature, or the ratio of the actual
density of the vapor to the density of saturated vapor at the dry-bulb
temperature. The presence of air or other gases in the same space at the
same time has nothing to do with the relative humidity of the space.
Humidistat: A regulatory device, actuated by changes in humidity,
used for the control of humidity.
Hygrostat: Same as Humidistat,
Inch of Water: A measure of pressure which refers to the difference
in the heights of the legs of a water-filled manometer.
Insulation (heat): A material having a relatively high heat-resistance
per unit of thickness.
Isobaric: An adjective used to indicate a change taking place at con-
stant pressure.
825
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Isothermal: An adjective used to indicate a change taking place at
constant temperature.
Latent Heat: See Heat.
Laws of Thermodynamics : The first law states that the total energy
of an isolated system remains constant and cannot be increased or dimin-
ished by any physical process whatever. The second law states that no
change in a system of bodies that takes place of itself can increase the
available energy of a system.
Manometer: An instrument for measuring pressures; essentially a
U-tube partially filled with a liquid, usually water, mercury, or a light
oil, so the amount of displacement of the liquid indicates the pressure
being exerted on the instrument.
Mass : The quantity of matter, in pounds, to which the unit of force
(one pound) will give an acceleration of one foot per second per second.
W
m — — .
g
Mb, Mbh1: Symbols which represent, respectively, 1000 Btu and
1000 Btu per hour.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat: The mechanical energy necessary
to produce 1 Btu of heat energy. J = 777.5 ft-lb.
Micron: A unit of length, the thousandth part of one millimeter or
the millionth of a meter.
Mol: The unit of weight for gases. It is defined as m lb where m
denotes the molecular weight of a gas. For any gas the volume of
1 mol at 32 F and standard atmospheric pressure is 358.65 cu ft and the
weight of a cubic foot is 0.002788 m lb.
Neutral Zone: The level within a room or building at which the
pressure is exactly equal to the outside barometric pressure.
One-Pipe Supply Riser (steam): A pipe which carries steam upward
to a heating unit and which also carries the condensation from the heating
unit in a direction opposite to the steam flow.
One-Pipe System (hot water) : A hot water system in which the water
flows through more than one heating unit before it returns to the boiler;
consequently, the heating units farthest from the boiler are supplied
with cooler water than those near the boiler in the same circuit.
One-Pipe System (steam): A steam heating system consisting of a
mam circuit in which the steam and condensate flow in the same pipe,
usually in opposite directions. Ordinarily to each heating unit there is
but one connection which must serve as both the supply and the return,
although separate supply and return connections may be used.
Overhead System: Any steam or hot water system in which the
supply main is above the heating units. With a steam system the return
must be below the heating units; with a water system, the return may
be above the heating units.
Panel Radiator: A heating unit placed on or flush with a flat wall
surface and intended to function essentially as a radiator.
*These symbols were approved by the A.S.H.V.E., June, 1933.
826
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
Panel Warming: A method of heating involving the installation of
the heating units (pipe coils) within the wall, floor or ceiling of the room,
so that the heating process takes place mainly by radiation from the wall,
floor or ceiling surfaces to the objects in the room.
Plenum Chamber: An air compartment maintained under pressure
and connected to one or more distributing ducts.
Potentiometer: An instrument for measuring or comparing small
electromotive forces.
Power: The rate of performing work, expressed in units of horse-
power, one of which is equal to 550 ft-lb of work per second, or 33,000 ft-lb
per minute.
Prime Surface : See Heating Surface.
Psychrometer: An instrument for ascertaining the humidity or
hygrometric state of the atmosphere. Psychrometric: Pertaining to
psychrometry or the state of the atmosphere as to moisture. Psychro-
metry: The branch of physics that treats of the measurement of degree of
moisture, especially the moisture mixed with the air.
Pyrometer: An instrument for measuring high temperatures.
Radiation: The transmission of heat through space by wave motion.
Radiator: A heating unit exposed to view within the room or space to
be heated. A radiator transfers heat by radiation to objects "it can see"
and by conduction to the surrounding air which in turn is circulated by
natural convection ; a so-called radiator is also a corrector but the single
term radiator has been established by long usage.
Recessed Radiator: A heating unit set back into a wall recess but
not enclosed.
Refrigerant : A substance which produces a refrigerating effect by its
absorption of heat while expanding or vaporizing.
Register: A grille with a built-in multiblade damper or shutter.
Relative Humidity: See Humidity: see also discussion of relative
humidity in Chapter 1.
Return Mains : The pipes which return the heating medium from the
heating units to the source of heat supply.
Reversed-Return System (Hot water}: A hot water heating system
in which the water from several heating units is returned along paths
arranged so that all circuits composing the system or composing a major
subdivision of the system are practically of equal length.
Roof Ventilator: A device placed on the roof of a building to permit
egress of air.
Saturated Air: Air containing as much water vapor as it can hold
without any condensing out; in saturated air, the partial pressure of the
water vapor is equal to the vapor pressure of water at the existing tem-
perature.
Sensible Heat: See/fea/.
Smoke: Carbon or soot particles less than 0.1 micron in size which
result from the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such as
coal, oil, tar, and tobacco.
827
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Smokeless Arch: An inverted baffle placed in an up-draft furnace
toward the rear to aid in mixing the gases of combustion and thereby to
reduce the smoke produced.
Specific Gravity: The ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of
an equal volume of water at some standard temperature, usually 39.2 F.
Specific Heat: The quantity of heat, expressed in Btu, required to
raise the temperature of 1 Ib of a substance 1 F,
Specific Volume: The volume, expressed in cubic feet, of one pound of
a substance, v = — r- = -===.
d W
Split System: A system in _ which the heating and ventilating are
accomplished by means of radiators or con vectors supplemented by
mechanical circulation of air (heated or unheated) from a central point.
Square Foot of Heating Surface (equivalent): Equivalent direct
radiation (EDR). By definition, that amount of heating surface which
will give off 240 Btu per hour. The equivalent square feet of heating
surface may have no direct relation to the actual surface area.
Stack Height: The height of a gravity convector between the bottom
of the heating unit and the top of the outlet opening.
Standard Air: As defined by A.S.H.V.E. codes, standard air is air
weighing 0.07488 Ib per cubic foot, which is air at 68 F dry-bulb and
50 per cent relative humidity with, a barometric pressure of 29.92 in. of
mercury. (Most engineering tables and formulae involving the weight
of air are based on air weighing 0.07492 Ib per cubic foot, which is dry air
at 70 F dry-bulb with a barometric pressure of 29.921 in. of mercury. The
error involved in disregarding the difference between the above two
weights is very slight and in most instances may be neglected)
Static Pressure : The compressive pressure existing in a fluid. It is
a measure of the potential energy of the fluid.
Steam : Steam is water vapor which exists in the vaporous condition
because sufficient heat has been added to the water to supply the latent
heat of evaporation and change the liquid into vapor. Steam in contact
with the water from which it has been generated may be dry saturated
steam or wet saturated steam. The latter contains more or less actual
water in the form of mist. If steam is hearted, and the pressure main-
tained the same as when it was vaporized, its temperature will increase
and it will become superheated.
Steam Heating System: A heating system in which heat is trans-
ferred from the boiler or other source of steam to the heating units by
means of steam at, above, or below atmospheric pressure.
Steam Trap: A device for allowing the passage of condensate and
preventing the passage of steam, or for allowing the passage of air as
well as condensate.
Superheated Steam: See Steam.
Supply Mains (steam): The pipes through which the steam flows
from the boiler or source of supply to the run-outs and risers leading to the
heating units.
828
CHAPTER 43. TERMINOLOGY
Surface Conductance: The amount of heat (Btu) transmitted by
radiation, conduction, and convection from a surface to the air or liquid
surrounding it, or vice versa, in one hour per square foot of the surface for
a difference in temperature of 1 deg between the surface and the sur-
rounding air or liquid.
Synthetic Air Chart: A chart for evaluating the air conditions
maintained in a room.
Therm: Symbol used in the gas industry representing 100,000 Btu.
Thermal Resistance: The reciprocal of conductance.
Thermal Resistivity: The reciprocal of conductivity.
Thermodynamics: The science which treats of the mechanical
actions or relations of heat.
Thermostat: An instrument which responds to changes in tempera-
ture and which directly or indirectly controls the source of heat supply.
Ton of Refrigeration: The extraction of 12,000 Btu per hour.
Ton Day of Refrigeration: The heat removed by a ton of refriger-
ation operating for one day; 288,000 Btu.
Total Heat: A thermodynamic quantity, variously called heat con-
tent, thermal potential, enthalpy. It is the heat required per unit mass
(Btu per pound) to raise a given substance to a given point from an arbi-
trary datum point. It is the sum of the heat of the liquid, the latent
heat, and any miscellaneous heat which may be present.
Total Pressure: The sum of the static and velocity pressures in a
fluid. It is a measure of the total energy of the fluid.
Tuhe (or Tubular) Radiator: A cast-iron heating unit used as a
radiator and having small vertical tubes.
• Two-Pipe System (steam or water): A heating system in which one
pipe is used for the supply of the heating medium to the heating unit and
another for the return of the heating medium to the source of heat
supply. The essential feature of a two-pipe system is that each heating
unit receives a direct supply of the heating medium which medium cannot
have served a preceding heating unit.
Underfeed Distribution System (hot water): A hot water heating
system in which the main flow pipe is below the heating units.
Underfeed Stoker: A stoker which feeds the coal underneath the fuel
bed.
Unit: As applied to heating, ventilating and air conditioning equip-
ment this word means a factory-built and assembled equipment with
apparatus for accomplishing some specified function or combination of
functions.
It is loosely applied to a great variety of equipment. Usually the
function is included in the name, and hence come terms like Unit Heater,
Unit Ventilator, Humidifying Unit, and Air Conditioning Unit.
Units are said to be direct, or room, when intended for location, or
located in, the treated space; indirect, or remote, when outside or adjacent
to the treated space. They are ceiling units when suspended from above,
829
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
and floor when supported from below. Other descriptive words include
free delivery when the unit is not intended to be attached to ducts or
similar resistance-producing devices, and pressure when for use with such
ducts. Complete description requires the use of several of these qualifying
words or phrases. See Chapter 23.
Up-Feed System (steam): A steam heating system in which the
supply mains are below the level of the heating units which they serve.
Vacuum Heating System: A two-pipe steam heating system equip-
ped with the necessary accessory apparatus which will permit operating
the system below atmospheric pressure when desired.
Vapor: Any substance in the gaseous state.
Vapor Heating System: A steam heating system which operates
under pressures at or near atmospheric and which returns the condensa-
tion to the boiler or receiver by gravity. Vapor systems have thermo-
static traps or other means of resistance on the return ends of the heating
units for preventing steam from entering the return mains ; they also have
a pressure-equalizing and air-eliminating device at the end of the dry
return. Direct Vent Vapor System: A vapor heating system with air
valves which do not permit re-entry of air.
Vapor Pressure: The equilibrium pressure exerted by a vapor in
contact with its liquid.
Velocity: The time rate of motion of a body in a fixed direction. In
the fps system it is expressed in units of one foot per second. V — y.
Velocity Pressure: The pressure corresponding to the velocity of
flow. It is a measure of the kinetic energy of the fluid.
Ventilation: The process of supplying or removing air by natural or
mechanical means, to or from any space. Such air may or may not have
been conditioned. (See Air Conditioning.)
Warm Air Heating System: A warm air heating plant consists of a
heating unit (fuel-burning furnace) enclosed in a casing, from which the
heated air is distributed to the various rooms of the building through
ducts. If the motive head producing flow depends on the difference in
weight between the heated air leaving the casing and the cooler air
entering the bottom of the casing, it is termed a gravity system. A booster
fan may, however, be used in conjunction with a gravity-designed
system. If a fan is used to produce circulation and the system is designed
especially for fan circulation, it is termed a fan furnace system or a
central fan furnace system. A fan furnace system may include air washers
and filters.
Wet-Bulb Temperature: The lowest temperature which a water
wetted body will attain when exposed to an air current. This is the
temperature of adiabatic saturation.
Wet Return: That part of a return main of a steam heating system
which is filled with water of condensation. The wet return usually is
below the level of the water line in the boiler, although not necessarily so.
See Dry Return.
830
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
ABBREVIATIONS •
Absolute- abs
Acceleration, due to gravity &
Acceleration, linear..... o
Air horsepower air hp
Alternating-current (as adjective) a-c
Ampere. amp
Ampere-hour.- amp-hr
Atmosphere. atm
Average avg
Avoirdupois .. avdp
Barometer.™ bar.
Boiler pressure bp
Boiling point bp
Brake horsepower bhp
Brake horsepower-hour bhp-hr
British thermal unit Btu
Calorie cal
Centigram eg
Centimeter cm
Centimeter-gram-second (system) cgs
Change in specific volume during vaporization »fg
Cubic.......... ... ....... . . . ..— cu
Cubic foot cu ft
Cubic feet per minute , *.cfm
Cubic feet per second cfs
Decibel. db
Degree8 deg or *
Degree centigrade C
Degree Fahrenheit F
Degree Kelvin K
Degree Reaumur R
Density, Weight per unit volume, Specific weight- d or p (rho)
<-T
Diameter D or diam
Direct-current (as adjective) d-c
Distance linear............. .......................... ........................ ......... ................ M..... ..................... ^
Dry saturated vapor, Dry saturated gas at saturation pressure and temperature,
Vapor in contact with liquid Subscript g
Entropy (The capital should be used for any weight, and the small letter for unit
weight.) . •S' or s
Feet per minute fpm
Feet per second fps
Foot ft
Foot-pound ft-lb
Foot-pound-second (system) fps
Force, total load P
Freezing point fp
Gallon gal
Gallons per minute gpm
Gallons per second .....„................................,...............,—. .........gps
Gram.. ......................g
Gram-calorie g-cal
•From compilations of abbreviations approved by the American Standards Association, Z, 10 a, c, f, and
i. As a general rule the period is omitted in all abbreviations except where the omission results in the
formation of an English word.
•It is recommended that the abbreviation for the temperature scale, F, C, K, be included in expressions
for numerical temperatures but, wherever feasible, the abbreviation for degree be omitted; as 68 F.
831
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Head ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ H or h
Heat content, Total heat, Enthalpy. (The capital should be used for any weight
and the small letter for unit weight.) ______________________________________________________________________ H or h
Heat content of saturated liquid, Total heat of saturated liquid, Enthalpy of
saturated liquid, sometimes called heat of the liquid ------------------------------------------------ hf
Heat content of dry saturated vapor, Total heat of dry saturated vapor, Enthalpy
of dry saturated vapor ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ hg
Heat of vaporization at constant pressure. -------------------------- - ...................................... L or Afg
Horsepower. _________________ ... .............................................................................................. ___________ hp
Horsepower-hour ______________________________________________________________________________ . ___________________________ ...hp-hr
Inch ______ ...-. ____ . __________________ .......................................................................................................... in.
Inch-pound __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ in.-lb
Indicated horsepower ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .....ihp
Indicated horsepower-hour.- ________________________________________________________________________________ . _________ ihp-hr
Internal energy, Intrinsic energy. (The capital should be used for any weight and
the small letter for unit weight.) ______________________________________________________________________________ U or u
Kilogram ______ . __________________ . __________________________________ i _______________________________________________________________ ... ___ kg
Kilowatthour _____________________________________________ .......................................................................... kwhr
Length of path of heat flow, thickness ___ ............................................................................... L
Load, total _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ W
Mass ......... _______________________________________ ........................................................................................... m
Mechanical efficiency
Mechanical equivalent of heat ____________ ......................... «. ______________________ . ________ ......... _________ ..,. _____ J
Melting point. _________________________________________________________________ - .................................................... mp
Meter.... _________________________________________________________________________ . _________________________________________________________ m
Micron.- ____ — ________ . _______________________________________________________________________________________________ . ____ . ______ . \j, (mu)
Miles per hour. __ ................................................................................................................... mph
Minute. ________________ .................................................................................................................. min
Molecular weight ........... __________________ . ___ . _____ .................................................................... mol. wt
Mol ________________________________________________________________ , ______________________________________________________________________ mol
Ounce ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ..oz
Power, Horsepower, Work per unit time. __________________________________________ .................................. P
Pressure, Absolute pressure, Gage pressure, Force per unit area ________________________________________ p
Quantity (total) of fluid, water, gas, heat; Quantity by volume; Total quantity
of heat transferred ______________________________________________________________________________ .............................. Q
Quality of steam, Pounds of dry steam per pound of mixture _____________________________________________ x
Revolutions per minute ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ rpm
Saturated liquid at saturation pressure and temperature, Liquid in contact
with vapor _________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Subscript f
Specific gravity _____________________________________________________________________________________________ ..................... sp gr
Specific heat ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ........................ Sp ht or c
Specific heat at constant pressure .......................................................................................... cp
Specific heat at constant volume _____ ...................................................................................... cv
Specific volume, Volume per unit weight, Volume per unit mass. ....................................... v
Square foot _______________________________________________________________________ .................................................... sq ft
Square inch _______________________ .................................................................................................. sq in.
Temperature (ordinary) F or C. Tfheia is used preferably only when / is used for
Time in the same discussion.) _____________________________________ ................................. / or 0 (theta)
Temperature (absolute) F abs or K. (Capital theta is used preferably only when
small theta is used for ordinary temperature.) _____________________________ T or & (capital theta)
Thermal conductance4 (heat transferred per unit time per degree) ______________ ...................... C
Thermal conductance per unit area, Unit conductance (heat transferred per
unit time per unit area per degree) C&
JL_ _ jg _ k
RA A\t, - fe) ~ L
'Terms ending ivity designate properties independent of size or shape, Bonn-times called specific proper-
ties. Examples are— conductivity and resistivity. Terras ending ance designate quantities depending
not only on the material, but also upon size and shape, sometimes called total quantities. Examples are —
conductance and transmittance. Terms ending ion designate rate of heat transfer. Examples are— con-
duction and transmission.
832
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
Thermal conductivity Cheat transferred per unit time per unit area, and- per
degree per unit length) k
g
A
* (*:-*,)
L
Surface coefficient of heat transfer, Film coefficient of heat transfer, Individual
coefficient of heat transfer (heat transferred per unit time per unit area
per degree)... . ..
JL
A
ti - /a
(In general / is not equal to k/L, where L is the actual thickness of the fluid film.)
Over-all coefficient of heat transfer, Thermal transmittance per unit area (heat
transferred per unit time per unit area per degree over-all) ...................................... U
Thermal transmission (heat transferred per unit time)
Thermal resistance (degrees per unit of heat transferred per unit time) R
7? - ** -*« - L
K I ~kA
Thermal resistivity.-. „ 1/£
Vaporization values at constant pressure, Differences between values for saturated
vapor and saturated liquid at the same pressure Subscript fg
Volume "(totSy/™™™^
Volume per unit time, Rate at which quantity of material passes through a
machine, Quantity of heat per unit time, Quantity of heat per unit weight g
Watthour. whr
Weight of a major item, Total weight W
Weight rate, Weight per unit of power, Weight per unit of time w
Work (total) W
CONVERSION EQUATIONS
Fahrenheit degrees = 9/5 (centigrade degrees) H- 32.
Centigrade degrees » 5/9 (Fahrenheit degrees — 32).
Absolute temperature, expressed in Fahrenheit degrees = Fahrenheit degrees +
459.6- In heating and ventilating work, 460 is usually used.
Absolute temperature, expressed in centigrade degrees = centigrade degrees +
273.1.
833
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Power, Heat and Work
1 ton refrigeration
Latent heat of ice
IBtu
1 watthour
1 kilowatthour
1 mean calorie
1 kilowatt (1000 watts)
1 horsepower
1 boiler horsepower
fl2,000 Btu per hour
\200 Btu per minute
- 143.33 Btu per pound
f 777.5 ft-lb
\ 0.293 watthours
[ 252.02 mean calories
f 2,655.2 ft-lb
I 3.415 Btu
| 3600 joules
I 860.648 mean calories
f 3,415 Btu
J 3.52 Ib water evaporated from
and at 212 F
[ 34.15 Ib water raised 100 F
f 0.003968 Btu
\ 3.085 ft-lb
[ 0.0011619 watthours
( O405 horsepower
\ 56.92 Btu per minute
[ 44,252.7 ft-lb per minute
f 0.746 kilowatt
I 42.44 Btu per minute
) 33,000 ft-lb per minute
{ 550 ft-lb per second
/ 33,471.9 Btu per hour
1 9.80 kwhr
Weight and Volume
1 gal (U. S.)
1 British or Imperial gallon
leu ft
1 cu ft water at 60 F
1 cu ft water at 212 F
1 gal water at 60 F
1 gal water at 212 F
1 Ib (avdp)
1 bushel
1 short ton
1 long ton
Pressure
1 Ib per square inch
1 oz per square inch
/ 231 cu in.
1 \ 0.13368 cu ft
• 277.274 cu in.
, / 7.4805 gal
\1728cuin.
• 62.37 Ib
59.76 Ib
• 8.34 Ib
7.99 Ib
/ 16 oz
\ 7000 grains
1.244 cu ft
2000 Ib
2240 Ib
( 144 Ib per square foot
1 2.0416 in. mercury at 62 F
] 2.309 ft water at 62 F
[ 27.71 in. water at 62 F
/ 0.1276 in, mercury at 62 F
\ 1.732 in. water at 62 F
834
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
1 atmosphere s
1 in. water at 62 F :
1 ft water at 62 F
1 in. mercury at 62 F -.
Metric Units
1 cm ••
1 in. =
1 m =
1ft
1 sq cm »
1 sq in.
1 sq m -
1 sq ft
1 cu cm -
1 cu in. =
1 cu m =
1 cu ft
1 liter -•
1kg
lib
1 metric ton =
1 gram =
1 kilometer per hour =
1 gram per square centimeter =
1 kg per square centimeter (metric atmosphere) =
1 gram per cubic centimeter =
1 dyne 8
1 joule =
1 metric horsepower •
1 kilogram-calorie (large calorie) *
1 kilogram-calorie per kilogram :
1 gram-calorie per square centimeter «
1 gram-calorie per square centimeter per centi-a
meter
1 gram-calorie per second per square centimeter
for a temperature graduation of 1 deg C per *
centimeter
835
14.7 Ib per square inch
2116,3 Ib per square foot
33.974 ft water at 62 F
30 in. mercury at 62 F
29.921 in. mercury at 32 F
0.03609 Ib per square inch
0,5774 oz per square inch
5.196 Ib per square foot
f 0.433 Ib per square inch
\ 62.355 Ib per square foot
I 0.491 Ib per square inch
1 7.86 oz per square inch
| 1.131 ft water at 62 F
[ 13.57 in. water at 62 F
0.3937 in.
2.54 cm
3.281 ft
0.3048 m
0.155 sq in.
6.45 sq cm
10.765 sq ft
0.0929 sq m
0.061 cu in.
16.39 cu cm
35.32 cu ft
0.0283 cu m
1000 cu cm = 0.264 gal
2.2046 Ib
0.4536 kg
2205 Ib (avdp)
980.59 dynes = 0.002205 Ib
0.6214 mph
/ 0.0290 in. mercury, at 0 deg C
\ 0.394 in. water, at 15 C
14.22 Ib per square inch
/ 0.03614 Ib per cubic inch
\ 62.43 Ib per cubic foot
0.00007233 poundals
/ 10,000,000 ergs
\ 0,73767 ft-lb
/ 75 kg-m per second
\ 0.986 hp (U. S.)
1000 gram-calories (small
calorie)
3.97 Btu
1.8 Btu per pound
3.687 Btu per square foot
1.451 Btu per square foot per inch
[2903 Btu per hour per square foot
•I for a temperature graduation of
{ 1 deg F per inch of thickness.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SYMBOLS FOR HEATING, VENTILATING AND
Affi CONDITIONING DRAWINGS 5
1. The objects of this standard set of symbols are to insure the correct interpretation
of drawings and to conserve drafting room time by establishing simple and unmistakable
symbols for the component parts of the heating and ventilating systems. In preparing
the list of symbols an effort has been made to follow existing practice in so far as possible
but the list cannot be expected to match exactly the existing practice of every drafting
room.
1. General _
Piping
2. Steam —
Piping
3. Condensate -(
Piping ""
4. Cold Water
Piping
5. Hot Water
Piping —
6. Air Piping
7. Vacuum
Piping
8. Gas Piping
9. Refrigerant
Piping I "I ' r
10. Oil Piping
11. Lock and Shield Valve -[>1<J- -|>I<1- 23. Indirect Radiator Plan
12. Reducing Valve ~^~"
13. Diaphragm Valve -{><h Jj-
24. Indirect Radiator
Elevation
14. Thermostat
15. Radiator Trap Elevation
16. Radiator Trap Plan
17. Tube Radiator Plan
18. Tube Radiator Elevation , | |
19. Wall Radiator Plan c=
20. Wall Radiator Elevation | |
21. Pipe Coil Plan
22. Pipe Coil Elevation
25. Supply Duct, Section
26. Exhaust Duct, Section
27. Butterfly Damper Plan
(or Elevation)
28. Butterfly Damper
Elevation (or Plan)
29. Deflecting Damper
Rectangular Pipe
30. Vanes
31. Air Supply Outlet
32. Exhaust Inlet
B
_
T
•From A.S.H.V.E. Code of. Minimum Requirements for the Heating and Ventilation of Buildings, edition
of 1929, and American Standard Drawings and Drafting Room Practice Graphical Symbols (American
Standards Association, Z14.2— 1935).
836
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
33. Joint
34. Elbow— 90 deg
35. Elbow— 45 deg
36. Elbow— Turned Up
37. Elbow— Turned Down
38. Elbow — Long Radius
39. Side Outlet Elbow— Outlet Down
40. Side Outlet Elbow— Outlet Up
41. Base Elbow
42. Double Branch Elbow
43. Single Sweep Tee
44. Double Sweep Tee
45. Reducing Elbow
46. Tee
47. Tee— Outlet Up
48. Tee— Outlet Down
49. Side Outlet Tee— Outlet Up
50. Side Outlet Tee— Outlet Down
51. Cross
-tt-
-4-
-6-
-*-
-e-
/
-r
L x
/TV
f
r
•f
GM)-
Of-
£-
Ox-
L-
Gtt-
Gt—
c^-
G^-
&-
f-
r
^
r
+T
• 1
t!
-ttvH-
Th
II II
1 1
II /II
HII
-f
1 1
Y"
1 Y '
f^
f"
r
ll~l II
|
ir
_ V ' V
nln
II ' 11 •
"TTx^/ir
II /'""Ml
_2L/TVC-
"7\l/v
-\ /^^\ /* _
~S\^/ V.
A A
v/'"\V
/\\^/A
^
HUH'
A\^__,/ A
^
4§fr
&
4.
II /TMI
II \.J\\
t /TM
1 ^yl
-»e^
'
-H^f
H r"
-s T /•
^ _! S.
-4^
837
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Flanged
Screwed
Bdl ^ Sp.got
Welded
Soldered
52. Eccentric Reducer
Ht**-
-^
-3^-
^H-
^^_
53. Reducer
•*>«•
-D>h
W
^^
0*
54. Lateral
r
¥
r
55. Gate Valve
i
H*h
-^30^-
<*>
HC5>
56. Globe Valve
-ttXH
»CXh
^x^
•HXK
^x>-
57. Angle Globe Valve
r
r
r
r
58. Angle Gate Valve
f^
r
$**"
59. Check Valve
HNJH
i
^^v^.
-K>-
^K-
60. Angle Check Valve
/"
•r
/^
f^
f"
63. Stop Cock
-HOH-
nOH
-90^
HO^
HO^
62. Safety Valve
IK^C^-11
n-^Mi
-C#3-
^^
->c>f<x-
-c>)<>-
63. Quick Opening Valve
ip^rr"
H>^—
-^K-
-«p^»-
64. Float Operating Valve
^5]
-><}-CJ
^i-!
r~tb
65. Motor Operated Gate Valve
r*<>
Ht><K
r^O
-d?^
^^
66. Motor Operated Globe Valve
HcSh^
67. Expansion Joint Flanged
^w^-
-€=3-
^^_
-»««-
^z^
68. Reducing Flange
-O
69. Union
1
^[n
a ti
70. Sleeve
+-+-
^E3e
71. Bushing
-°-
-^-'
-+-
838
CHAPTER 45. TERMINOLOGY
A.S.H.V.E. CODES
The following codes and standards relating to the design, installation,
testing, rating, and maintenance of materials and equipment used for the
heating, ventilation and air conditioning of buildings, have been adopted
by the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS:
SUBJECT
TlTLB
WHBN ADOPTED
RBFERBNCB
Air
Cleaning
Devices
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing and Rating Air Clean-
ing Devices Used in General
Ventilation Work*
June, 1933
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 39, 1933, p. 225
Air Purity
Synthetic Air Chart
June, 1917
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 23, p. 607, and
THE GUIDE, 1931
Boilers
(testing)
Standard and Short-Form Heat
Balance Codes for Testing Low
Pressure Steam Heating Solid
Fuel Boilers (Codes 1 and 2)*
June, 1929
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 35, 1929, p. 322
Boilers
(testing)
A.S.H.V.E. Performance Test
Code for Steam Heating Solid
Fuel Boilers (Code 3)a *>
June, 1929
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 35, 1929, p. 332
Boilers —
Oil Fuel
(testing)
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing Steam Heating Boilers
Burning Oil Fuela
June, 1932
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 37, 1931, p. 23
Boilers
(rating)
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Rating Steam Heating Solid
Fuel Hand-Fired Boilersa
January, 1929
Revised
April, 1930
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 36, 1930, p. 42
Concealed
Gravity
Type
Radiation
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing and Rating Concealed
Gravity Type Radiation (Hot
Water Section)a
June, 1933
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 39, 1933, p. 237
Converters
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing and Rating Concealed
Gravity Type Radiation
(Steam Code)a
January, 1931
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 37, 1931, p. 367
Ethics
Code of Ethics for Engineers
*
January, 1922
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 28, 1922, p. 6
(See frontispiece
THE GUIDE, 1938)
Fans
Standard Test Code for Disc
and Propeller Fans, Centrifugal
Fans and Blowers*
May, 1923.
Revised
June, 1931
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 29, 1923,
p. 407c
Garages
Code for Heating and Ven-
tilating Garages
June, 1929
Revised
January, 1935
A.S.H.V.E. TRANS-
ACTIONS, Vol. 35,
1929, p. 355
A.S.H.V.E. Reprint
* Reprints available.
t>Originally adopted by the National Boiler and Radiator Manufacturers Association.
cAlso, see Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, August, 1931, p. 713.
839
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SUBJECT
TITLE
, WfiBN ADOPTED
REFERENCE
Heat t
Transmission
ThroughWalls
Standard Test Code for Heat
Transmission through Wallsa
January, 1927
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 34, 1928, p. 253
Minimum
Requirements
Code of Minimum Require-
ments for Heating and Ventila-
tion of Buildings, Edition-1929
June, 1925
A.S.H.V.E.
Codes
Pitot Tube
Code for Use of Pitot Tube
January, 1914
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 20, 1914, p. 211
Radiators
Code for Testing Radiators41
January, 1927
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 33, 1927, p. 18
Unit Heaters
Standard Code for Testing and
Rating Steam Unit Heatersa d
January, 1930
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 36, 1930, p. 165
Unit
Ventilators
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing and Rating Steam
Unit Ventilators1
June, 1932
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 38, 1932, p. 25
Vacuum
Heating
Pumps
A.S.H.V.E. Standard Code for
Testing and Rating Return
Line Low Vacuum Heating
Pumpsa
June, 1934
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 40, 1934, p. 33
Ventilation
Report of Committee on
Ventilation Standards1
August, 1932
A.S.H.V.E.
TRANSACTIONS,
Vol. 38, 1932, p. 383
The following Codes and Standards
by the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING
have been endorsed or approved
AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS :
SUBJECT
TlXLI
SPONSORED BT
REFERBNCI
Air
Conditioning
Equipment
Standard Method of Rating
and Testing Air Conditioning
Equipment6
American Society
of Refrigerating
Engineers
American Society of
Refrigerating Engi-
neers, New York,
N.Y.
Chimneys
Standard Ordinance for Chim-
ney Construction
National Board of
Fire Underwriters
Chapter 14,
THE GUIDE, 1931
Condensing
Units
Standard^ Method of Rating
and Testing Mechanical Con-
densing Units6
A merican Society
of Refrigerating
Engineers
American Society of
Refrigerating Engi-
neers, New York,
N.Y.
Piping
Systems
Identification
of Piping Systemsf
American Society
of Mechanical
Engineers
Heating, Piping and
Air Conditioning,
July, 1929
Warm Air
Furnaces
Standard Code Regulating the
Installation of Gravity Warm
Air Furnaces in Residences
National Warm
Air Heating and
Air Conditioning
Association
National Warm Air
fleating and A ir Con-
ditioningA ssociation,
Columbus, Ohio
dAdopted jointly by the Industrial Unit Heater Association, and the A.S.H.V.E.
QA,™^^ w-6 prePar?? by J°int Committee of American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF HEATING AND VENTILATING ENGINEERS, Refrigerating Machinery Association, National Electric
Manufacturers Association and Avr Conditioning Manufacturers Association.
'Adopted November, 1928, Sponsored by (1) American Society of Mechanical Engineers, (2) National
et (uct
840
CATALOG DATA SECTION
/
/
^
/
'
HEATING, VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
1938
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
PAGE 843
INDEX TO MODERN
EQUIPMENT
PAGE 1165
In this section of The Guide manufacturers
of heating, ventilating and air conditioning
equipment present their latest developments in
apparatus and materials — 303 pages of descrip-
tive data, profusely illustrated.
By consistent adherence to a benefit-of-user
policy, over a period of 16 years, this Catalog
Data Section has become a valuable supplement
to the Technical Data Section— a dependable
source of information for engineers, architects,
contractors, and others in this field of industry.
Products are grouped in alphabetical arrange-
ment so that a specific type of equipment or
material may be located readily by reference to
the page headings — Boilers, Heaters, Insulation,
etc.— on pages 843-848. On pages 1165-1188 is
a complete Index to Modern Equipment.
INDEX
TO
ADVERTISERS
HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE, 1938
Page
Acme Heating & Ventilating Co., The, 4224 S. Lowe Ave., Chicago, 111 881
Aerofin Corporation, 410 S. Geclcles St., Syracuse, N. Y 996-998
Air Controls, Inc., 1937 West 1 14lh St., Cleveland, Ohio 878
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal Units Mfg. Co., Div., 70 Brittania St.,
Meriden, Conn ^9
Air-Maze Corporation, 813 Huron Road, Cleveland, Ohio 924-925
Airtemp Incorporated, Dayton, Ohio 882-883
Airtherm Manufacturing Co., 1474 S. Vandeventer, St. Louis, Mo 990
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 2028 Big Bend Blvd., St. Louis Mo 1155
Alfol Insulation Company/Incorporated, 155 East 44th St., New York, N, Y, 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Co., 415 Curtis Bldg., Detroit Mich 1021
American Air Filter Co., Inc., First St. and Central Ave., Louisville, Ky 926- -927
American Artisan (a pub,), 6 N. Michigan Ave.f Chicago, 111 1072
American Blower Corporation, Detroit, Mich . . .850^51
American Brass Company, The, Waterbury, Conn.. . . 1062-1083
American Coolair Corporation, 3004 Mayflower St., Jacksonville, Fla 978-979
American District Steam Company, North Tonawamla, N, Y. . 975 1052
American Gas Products Corp., 40 West 40th St., New York, N. Y 880 -953
American-Marsh Pumps, Inc., Battle Creek, Michigan - 1082
American Moistening Company, Providence, R. I . - 852
American Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St., New York, N. Y. . 884 -8cS5, 940 943, 1081
American Rolling Mill Co., The, Middletown, Ohio . ., . - 1098
American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, 37 West 39th St., New York, N. Y. ^ 1080
Anderson Products, Inc., Cambridge, Mass. ... - 1156 -1157
Anemostal Corp. of America, 10 Kast 39th St., New York City, N. Y 1088
Aquatic Chemical Laboratories, Inc., 118 East 28th St., New York, N. Y. . ^ 1161
Armstrong Cork Products Company, Lancaster, Pa.. - - 1024 1025
Armstrong Machine Works, 851 Maple St., Three Rivers, Mich. . 1102 1103
Auer Register Co., The, 3008 Payne Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 1089
Automatic Burner Corporation, 1823 Carroll Ave., Chicago, 111 984
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 1809-23 N. Kostner Ave., Chicago, 111 977
843
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
B
Page
Babcock & Wilcox Company, The, 85 Liberty St., New York, N. Y 954
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 75 Pitts St., Boston, Mass 976
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc., 1518 Evans St., Omaha, Nebr 854-855
Barber-Colman Company, Rockford, 111 1138-1139
Barber Gas Burner Company, The, 3704 Superior Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 887
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 129 Brookside Ave., Jamaica Plain, Boston, Mass 1106
Bayley Blower Company, 1817 South 66th St., Milwaukee, Wis 980
Beaton & Cadwell Mfg. Company, The, New Britain, Conn 1104-1105
Bell & Gossett Company, 3000 Wallace St., Chicago, 111 1006-1007
Bethlehem Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa 1099
Binks Manufacturing Co., 3114-3140 Carroll Ave., Chicago, 111 972-973
Branford Div. of Malleable Iron Fittings Co., Branford, Conn 966
Bristol Company, The, Waterbury, Conn 1012
Brownell Company, The, Dayton, Ohio 1130
Bryant Heater Company, The, 17825 St. Clair Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 888-889
Buffalo Forge Company, 450 Broadway, Buffalo, N. Y - 981
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 450 Broadway, Buffalo, N. Y 1083
Burnham Boiler Corporation, Irvington-on-Hudson, N. Y 944-945
Butler Manufacturing Co., 1282 Eastern Ave., Kansas City, Mo 1131
Carbondale Division, Worthington Pump & Machinery Corp., Harrison, N. J. ... 856-857
Carey, Philip Co., The, Lockland, Ohio 1028
Carnegie- Illinois Steel Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa 1100
Carrier Corporation, Syracuse, N. Y .... 853
Celotex Corporation, The, 919 N, Michigan Ave., Chicago, III 1029-1031
Century Electric Company, 1806 Pine St., St. Louis Mo 1057
Chamberlin Metal Weather Strip Co., 1254 Labrosse St., Detroit, Mich. 1032-1033
Champion Blower & Forge Co., Lancaster, Pa . 982
Chicago Metal Hose Corporation, Maywood, 111 1068
(formerly Chicago Tubing and Braiding Co.)
Chicago Pump Company, 2330 Wolfram St., Chicago, 111 .. 1084
Clarage Fan Company, Kalamazoo, Mich , 858
Cochrane Corporation, 3130 N. 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa ... 1107
Combustion Engineering Company, Inc., 400 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y. 1132
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock Co., Inc., Bridgeport, Conn . . 1013
Cooling Tower Co., Inc., The, 15 John St., New York, N. Y . . . . 971
Coppus Engineering Corporation, 339 Park Ave., Worcester, Mass 928
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., 155 East 44th St., New York City, N. Y 1026
Crane Co., 836 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111 940 -947
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Co., Division of Curtis Manufacturing Co.,
1959 Kienlen Ave., St. Louis, Mo 859
D
DeBothezat Division American Machine & Metals, Inc., MX) Sixth Ave., New York,
N. Y 9#3
Decatur Pump Co., Decatur, 111 . . . . .1085
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Division, General Motors Sales Corp., Dayton,
Ohio.. 890892
Detroit Lubricator Company, Detroit, Mich . H4() H41
844
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
Page
Detroit Stoker Company, General Motors Bldg., Detroit, Mich 1133
Dole Valve Company, The, 1901-1941 Carroll Ave., Chicago, 111 1158
Domestic Engineering (a pub.), 1900 Prairie Ave., Chicago, 111 1074H.075
C. A. Dunham Company, 450 E. Ohio St., Chicago, 111 1109-1109
E
Eagle-Picher Lead Company, The, Temple Bar Bldg., Cincinnati, Ohio 1036
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing Co., Valley Forge, Pa..— 1034-1035
Electrol Incorporated, 934 Main Ave., Clifton, N. J _ 898-899, 967
Fairbanks Morse £ Co., 600 So. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111 860
Farrar & Trefts Incorporated, Buffalo, N. Y 955
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 57 Tonawanda St., Buffalo, N. Y 991
Fitzgibbons Boiler Company, Inc., 101 Park Ave., New York, N. Y 956-957
Fox Furnace Co., The, Elyria, Ohio 893-897
Frick Company (Incorporated), Waynesboro, Pa 861
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., Baltimore, Md 1144
Fueloil Journal (a pub.), 420 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y - 1077
Fulton Sylphon Company, The, Knoxville, Tenn 1142-1143
G & O Manufacturing Company, The, 138 Winchester Ave., New Haven, Conn 999
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 7924 Riopelle St., Detroit, Mich 900-901
General Controls, 1368 Harrison St., San Francisco, Calif 1145
General Electric Company, Bloomfiekl, N. J 902-903
General Electric Company, Schenectacly, N. Y 1058-1059
General Insulating & Mfg. Company, Alexandria, Ind 1037
General Refrigeration Corp,, Beloit, Wis 864
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., Springfield, Mass 904-906
Grinnell Company, Inc., Providence, R. 1 1000-1002, 1110
H
William S. Haines & Company, 12th and Buttonwood Sts., Philadelphia, Pa 1111
Arthur Harris £ Co., 210-218 N. Aberdeen St., Chicago, III 1066
Hart £ Cooley Manufacturing Co., 61 W. Kinzie St., Chicago, 111 1090-1091
Heating Journals, Inc., 232 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y 1076
Heating £ Ventilating (a pub.), 140-148 Lafayette St., New York, N. Y 1078
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning (a pub.), 6 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, III. .. 1073
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co., 3471 East 49th St., Cleveland, Ohio 912-913
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., Waterbury, Conn 1112-1113
I
Ilg Electric Ventilating Company, 2880 N. Crawford Ave., Chicago, III 984
Illinois Engineering Company, Chicago, 111 1114-1115
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc., 422 N. LaSalle St., Chicago, 111 1014
845
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Page
Independent Air Filter Co., 228 No. LaSalle St., Chicago, 111 929
Independent Register Co., The, 3753 East 93rd St., Cleveland, Ohio 1094
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 11 Broadway, New York, N. Y.~~ 862-863
Insulite Company, The, Minneapolis, Minn - 103S-1039
Insul-Wool Insulation Corp., Wichita, Kansas 1040
International Exposition Co., Grand Central Palace, New York, N. Y. . . 1101
International Fibre Board Limited, Ottawa, Ont., Canada 1041
Iron Fireman Manufacturing Company, Portland, Oregon . 1134--1135
Jenkins Bros., 80 White St., New York, N. Y . 1159
Johns-Manville, 22 East 40th St., New York, N. Y ... 1042 1043
S. T. Johnson Co., 940-950 Arlington Ave., Oakland, Calif 908- 909
Johnson Service Company, Milwaukee, Wis . . . 1140 1147
Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation, Jones & Laughlin Blclg., Pittsburgh, Pa. . . 1070
K
E. Keeler Company, Williamsport, Pa 95S 959
Kelvinator Division of Nash-Kelvinator Corp., Detroit, Mich 907 911
Kewanee Boiler Corporation, Kewanee, 111 . . 9(50 901
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 34 West 13th St., New York, N. Y. . 1110
Kleen Meet, Inc., 1823 Carroll Ave., Chicago, 111 . 9(55
Lau Blower Company, The, 954-972 E. Monument Ave., Dayton, Ohio S79
Leeds & Northrup Company, 4941 Stenton Ave,, Philadelphia, Pa. 1015
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., Syracuse, N. Y. . . 9M 915
Liquido meter Corporation, The, 30-16 Skillman Ave,, Long Island City, N. Y. 1010
Lochinvar Corporation, 14247 Tireman, Dearborn, Mich 910
J. E. Lonergan Co., 207 Florist St., Philadelphia, Pa. 1 1 17
M
Marley Co., The, 1915 Walnut St., Kansas City, Mo. 974
Martocello, Jos. A. & Company, 229-231 North 13th St., Philadelphia, Pa. SOO
McCord Radiator and Manufacturing Co., 25S7 K. ( »rantl Blvd., Detroit, Midi. 992
McDonnell & Miller, Wrigley Blclg., Chicago, 111. 938 939
McQuay Incorporated, 1600 Broadway, N.K., Minneapolis, Minn. K05
Merchant & Evans Co., 2035 Washington Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. X07
Mercoid Corporation, The, 4201 Belmont Ave,, Chicago, 111 1150
Meyer Furnace Company, The, Pcoria, III. . <)17
Milwaukee Valve Co., Milwaukee, Wis. , 11 18 1 1 19
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Company, Minneapolis Minn. 1 14H 1149
Modine Manufacturing Co., 17th and Uolburn Sts., Racine, Wis. 993
Mueller Brass Co., Port Huron, Mich. 1004 1005
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 2009 W. Oklahoma Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. 91K 919
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc., 349-351 West 20th St., New York, N. Y. 1 120
Mundet Cork Corp., 450 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. 1027
840
INDEX TO ADVERTISERS
N
Page
Nash Engineering Company, The, South Norwalk, Conn 1086-1087
Herman Nelson Corp., The, Moline, 111 _ 1004-1005
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., Holmesburg, Philadelphia, Pa 1003
New York Air Valve Corporation, 611-621 Broadway, New York, N. Y 1160
Niagara Blower Company, 6 East 45th St., New York, N. Y 868
O
Oakite Products, Inc., 22 Thames St., New York, N. Y 1162
Ohio Electric Manufacturing Co., The, 5906 Maurice Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 1060
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, Toledo, Ohio 930
Pacific Lumber Company, The, 100 Bush St., San Francisco, Calif 1046
Palmer Company, The, 426 Clay St., Cincinnati (St. Bernard), Ohio 1017
Parks-Cramer Company, Fitchburg, Mass 869
Penn Electric Switch Co., Goshen, Ind 1151
Plumbing and Heating Trade Journal (a pub.), 515 Madison Ave., New York,
N. Y 1079
H. W. Porter & Co., 825 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J 1053
Powers Regulator Co., The, 2719 Greenview Ave., Chicago, 111 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corp., 33 West 60th St., New York, N. Y 970
R
Republic Steel Corporation, Cleveland, Ohio 1071
Research Corporation, 405 Lexington Ave., New York, N. Y . . . 870
Revere Copper and Brass Incorporated, 230 Park Ave., New York, N. Y 1067
Ric-wiL Company, The, Union Trust Building, Cleveland, Ohio . . . 1054
Ruberoid Co., The, 500 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y 10444045
S
Sarco Company, Inc., 183 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y 1122-1123
Schwitxer-Cumnrins Company, Indianapolis, Ind .... 880,1136
Servel, Inc., Evansvillc, Ind.. . 871
Sheet Metal Worker (a pub.), 45 West 45th St., New York, N. Y. . . 1081
H. J. Somers, Inc., 0003-09 Wabash Ave., Detroit, Mich . „ 931
Spence Engineering Co., 28 (Irani St., Walden, N. Y . 1154
Spencer Heater Division, Lycoming Mfg. Co., WilHamsport, Pa. . . 948-949
Standard Lime& Stone Company, The, First National Bank Bldg., Baltimore, Md. 1047
Staynew Filter Corporation, 6 Leighton Ave., Rochester, N. Y... . . 932 933
Sterling Engineering Company, 3740 N. Ilolton St., Milwaukee, Wis. . . . 1121
Streamline Pipe and Fittings Division, Mueller Brass Co., Port Huron, Mich. 1064 -1065
B. F. Sturtevant Co., Hyde Park, Boston, Mass 985
847
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Taco Heaters, Inc., 342 Madison Ave., New York City, N. Y 1008-1009
Taylor Instrument Companies, Rochester, N. Y 1018-1019
Thermal Units Manufacturing Company, Meriden, Conn 849
H. A. Thrush £ Co., Peru, Ind...,_ 1010-1011
Titeflex Metal Hose Co., 500 Frelinghuysen Ave., Newark, N. J 1069
Torrington Mfg. Co., The, 50 Franklin St., Torrington, Conn 986-987
Trane Company, The, 2021 Cameron Ave., LaCrosse, Wis 872-873
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., New Britain, Conn 1092-1093
U
Underground Steam Construction Co., 75 Pitts St., Boston, Mass 1055
Union Iron Works, Erie, Pa 902
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., The, Wausau, Wis " 994
United States Gauge Co., 44 Beaver St., New York, N. Y. L020
United States Gypsum Company, 300 W. Adams St., Chicago, 111 1048
United States Radiator Corporation, Detroit, Mich . 950-951
United States Register Co., Battle Creek, Mich 1096
Universal Air Filter Corp., 332 W. Michigan St., Duluth, Minn 934
Universal Cooler Corporation, Detroit, Mich.... 874
Utica Radiator Corporation, Utica, N. Y 920-921
V
Vilter Manufacturing Company, The, Milwaukee, Wis., 875
Vinco Company, Inc., The, 305 East 45th St., New York, N. Y. 936 937
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp., 642 So. Main St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa 1 137
W
Warren Webster & Company, Camden, N. J 1124-1 127
Waterfilm Boilers Incorporated, 154 Ogden Ave., Jersey City, N. J. 963
Waterloo Register Company, The, Waterloo, Iowa HHXi
Weil-McLain Company, 641 W. Lake St., Chicago, 111 " %•>
Western Felt Works, 4029-4U7 Ogden Ave., Chicago, 111. . ." 1049
Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., Mansfield, Ohio 876
Wickwire Spencer Steel Co., 41 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. 1097
Williams Oil-0-Matic Heating Corporation, Bloomington, 111. . 922 923
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 59 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. . 9SS 989
Worthington Pump & Machinery Corp., Harrison, N. J. Hf)0 857
Wright-Austin Co., 317 W. Wooclbriclgc St., Detroit, Mich. . .
Wyckoff, A. & Son Co., Elmira, N. Y*
Yarnall- Waring Co., Mermaid Lane, Philadelphia, Pa. , .
York Ice Machinery Corporation, York, Pa.
Young Radiator Company, Racine, Wis... '
Young Regulator Company, 4500 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio
Zonolite Company, The, 5905 Second Blvd., Detroit, Mich. 1050-1051
848
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE, 1938
AIR CLEANING EQUIPMENT
Air-Maze Corporation, 924-925
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Air Filter Co., Inc.,
926-927
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Binka Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Burnham Boiler, Corp,, 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp., 890-
892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co,, 956-957
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Co., 902-903, 1058-
1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-90C
Independent Air Filter Co., 929
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp,, 907-911
Martocello, Jos. A. & Co., 866
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Parks-Cramer Company, 869
Research Corporation, 870
H. J. Somers, Inc., 931
Staynew Filter Corp., 032-933
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Universal Air Filter Corp., 934
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
WcHtinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co., 876
AIR COMPRESSORS (See Com-
pressors, Air)
AIR CONDITIONING CON-
TROLS, (See Controllers and
Control Equipment, Humidity
Controls)
AIR CONDITIONING
GRILLES (6>c Grilles, Registers)
AIR CONDITIONING REG-
ISTERS (See Grilles, Renters)
AIR CONDITIONING UNITS
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtcrap Incorporated, 882-888
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Gas Products Corp,, 880,
««8
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-043, 10(51
Autovent Vim & Hlovwr Co., 077
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bryant Heater Co., 888-880
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Burnluim Boiler Corp., 944-045
Carbon dale Div,, Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 85(5-857
Carrier Corporation, «53
Clarage Kan Company, 858
Curtis Refrigerating Machine. Co.,
Div. Curtis Manufacturing Co.,
859
Pelco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp,, 890-
892
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 967
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 860
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., 956-957
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
General Electric Co., 902-903, 1058-
1059
General Refrigeration Corp., 864
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
91&913
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
S. T. Johnson Co., 968-969
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 960-961
Lau Blower Co., 879
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Lochinvar Corp., 916
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Niagara Blower Company, 868
Parks-Cramer Co., 869
Servel, Inc., 871
H. J. Somers, Inc., 031
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1136
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Weil-McLain Company, 952
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
Williams Oil-0-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 995
AIR COOLING AND DEHU-
MIDIFYING APPARATUS
Aerofm Corporation, 990-998
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 841)
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Gas Products Corp., 880,
953
American Moistening Co., 852
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bayley Blower Company, 080
Binka Manufacturing Co., 072-073
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Carbondale Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 85fl-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Clsirage Fan Company, 858
Crane Co., 04C-047
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Co.,
Div. of Curtis Mfg. Co., 850
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp., 800-
802
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Klcctrol Incorporated, 808-890, 067
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 901
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
General Electric Co., 902-903, 1058-
1059
General Refrigeration Corp., 864
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 862-863
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Niagara Blower Company, 868
Parks- Cramer Company, 869
Research Corporation, 870
Servel, Inc., 871
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 994
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
Williams Oil-0-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 995
AIR DIFFUSERS
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Anemostat Corp. of America, 1088
Auer Register Co., The, 1089
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Hart & Cooley Mfg. Co., 1090-1091
Independent Register Co,, 1094
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
Waterloo Register Co., 1096
AIR ELIMINATORS
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Armstrong Machine Works, 1102-
1103
Beaton & Cadwell Mfg. Co., The
1104-1105
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
C, A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Hoffman Specialty Co,, Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
New York Air Valve Corp., 1160
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterlirffe Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1125
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
AIR FILTERS (See Air Clewing
Equipment)
AIR MEASURING AND RE-
CORDING INSTRUMENTS
American Moistening Co., 852
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 954
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-973
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P, Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-10W2, 1110
Numerals following, Manufacturers1 Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1165
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 114(5-1147
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1149
Palmer Co-, 1017
Parks-Cramer Company, 869
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
AIR MOISTENING APPAR-
ATUS (See Humdifiers)
AIR PURIFYING APPARATUS
American Air Filter Company, Inc.,
920-027
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Co., 981
Burnham Boiler Corp., 94-1-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Coppus Engineering Corp,, 928
Delco-Frigidairc Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp.,
890-892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Independent Air Filter Co., 929
Niagara Blower Company, 8(58
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Staynew Filter Corp., 932-933
Universal Air Filter Corp., 934
Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co,f 870
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
AIR RECEIVERS (See Receivers,
Air)
AIR TUBING, Flexible Metal
(See Tubing, Flexible Metallic)
AIR VELOCITY METERS (See
Meters, Air Velocity)
AIR VELOCITY REGULATORS
Johnson Service Co., 1146-1147
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Young Regulator Company, 935
AIR WASHERS
Air-Maze Corp., 924-925
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Cooling Tower Co., Inc., 971
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Henry Furnace & Foundnr Co,,
912-913
Meyer Furnace Company. 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-910
Niagara Blower Company, 8t)8
Parks- Cramer Company, 809
B. F. Sturtevant Co,, 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
ALARMS, Water Level
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
McDonnell & Miller, 938-939
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
Prefened Utilities Corp., 070
Wright-Austin Company, 1128
Yarnull- Waring Company, 1120
ALGAE PREVENTION (See also
Slime Prwentiun)
Aquatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1101
Oakite Products, Inc., 11(52
AMMONIA COILS (Stt Coils,
Ammonia)
ANEMOMETERS
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
ASBESTOS PRODUCTS (Ste also
Insttlalion)
Carey, Philip, Co.. 1028
Ehrct Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 103-1-1035
Johns-Manvillo, 1042-1043
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Ruberoid Co.t The, KM4-1045
AUTOMATIC SHUTTERS (See
Shutters t Automatic)
AUTOMOBILE HEATER FANS
Torrington Mfg. Co,, The, 986-987
BENDS, Pipe
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Crane Co., 940-9-17
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthus Harris & Co,, l(M(i
Vilter Manufacturing Co., The, 87f)
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
BENDS, Return (See Pipe, Return
Bends)
BLOCKS, Asbestos
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 1030
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
BLOWERS, Fan (See Fan, Supply
and Exhaust)
BLOWERS, Forced Draft
American Blower Corp., 850-801
American Coolair Corp., 078-1)70
Autovent Fim & Blower Co., 077
Bayley Blower Company, OHO
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 082
Oarage Fan Company, 8/>8
Coppus Engineering Corp., 028
Curtis RcfriKcnitinK Machine Co,,
Div. of Curtis Manufacturing
Co., 850
DeBotheznt Division American
Machine £ Metals, Inc., 08,H
Fox Furnace Co., 803-85)7
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co,.
012-011*
Lau Hlower Co., 870
Schwitzor-Cummins Co., 880, 1180
Serve! , Inc., 871
B. F. Sturtavant Co., 085
Utica Radiator Corp., 020-021
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 088-089
BLOWERS, Heating and Venti-
lating
Air Controls, Inc., 878
American Blower Corp., 8">0-8f>l
American Coolair Corp., 978-1)79
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 077
Bayley Blower Company, 080
Buffalo Forge Co., 081
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 1)82
Clarage Fan Company, S58
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
DcHothezat Division American
Machine & Metals, Inc., 983
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.
0112-01H
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 084
Lau Blower Co., 870
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
McQuay, Incorporated, 80,r>
Meyer Furnu.ec Company, The, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-019
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 113G
B. V. Sturtevant Co., 085
Trane Company, The, 872-87,'i
Williams Oil-O-Mutie Heating Cor-
poration, 1)22-9:28
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 1)88-080
BLOWER MOTORS (See Motors
BLOWERS, Pressure
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 078-070
Autovent Fun £ Blower Co., 077
Bayley Blower Company, OHO
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 1)82
Clanitfc Fan Company, K5K
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co..
1UJMH8
Klectric Ventilating Co,, 084
cfHoIl-Kaml Co., Xttt-MUi
Lau Hlower Co., 870
Martoeello, Joy. A. & Co., Ml Hi
Schwitm-C'iimmin.s Co., SKO, HM
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 085
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co,, 1)88-081)
BLOWERS, Turbine
Coppus Kngineerlng Corp., 9i»8
General Klec.lric Co., OOLMKKi, 1058-
10f>9
B* F. Sturtevant Co., 98f>
L. J. Wing Mfg., Co., OXH-080
BLOWERS, Warm Air Furnace
Air Control^, Inc., 857
American Blower Corp., HoO-851
American Cooluir Corp,, 078-070
Autovent Fan & Blower Co,, 077
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Champion Hlowpr & Korw Co., 082
Clara^e- Fan Company, 858
DeBothei/wit Division American
Machine fc MclalH, Inc., OH.'t
Fax Furnace Co., The, K08-M7
General IClwtrie Co., OOlMKW,
1058-1050
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 90-1-9(K>
Henry Furnace & Foundry Com-
pany, M&UIU
I-au Blower Co., 870
Lennox Furnace Co,, Inc., OM-015
Meyer Furnace Company, 017
I,, J. Mueller FurnsuMf Co., 018-010
Herman Ni'luon Corp,, 1004-1005
Hrhwitxcr-CumminH Co., 880, 11,%
Traiie Company, The, 87iJ-87»
L. J. Wing Mt«. Co., 088-080
BOILER-BURNER
Airtemp Incorporated, HH2-HK8
Hiirnhnm Boiler Corp. Ut-1-045
Carrier (Corporation, 853
Crane Co., OWI47
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advertise™
1165
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corp., 890-892
Electrol, Inc., 898-899, 967
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Co., 902-903,
1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
S, T. Johnson Co., 968-969
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
BOILER COMPOUNDS (See
Compounds, Boiler)
BOILER COVERING (See Cover-
ing, Pipes and Surfaces)
BOILER FEED PUMPS (See
Pumps, Boiler Feed)
BOILER FEEDERS (See Feeders.
Boiler)
BOILER TUBES (See Tubes,
Boiler)
BOILER WATER TREATMENT
Aquatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1161
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Vinco Company, Inc., 93(5-937
BOILERS, Cast-Iron
American Gas Products Corp.,
886, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 10(51
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co., 94(5-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-90(5
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Spencer Heater Division, 048-949
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Weil-McLain Company. 9f>2
BOILERS, Down Draft
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Brownell Company, 1130
Crane Co., 940-047
Farrar £ Trefta, Incorporated, 955
Fitzglbbona Boiler Co., 950-957
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
9112-913
E. Kccler Company, 958-959
Kewanee Boiler Corp,, 900-9(51
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 050-951
BOILERS, Gas Burning
Airtcmp Inc,, 8H2-883
American Gas Products Corp., 880,
953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Brownell Company, 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidairc Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, Hf 10-892
Farrar £ Trefts, Inc., 055
Fitzgibbona Boiler Co,, 950-957
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
E. Keeler Company, 958-959
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 960-961
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Union Iron Works, 962
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Waterfilm Boilers, Inc., 963
BOILERS, Heating
American Gas Products Corp., 886,
953
American Radiator Company, 881-
855, 940-943, 1061
Brownell Company, 1130
Bryant Heater Co., 888-889
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 967
Farrar & Trefts, Incorporated, 955
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., 956-957
Gar Wood Industries, 900-901
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 105S-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
E. Keeler Company, 958-959
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 900-961
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Union Iron Works, 962
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Waterfilm Boilers, Inc., 963
Weil-McLain. Company, 952
BOILERS, Magazine Feed
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Weil-McLain Company, 952
BOILERS, Oil Burning
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 10(51
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 054
Branford Div., Malleable Iron
Fittings Co., 00(1
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 1)44-945
Crane Co., 5)4(5-047
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-802
Electrol Incorporated, 808-809, 907
Furrar £ Trcftn, Incorporated, 955
Fitssgibbone Boiler Co., 050-957
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 000-001
General Electric Company, 002-
908, 1058-1050
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
S. T. Johnson Co., 908-9(50
E. Keeler Company, 958-059
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-011
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 060-001
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Spencer Heater Division, 048-049
Union Iron Works, 9(52
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-021
Waterfilm Boilers, Inc., 9(53
Weil-McLain Company, 952
BOILERS, Steel
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 954
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Burnham. Boiler Corp., 944-945
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 967
Farrar & Trefts, Incorporated, 955
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., 956-957
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
Gar Wood Industries, 900-901
S. T. Johnson Co., 968-969
E. Keeler Company, 958-959
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 960-961
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Union Iron Works, 962
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Waterfilm Boilers, Inc., 963
BOILERS, Water Tube
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 954
Brownell Co., 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., 956-957 J
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
E, Keeler Company, 958-959
Spencer Heater Division, 948-049
Union Iron Works, 962
BREECHINGS AND
CHIMNEYS
Farrar & Trefts, Incorporated, 955
E. Keeler Company, 058-959
Union Iron Works, 962
Young Regulator Company, 935
BURNERS, Automatic (Sec also
Coal Burners, Stokers)
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
Automatic Burner Corp., 9(54
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-802
Detroit Stoker Company, 1133
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 967
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-006
Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 1134-1135
S. T. Johnson Co., 068-060
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kclvinator Corp., 907-011
Kleen-Heet, Inc., 965
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
vSchwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 022-923
BURNERS, Coal (See Coal
Burners)
BURNERS, Gas (See Gas"* Burners)
BURNERS, Oil (Set OUlBurners)
CALKING, Building
Chambcrlin Metal Weather Strip
Co., 1032-1033
CEMENT, Asbestos
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Eagle- Picher I, cad Co., 1030
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Jolms-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
CEMENT, Refractory (.b'«r Re-
fractories)
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1167
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CEMENT, Rock Wool
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 1036
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
1037
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
CHAIN PULLEYS (See Pulleys,
Chain)
CIRCULATORS, Hot Water
Heating
Bell and Gossett Co., 1006-1007
General Electric Co., 902-903,
1058-1059
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taco Heaters Inc., 1008-1009
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
CLEANERS, Air (See Air Cleaning
Equipment)
COAL BURNERS, Automatic,
Anthracite
Babcock & Wilcox Company, 954
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Crane Company, 946-947
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.
General Motors Sales Corp.,
890-892
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 860
Fox Furnace Company, 893-807
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
912-913
Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 1134-1135
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp.,
1137
COAL BURNERS, Automatic,
Bituminous
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 954
Brownell Company, 1130
Crane Company, 940-947
Combustion Engineering Co., Inc.,
1132
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.
General Motor Sales Corp.,
890-892
Detroit Stoker Company, 1188
Fairbanks, Morse £ Co., SCO
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
912-913
Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 1134-1135
Kelvinator Div. of Nash-Kclvina-
tor Corp., 907-911
Meyer Furnace Comptxny, 017
Herman Nelson Corp., KXM-1005
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
COILS, Aluminum
Aerofin Corporation, 990-998
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc., 854-
855
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corp., 890-892
Arthur Harris £ Co., 1000
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Niagara Blower Company, 808
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 1)04
Young Radiator Company, 995
COILS, Ammonia
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Carbondale Division Wortlrinjjton
Pump and Machinery Corp.,
856-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Crane Co., 940-947
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
G & 0 Manufacturing Co., 5)99
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Vilter Manufacturing Co,, 875
Yarnall-Waring Co,, 1129
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
Young Radiator Company, 095
COILS, Brass
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 070
Carrier Corporation, 85H
Crane Co., 9-10-947
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthur Harris & Co., 1000
B. F. Sturte.vant Co., J>85
COILS, Pipe, Copper
Aerofin Corporation, 9IW-09S
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
American Radiator Company, K84-
885, 940-943, 1001
E. 14, Badger £ Sons Co., 070
Baker Ice Machine* Co., Inc., 854-
855
Bell and Goaaett Co., 1000-1007
Carrier Corporation, 853
Crane Co., 910-947
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Div, of Curtis Manufact-
uring Co., 859
Fairbanks Morae & Co., HttO
Pedclcrn Manufacturing Co., W>1
Frick Company (Incorporated) ,801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 10(XM002, 1110
Arthur Harris £ Co., 1000
Kelvinator Division ol Nush-
Kelvinntor Corp., 907-1)11
Kewane.e Holler Corp., WHMWl
McQuay, Incorporated, HbT>
Mueller Drum Co., 1001-1005
Niagara Blower Company, HOH
Revere Copper and ttnum Incor-
porated, 1007
Sorvcl, Inc., S71
Streamline" Pipe and Kittin«« Co.,
1004-100r>
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
YOUIIK Radiator Company, '.MWi
COILS, Pipe, Iron
K. 14. Badger £ Sons Co., 070
Hayley Blower Company, OHO
Oarage Kan Company, 8,r>8
Crane Co., 040-047
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Frick Company (Incorporated), SOI
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Vilter Manufacturinft Co., 875
York Ice Machinery Corp., K77
COILS, Tank
American District Steam Co,, 075,
l()f>2
American Radiator Company, KHl-
8N5, IMO-N43, 1001
K. B. Hacltfer £ Sorw Co,, 070
Baker Ice Machine Co., Kfi4-«r»r>
Bell and Gom'tt Co., MKHMM7
Clara«<* Kan Company, H5H
Crane Co,, 040-047
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Arthur Harris & Co., 1006
Kcwanee Boiler Corp., 000-001
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Taco Heaters Inc., 1008-1000
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 004
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
York Ico Machinery Corp., 877
COLUMNS, Water
Brownell Company, 1130
Crane Company, 040-047
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-11-11
Kieley £ Mueller, Inc., 1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
Wright- Austin Company, 1128
Yarnall-WarinK Company, 112<)
COMPOUNDS, Asphalt, for
Conduits
Rie-wil, Company, The, 1054
Ruberoid Co,, 1044-1045
COMPOUNDS, Boiler
Auuatie Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1KU
Gilbert it Barker Mfo, Co., 004-000
Vinco Company, Inc., The, M(MKJ7
COMPOUNDS, Boiler and Radi-
ator Seal i nil
Dole Vulve Company, The, 1188
Viruro Comiany, Inc., The, MO-OH7
COMPOUNDS, Cleaning
Atttiatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., IKS!
Dole Valve Company, The, 1188
Oakite Product *, Inc., IltW
Preferred Clilitiew Corp.. t»70
Vinco Co., Inc., SMMW7
COMPRKSSOKS, Air
Amt'ricun Marwh Ptnujw Inc., 10H2
Bukt-r hv Machine Co., H54-«,V>
Hinkw Manufacturing Co., UTlMWt
CurttK Re,t'riKeratin« Muchim; C.o.
Div. of C'urtis Manui'ncturinj?
Kl«'ctri«' Company, 002-
, <)r»x.io;>i)
(illbert it Marker Mf«. Co.,
oll-KitiKl Company,
Kn«ineerin« Co., lOHrt-1087
inKton Pump iind Machinery
Co.,
COMPRESSOR MOTORS (See
COMPRESSORS, RtfrfftcraUon
Air De,vi<'e« Corporati<m, Thermal
Units Div., «m
Airtemp Iiwnrpii rated, HH2-HHH
HaktT Ic« Machine Co., sr^-K,")
Carborulale Div. \Vc»tthinKton
Pump vSf Machinery C«»., xr>(^H."7
Currier Corporation, H."»H
(,'urti« RefrineuttlnK Machine Co.,
Div. Curtis Munirfacturinic Co,,
H.'it
D(flfo-FriKi<lsi{r<* CoiulittoniiiK Di-
viMion, (iener.U Motors Sales
Cf>rporation, KUO-8fKi
Fairl>ank« Moiw* «f Co., HOO
Kriiik Cftmpunv Un<:orporute<l), SOI
I«ox KunuK'e Co., Ki>,H-H07
(General Kctriwration Corp., HH4
Klectric Company, 1KRS-
Inw«irtM<amt Company, KO'J-KOrt
Kelvinator Division of Nanh-
Kelvinutor <'orp., JK)7-iHl
Mcnrduint & KvanH Co., H07
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advwtlam
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Servel, Inc., 871
Universal Cooler Corp., 874
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
COMPRESSOR TUBING, Flex-
ible (SeeTubing, Flexible Metallic)
CONDENSERS
Aerofin Corporation, 990-098
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Unit Div., 849
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854^855
Carbondale Div. Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Co.,
Div. Curtis Manufacturing Co.,
859
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company ( Incorporated}, 801
G & O Manufacturing Co., 999
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 802-8(53
Kelvinator Div. of Nash-Kclvina-
tor Corp., 007-911
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Servel , Inc., 871
B. F. Sturtcvant Co., 985
Trane Company, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Universal Cooler Corp- 874
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
Westinghouvsc Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
Young Radiator Company, 995
CONDUIT, Flexible Metallic
Chicago Metal Hose Corp., 1008
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
Titcflex Metal Hose Co., 1009
Trane Company, 872-873
CONDUITS, Underground
Fittings
American Brass Co., 10(52-1003
American District Steam Company,
975, 1052
E. It. Badger it Sons Co., 970
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Underground Steam Construction
Co., 1055
Zonolite Co., 1050-1051
CONDUITS, Underground Pipe
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
American District Steam Company,
975, 1052
1C. B. Badger & Sons Co., 070
Khrct Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Frick Company (Incorporated), HOI
Johns-Munville, 10-12-1043
Jones £ Uughlin Steel Corp., 1070
H . W. Porter £ Co., 1053
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Underground Steam Construction
Co., 1055
Wyckoff & Sons Co., 1050
Zonolite Company, The, 1050-1051
CONTROL, Air Volume Damper
Auer Register Co., The, 1089
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Hart £ Cooley Mfg. Co., 1090-1091
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Independent Register Co., 1094
Minneapolis-Honeywell 'Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
Waterloo Register Co., 1090
Young Regulator Company, 935
CONTROL EQUIPMENT,
Combustion
Barber Gas Burner Co., 887
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Bryant Heater Co., 888-889
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-900
Leeds £ Northrup Co., 1015
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp.,
1137
Westinghouse Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
CONTROLLERS AND CON-
TROL EQUIPMENT (See also
Humidity and Temper attire Con-
trol)
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Barber Gas Burner Co., 887
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Bryant Heater Co., 888-889
Carrier Corporation, 853
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Julicn P. Frie;i £ Sona, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-90(5
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Leeds £ Northrup Co., 1015
M i n net ipolis- 1 1 oney well Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Pcnn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
II. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Warren Webster £ Co., 1124-1127
WestinghouHC Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
CONVECTION HEATERS
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Crane Co., 946-947
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., 1003
Revere Copper and Brass Incor-
porated, 1067
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Warren Webster £ Co., 1124-1127
Weil-McLain Company, 952
Young Radiator Co., 995
COOLING EQUIPMENT, Air
Aerofin Corporation, 996-998
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc., 854-
855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Carbondale Div. Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Champion Blower £ Forge Co., 983
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Div. of Curtis Manu-
facturing Co., 859
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Electrol, Incorporated, 808-899, 907
Fairbanks Morse £ Co., 800
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.f
912-013
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kclvinator Corp., 007-911
Lau Blower Co., 879
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Meyer Furnace Co., 917
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Niagara Blower Company, 808
Research Corporation, 870
Servel, Inc., 871
B. F. Sturtevant Co., i)8f>
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
Westinghouse Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., S70
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 1)22-023
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
York Ice Machinery Corp., K77
Young Radiator Company, 995
COOLING EQUIPMENT, Oil
Aerofin Corporation, 990-99H
Carbondule. Uiv. Worthington
Pump £ Machinery Co., 85(1-857
Frick Company (Incorporated), 8fil
G & O Manufacturing Co., 999
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1169
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Niagara Blower Company, 80S
Servel, Inc., 871
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
Universal Cooler Corp., 874
Williams Oil-O~Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 995
COOLING EQUIPMENT, Water
(See also Water Cooling)
Aerofin Corporation, 996-998
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Carbondale Div. Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Cooling Tower Co., Inc., 971
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
Ingereoll-Rand Company, 802-803
Marley Co., The, 974
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Niagara Blower Company, 808
Research Corporation, 870
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 904
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
WeBtinguouBC Rlec. & Mfg. Co., 870
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1120
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 005
COOLING TOWERS, Mechan-
ical Draft, Forced Draft,
Induced Draft (See also Cooling
Equipment, Water)
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-R55
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-073
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Cooling Tower Company, 071
Marley Company, 074
Research Company, 870
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 094
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
CORROSION, Treatment of
Aquatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1101
Oakite Products, Inc., 1102
Vinco Company, Inc., 930-037
COVERING, Pipe
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-
1023
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., 1020
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 103(5
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Grinnell Co,, Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
H. W. Porter & Co., 1051
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
Wyckoff & Sons Co., 1056
Zonolite Company, The, 1050-1051
COVERING, Surfaces
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-
1023
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., 102G
Eagle-Picher Lead Company, 1036
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co
1037
Insul-Wool Insulation Corp., 1040
International Fibre Hoard Ltd.,
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 030
Pacific Lumber Co., The, 104(1
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-10.tr>
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
Western Kelt Works, 1040
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
Zonolite Company, The, 1050-1051
DAMPER REGULATORS,
Boiler (See also Regulators)
American Radiator Company. 884-
885, 040-943, 10(51
Barber-Colman, Co., 1138-1130
Barnes & Jones, Inc., 1100
Consolidated Asheroft lUmcook
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., UOK-UOi)
Pulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Control, 1145
Gilbert it Barker Mfg. Co., 004-000
Hart & Cooloy Manufacturing Co.,
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co
912-013
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois ICnginccriiiK C,o,, 1114-111.'>
Johnson Service Co., 114IM147
Kioleyte Mueller, Inc., 11 10
Leeds & Nprthruj) Co., 1015
Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp., 070
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Speucc* KiiKineering Co., \\$\
T"&imirmnmit Cora"'1*'''
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Wobnter & Co., Ili>4-ll27
Wcstinghouse, Kleetrie & Manu-
facturing Co., 87(1
Young Regulator Co., 035
DAMPER REGULATORS
Furnace
Barber-Colman Co., 113S-1130
Consolidated Anheroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co,, 1140-1141
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 001-00(1
Hart& Coolcy Manufacturing Co,,
1000-1001
Henry I'urnacc & Foundry Co,,
012-013
Kieley & MuelU;r, Inc., 11 Ki
Leeds & Northrup Co., 101,")
Minneapolis Honey well Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp,, 970
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spcnce Engineering Co., 115 1
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1002-1093
Young Regulator Co., 035
DAMPERS, Air Volume Control
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Auer RegiRter Co., The, 1080
Barbcr-C.olman Co., 1138-1130
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 082
Hart & Coolcy Manufacturing
Co., 1000-1001
Independent Register Co., 1004
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1002-1003
Waterloo Register Co., 10%
Young Regulator Company, 035
DAMPERS, Flue
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-013
Preferred Utilities Corp., 070
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1002-1003
Young Regulator Company, 035
DAMPERS, Mechanical
Air Controls, Inc., S78
Buffalo Forgci Company, 081
Carrier Corpoiatioii, 853
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Hart £ Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1000-1001
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-013
Johnson Service Co., 11-HM147
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp., 070
Young Regulator Company, 03.")
DEIIUMIDIPIER8
Aii temp Inc., 8S2-SS3
American Blower Corp., 8.">0-S">1
Carrier Corporation, 853
Grinncll Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Purlin-Cramer Co., KM)
Research Corporation, 8/0
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
DIPFUSERS, Air (,SVi» ,1/r Dif-
f users t unit \'ctjti(titorst Flour tind
Walt)
DISTRICT HBATINO (A'w alu,
Corrosion Treatment, ttf Kxtwn*
sinn Joints-'-'lnsulatMn, Under-
ground-- Meters, Vif>e\
American District Steam Co.,
075, 1052
DOOR BOTTOM SEALS
Chamberlin Metal WVuther Strip
Co,, 1032-1033
DRAFT APPARATUS {.V«? W<M-
ers, If weed Draft)
DRYING EQUIPMENT
Air Device (Corporation, Thermal
UnitH Div., 810
American UJower Corp., 8r>()-8."»I
American Cooluir Corp., 078-070
American Radiator Company, 88 1-
885, 040-0-13, 1()(>1
Autovttnt l*'an K: Blower (,'o., 1)77
Buffalo Forge, (Company, 081
Carrier Corporation, 853
Champion Blower A Forge (In., 082
Clarugr; Kan Company, 8.r>8
I)el«)-KriKiclttir« (S)iuHtioning Di-
vi«ion, (ittncnil Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-802
G & O Manufacturing Co., The, 000
McUuuy, Incorporated, 8(J.*>
B. !«'. Sturt<ivant Co., 085
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advertisers
1170
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
DUST COLLECTING EQUIP-
MENT
American Air Filter Co., 920-927
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Research Corporation, 870
Stay new Filter Corp., 932-933
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 994
Universal Air Filter Corp., 934
Westinghouse Elcc. & Mfg. Co., 870
DUST COLLECTORS, Cloth
Type
Alfol Insulation Co,, 1022-10123
American Air Filter Co., 92(5-927
American Hlower Corp., 850-851
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Stay new Filter Corp., 932-933
Independent Air Filter Co,, 929
I Jnivcrsul Air Filter Corp., 934
EVAPORATORS
Aerofm Corporation, 990-998
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div,, 849
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc., 854-
855
Buffalo Forge Co,, 981
Curb on dale Div. Worthington
Pump & Machinery Corp,,
85(1-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Curt id Refrigerating Machine Co.,
Div. Curtis Manufacturing Co.,
859
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Fcddcrs Manufacturing Co., 991
Prick Company (Incorporated), 801
General Electric Company, 902-
tKtt, 1058-1059
tCelvinatnr Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
McQuay, Incorporated, 8(15
Servul, Inc., 871
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater it Cooler Co., 994
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
WeBtinghouae, Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 87<J
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 995
EXHAUST HEADS (See Heads,
Jtxkausi)
EXHAUST TUBING, Flexible
l,SV« Tubing, Flexible Metallic)
EXPANSION JOINTS
American District Steam Co., 975,
1052
K, It. Badger & Sons Co.. 970
Baker Ice Machine To., K54-855
Carrier Corporation, 853
Chicago Metal HOBO Corp., 1008
Crane Co., 940-947
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthur HarriB & Co., 1000
Illinois Engineering Co,, 11M-1115
Mueller BraHH Co., 1004-1005
Kic-wiL (Company, 1054
Titcllex Metal Hoae Co., 1009
Underground Steam Construction
Co., 1055
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1129
EXPOSITIONS
International Exposition Co., 1101
FAN BLADES
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Servcl, Inc., 871
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
Torrington Mfg., Co., 980-987
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FANS, Centrifugal
Air Controls, Inc., 878
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovcnt Fan & Blower Co., 977
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Carrier Corporation, 853
Champion Blower £ Forgo Co., 982
Claragc Fan Company, 858
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Fox Furnace Ca, The, 893-897
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
llg Klectric Ventilating Co., 984
Lau Blower Co., 879
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Meyer Furnace Company, The, 917
Niagara, Blower Company, 808
Sen wither- Cummins Co., 880, 1136
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Torrington Mfg. Co., 980-987
Trane Company, The, 872-873
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 1)88-989
FANS, Electric
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Binka Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
General Klectric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Jig Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Torrington Mfg. Co., 1)80-987
Westinghouae Klectric & Manu-
facturing Co., 8711
L.J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FANS, Furnace
Air Controls. Inc., 878
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Autovent Fan £ Blower Co,, 977
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Copputi Engineering Corp., 928
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
912-913
llg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Lau Blower Co., 879
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Meyer Furnace Company, The, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Schwitaer-Cummina Co., 880, 1130
Torrington Mfg. Co., 986-987
Trane Company, The, 872-873
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FAN MOTORS (See Motors, Ele-
tric}
FANS, Portable
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
llg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Torrington Mfg. Co., 98(i-987
Westinghouae Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FANS, Propeller
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Air Devices Corporation, Therma
Units Div., 849
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
De Bothezat Division American
Machine & Metals, Inc., 983
General Electric Company, 902-
003, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
llg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Marlcy Co., The, 972
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 113(5
Serve!, Inc., 871
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 980
Torrington Mfg. Co., 9HO-9K7
Trane Company, The, S72-873
Weatin«hou«e Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FANS, Supply and Exhaust
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 840
American Blower Corp., S50-851
American Coolair Corp,, 978-979
Autovent Fan & Hlower Co., 977
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Binks Manufacturing Co., 1172-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Clarage Kan Company, 858
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
De Bothexat Division American
Machine & Metals, Inc., 983
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Kales
Corporation, 890-892
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-913
llg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Lau Blower Co., 879
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
L. J, Mueller Furnace Co., 018-019
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1171
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
John J, Nesbitt, Inc., 1003
Niagara Blower Company, 868
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1136
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Torrington Mfg. Co., 986-987
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
FEED WATER HEATERS (See
Heaters, Feed Water)
FEED WATER REGULATORS
(See Regulators, Feed Water*)
FEEDERS, Boiler
Crane Co., 946-947
General Controls, 1145
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
McDonnell & Miller, 938-930
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
Wright>Austin Co., 1128
FEEDERS, Water
Decatur Pump Co., 1085
General Controls, 1145
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
McDonnell & Miller, 938-039
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
FELT, Sound Deadening
Carey, Philip Co., 1028
Ehret Magnesia Mfg. Co., 1034-
1035
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Company, 1044-1045
Western Felt Works, 1049
FELT, Insulating (See Insulation,
Felt)
FILTERS, Air (See Air Cleaning
Equipment1)
FITTINGS, Pipe, Flanged
American Rolling Mill Co., 10<J8
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Branford Div. Malleable Iron
Fittings Co., 900
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Crane Co., 946-947
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002,1110
Arthur Harris & Co., 1000
Mueller Brass Co., 1064-1005
United States Register Co., 1005
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
FITTINGS, Pipe, Screwed
American Radiator Co., 884-885,
940-943, 1001
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Branford Div. Malleable Iron
Fittings Co., 966
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Crane Co., 946-947
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1009
United States Register Co., 1095
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
FITTINGS, Pipe, Solder
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
Crane Co., 940-047
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Revere Copper & Brass Inc., 10U7
FURNACES, Electric
General Electric Company, 902-
003, 1058-10r>l>
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
FITTINGS, Pipe, Sweat
American Brass Co., 1062-1003
American Radiator Co., 884-885,
940-943, 1061
Crane Co., 946-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1065 Bryant Heater Co., S88-S80
Revere Copper & Brass Inc., 1067 ^arricr Corporation, 853
Streamline Pipe and Fittings Co., - •• •
1064-1065
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1000
FURNACES, Warm Air
Acme Heating & Ventilating Co.,
881
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
Airtherm Manufacturing Co., 000
American Gas Products Corp.,
FITTINGS, Welding
American Rolling Mill Co., 1008
Crane Co., 946-1)47
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
FLOATS, Metal (See Trap and
Valve)
Arthur Harris & Co., 1006
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
FLOOR AND CEILING PLATES
American Radiator Co.," 881-885,
940-943, 1061
Beaton & Oadwell Mfg. Company,
1104-1105
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, SOO-802
Electrol Incorporated, 808-800, 9*57
Fox Furnuce Co., The, 803-807
Gar Wood Industries, 000-001
General Electric Co., 002-003,
1058-1050
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 004-006
Henry Furnace K' Foundry Co.,
012-013
S. T. Johnson Co., 0(iH-060
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 014-015
Meyer Furnace Co., The, 017
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 018-010
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
:.? 1000-1002, 1110
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-1KW
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator
Company, 1148-1140
FORCED DRAFT COOLING
TOWERS (See also Caolini* T<w-
erst Induced Draft, Meckanica
Draft}
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-K55
Binks Manufacturing Co,, 072-073
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Cooling Tower Company, 071
Marlcy Company, 074
Research Company, 870
Unit Heater & Cooler Co,, 004
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
FURNACE-BURNER
Automatic Burner Corp., 004
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-802
Electrol Incorporated, 808-800, 01)7
Fox Furnace Co., The, 803-807
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 000-001
General Electric Co., 002-003,
1058-1050
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 004-000
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
912-913
Kleen-Heet, Inc., 065
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 014-015
Meyer Furnace Company, 017
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 018-010
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corn,,
1137
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-023
FURNACE REGULATORS (See
Regulators, Furnace)
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 050-051
WeHtinghoutu* Kiev, & Mt'g. Co,,
GAGE BOARDS
Baker Ice, Machine Co., 854-855
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Atthcroft Hancock
Co,, Inc., 1013
Frick Company (Incorporated), 8(51
J. K. Lonergan Co., 1117
Minneapolis Honey well Regulator
Company, 1148-1140
Spence Kngineering Co., 115-1
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
United State* Gauge, Co., 1020
GAGE GLASSES
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 040-043, 10W
Beaton & Cudwe.ll Mfg. Co., The
1104-1105
Crane Co., 04(5-047
Jenkins Bro«., 1150
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1120
GAGES, Altitude
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 040-043, K)fU
Bell and Gonsett Company, 100*5-
1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 0404M7
Julien P. Fries £ Son*. Inc., 1M4
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., U(M-tM)0
J. K. Lonergan Co., 1117
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
New York Air Valve Corp,, 1100
Taylor InKtrument Companion,
1018-1010
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
United Stilt™ Crau«<i Co., 1020
CAGES, Ammonia
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-«f>5
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Anhcroft Hancock
Co,, Inc., 1013
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advertiser*
1172
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Crane Company, 940-047
J. E. Lonergan Co., 1117
Martocello, Jos. A. & Co., 806
Mcrcoid Corporation, 1150
United States Gauge Co., 1020
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 87,r>
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
GAGES, Compound
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Dole Valve Company, 1158
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spencc Engineering Co., 1154
United States Gauge Co., 1020
Warren Webster & Co,, 1124-1125
GAGES, Hot Water
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 1)40-943, 1001
Bell and Gossett Co., 1000-1007
Bristol Company, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Julien P. Fries & Sons, Inc., 1144
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneap< »li«- Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1140
New York Air Valve Corp., 1100
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1011)
H, A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
United States Gauge Co., 1020
GAGES, Liquid Level
Litiuidoincter Corp., 1010
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
GAGES, Pressure
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 040-048, 10(51
Anctomon Products, Inc., 1150-1157
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc., 854-
H5,r>
Bell £ GoH8(*tt Co., IOOD-1007
liinkM Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Brintol Company, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 94tM>47
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 004-9(10
J. K, Lonergun Co., 1117
Mttrcoid (Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1140
New York Air Vtilvo Corp., 1100
Spcnoe [engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Tnylor Instrument Companies
1018-1011)
II. A, Thrutth & Co., 1010-1011
Tmne Company, The, 872-H7,'i
United Stutt'8 Gauge Co., 1020
GAGES, Steam
American Radiator Company, HH4-
885, 940-049, 1001
Andcwon ProductB Inc., 1150-1157
Bristol Company, 1012
(Consolidated Atmcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 940-047
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
J. E. Lonergan Co., 1117
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1149
New York Air Valve Corp., 1160
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
United States Gauge Co., 1020
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1125
GAGES, Tank
Bristol Company, 1012
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Frick Company, 861
Julien P. Friez £ Sons, 1144
Liquidometer Corp., 1016
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
GAGES, Vacuum
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Anderson Products, Inc., 1150-1157
Bristol Company, 1012
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 940-947
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Gilbert £ Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
J. 1C. Lonergan Co., 1117
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1149
New York Air Valve Corp., 1160
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
Trane Company, 872-873
United States Gauge Co., 1020
Warren Webster £ Co,, 1124-1125
GAGES, Vapor
American Radiator Company, 884-
«8H, 940-943, 1001
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
C. A, Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-11-19
New York Air Valve Corp., 1100
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
United States Gauge Co., 1020
Wurren Webster £ Co., 1124-1125
GAGES, Water
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binka Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Bristol Company, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 946-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fricfc Company (Incorporated), 861
Julien P. Friez £ Sons, Inc., 1144
Gilbert £ Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
J. K. Lonergan £ Co., 1117
Mercoid Corporation, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Company, 1148-1149
New York Air Valve Corp., 1160
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
Yarnall- Waring Co., 1129
GAS BURNERS
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
American Gas Products Corp., 886,
953
Babcock & Wilcox Co., 954
Barber Gas Burner Co., 887
Bryant Heater Co., 888-889
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Crane C9-, 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Fox Furnace Co., 893-897
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
GASKETS, Asbestos
Crane Co., 940-947
Ehrct Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
GASKETS, Cork
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Crane Co., 946-947
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
GASKETS, Felt
Western Felt Works, 1049
GASKETS, Rubber
Crane Co., 946-947
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
GOVERNORS, Pump
Crane Co., 940-947
C. A. Dunham Co., 110S-1109
Kielcy £ Mueller, Inc., 1116
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Schwitzer-Cummina Co., 880, 1136
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1125
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
GRATES FOR BOILERS AND
FURNACES
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Fox Furnace Co., 893-897
E. Keeler Company, 958-959
Kewancc Boilor Corp., 960-961
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co.t 918-919
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
GRILLES, REGISTERS AND
ORNAMENTAL METAL
WORK (See also Registers)
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Anemostat Corp. of America, 1088
Auer Register Co., The, 1089
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1173
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Carrier Corporation, 853
Fox Furnace Co., 893-807
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1090-1091
Independent Register Co., 1094
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-910
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
United States Register Co., 1095
Waterloo Register Co., 1090
Wickwire Spencer Steel Co., 1097
HANGERS, Pipe
American Brass Co., 1062-1063
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Beaton and Cadwell Mfg. Com-
pany, The, 1104-1105
Crane Co., 94(5-947
Frick Company (Incorporated), 8C1
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Mueller Brass Co., 1064-1065
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
HANGERS, Radiator
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co., 946-947
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
HEADS, Exhaust
Crane Co., 946-947
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
HEADS, Sprinkler
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Mueller Brass Co., 1064-1065
Streamline Pipe & Fittings Co.,
1064-1065
HEAT SURFACE, Fan System
Aerofin Corporation, 996-998
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 860
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
G & O Manufacturing Co., 999
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
John J, Nesbitt, Inc., 1003
Niagara Blower Company, 868
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 994
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 995
HEATERS, Air
Aerofin Corporation, 996-998
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airthenn Manufacturing Co., 990
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American^ Gas Products Corp.,
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Burnham Boiler Corp,, 944-045
Carrier Corporation, 853
Garage Fan Company, 858
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-802
Electrol, Incorporated, 898-899, 007
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Fox Furnace Co., 803-807
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-913
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 084
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 1)14-915
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Meyer Furnace Company, The, 917
Modine Manufacturing Co., OOtt
Herman Nelson Corp., 1001-1005
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., 1003
Niagara Blower Co., 8(58
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 085
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 1)04
Westinghouse Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing MfK, Co., 98R-080
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
Young Radiator Company, 905
HEATERS, Automatic Hot
Water, Domestic
American Gas Products Corp., 886,
953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 040-043, 1001
Automatic Burner Corp., 96-1
Crane Co., 040-047
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-892
Electrol, Incorporated, 808-800, 067
Fitagibbons Boiler Company, Inc.,
05(M)B7
Gar Wood Industrie*, Inc., 900-001
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-91!*
S, T. Johnaon Co., 908-969
Kleen-Hcct, Inc., 005
Kewanee Hotter Corp., 9(10-901
Ix.)chinvar Corp., 916
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1001)
Spencer Heater Division, 048-040
Trane Company, 872-873
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp.,
1137
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, U22-923
Weatinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
Young Radiator Company, 095
HEATERS, Slant
Aerofin Corporation, 000-008
Air DcviccH Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 840
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 04<MM«, 10(51
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 077
Baylcy Blower Company, 080
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Carrier Corporation, 853
Garaga Fan Company, 858
Fairbanks Mor«e & Co., MO
Fodders Manufacturing Co., 001
Ilg Klectric Ventilating Co., 084
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Modintf Manufacturing Co., 003
John J. Ncabitt, Inc., 1003
Niagara Blower Company, 808
B. K. Sturtevant Co., 085
Trane Company, The, 872
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 004
L. J. Wing MfK. Co., OS8-080
Young Radiator Company, 005
HEATERS, Cabinet
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 840
American Radiator Company, 8S4-
885, 94 0-04 », UW1
Burnham Bailor Corp., 044-045
Dclco-Friju'duire Conditioning Di-
vision, Geneml Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-802
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Klectrol, Incorporated, 808*809, 907
Fairbanks Morse 4t Co., 800
Fox Furnace Co., The. 803-807
General Klectric Company, 002-
003, 105H-1050
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-01 3
S. T. Johnaon Co,, 008-000
McOuay, Incorporated, 8<>5
Modine Manufacturing Co., 003
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., 100»
Trane Company, The, 872-878
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 004
Weil-McLain Company, 052
Young Radiator Company, 005
HEATERS, Electric
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
CTnitfl Div., 840
Autovent Fan & Blower Co,, 077
Burnham Boiler Corp., 044-045
General Klectric Company, 002-
003, 1058-1050
Grinnell Co,, Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
U« Klectric Ventilating Co., 084
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 085
Trane Company, 872-873
Weil-McLam Company, 052
WeHtinjthouw Klwtru- & Manu-
facturinft(Com]Kiny, 870
YounR Radiator Company, 005
HEATERS, Feed Water
Brownell Company. 1130
Ctx'hrane Corp., 1107
Carbomlale I>iv, Worthtafiton
Pump & Machinery Co,, 850-857
General Weenie Company* 002-
003, 1058-1050
Wentinjihou«e Khrtrio & Manu-
facturing Co., H7(i
HEATERS, Fuel Oil
American Dtatrirt Steam Co.
075, 1052
Automatic Burner Corp., 004
Belt und.GosMdt To,, 100IM007 t
Delco-Kriftidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 8W-H02
Fox Furnace Co.. 803-807
General Klertric Company, 002-
003, 1058-1050
Kewanee Boiler Corp., OWMW1
Kleen-lleet, Inc., W5
I,orhinvar Corp., 010
Meyer Furnace Co., 017
William* Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 022-023
HEATERS, Ga«
American Gas Product** Corp.*
88«, 1)53
Crane Co., 040-017
Burnham Holler Corp., 044-045
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Fox Furnace Co., 803-807
General Kfrrtrh* Company, 002-
003, 1058-1050
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when wdttnft to Advwtiaem
1174
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 900-901
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co., 876
HEATERS, Hot Water Service
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
American District Steam Co., 975,
1052
American Gas Products Corp.,
8SO, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Automatic Burner Corp., 904
Boll & Gosset Co., 1006-1007
Krownell Company, 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Company, 940-947
Klectrol, Incorporated, 898-899, 967
FitKgibbons Boiler Company, Inc.,
950-957
Henry Furnace £ Foundry Co.,
912-918
S. T. Johnson Co., 908-909
Klwn-Hcet, Inc., 905
Ivewanee Boiler Corp., 900-961
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1009
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
WatertUm Boilers, Inc., 901*
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
We8tinghow»e Klectric £ Manu-
facturing Co., N7*J
HEATERS, Indirect
Aerofm Corporation, 99(M)9H
Air Devices Corp., Thermal Units
Div., K-19
American District Steam Company,
i)75, 1052
American Radiator Company, 884-
KKfi, 94(MM3, 1001
Bell & domett, KK)0-1007
Klectrol, Incorporated, 898-K09, 907
Kitzgihixmti Boiler Company, Inc.,
950-957
Kewanee Boiler Corp,, 900-901
McOuay, Incorporated, 805
Sterlin« Engineering Co., 1121
Taeo Heaters, Inc., l()08-l(K)9
I fmt Heater and Cooler Co., 994
t<. J. Wing Mfg, Co., 988-989
H HATERS, Refuse Burning
American Kudiutor Company, 884-
KK5, 940-943, 1001
Kewamee Boiler Corp., 900-901
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 1)18-010
HEATERS, Storage
American District Steam Company,
975, 1052
American Ga,s Produetn Corp.,
KM, 953
Bell & (Jowwtt Co., 1000-1007
Brownell Comjiany, 1130
Kurnliiim Holler Corp., 9-1*1-945
Crane Co., IMIMM7
General Klectric Company, 902-
003, 105K-1059
Tuco Heaters, I»e., KXJH-IOOtt
HEATERS, Tank
American Dintriet Steam Co.,
975, 1052
American Gus Products Corp.,
880, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885,940-943,1061
Bell & Gossett Co., 1006-1007
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Fitzgibbons Boiler Company, Inc.,
956-957
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 960-961
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1009
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Weil-McLain Company, 952
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
HEATERS, Unit
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtherm Manufacturing Co., 990
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Autovcnt Fan & Blower Co., 977
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Champion Blower £ Forge Co., 982
Claragc Fan Company, 858
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Klectrol, Inc., 898-899, 967
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 860
Feddcrs Manufacturing Co., 991
Fox Furnace Co., 893-897
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
McQuay, Incorporated, 865
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
John J. Ncsbitt, Inc., 1003
Niagara Blower Company, 868
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Warren Webster £ Co., 1124-1125
WeBtinghousc IClec. & Mfg. Co., 876
L, J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-089
Young Radiator Company, 995
HEATERS, Unit, Gas Fired
American Gas Products Corp.,
880, 95U
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Crane Company, 946-947
Fox Kunuutt Co., 893-897
L. J, Mueller Furnace Co., 018-919
Trun« Company, The, 872-873
HEATING SYSTEMS, Air
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtemp, Incorporated, 882-883
Airtherm Manufacturing Co., 990
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Gas Products Corp,,
K8«, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 10«1
Autovent Kan £ Blower Co., 977
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Dclco-Frlgidaire Conditioning Di-
viaion, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 800-802
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 967
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
S. T. Johnson Co., 968-969
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Lochinvar Corp., 916
Meyer Furnace Company, The, 917
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., 1002
Niagara Blower Company, 868
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
Young Radiator Company, 995
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
HEATING SYSTEMS, Auto-
matic
Airtemp, Incorporated, 882-883
American Gas Products, Corp..
886, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Anderson Products, Inc., 1150-1157
Automatic Burner Corp., 964
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Electrol, Incorporated, 898-899, 967
Fox Furnace Co., The, 803-897
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Klectric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-906
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Hoffman Specialty Co,, Inc., 1112-
1113
S. T. Johnson Co.,. 908-909
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Kleen-Hcct, Inc., 965
Lennox Furnace Co., 914-915
Lochinvar Corp., 916
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Research Corporation, 870
Sarco Co., Inc., 1122-1123
Schwiteer-Cummins Co., 880, 1136
vSpcncc Engineering Co., 1154
Spencer Heater Division, 948-940
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
II. A. Thrush & Co,, 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp.,
1137
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-98!)
Numerate following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1175
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HEATING SYSTEMS, Furnace
Acme Heating & Ventilating Co.,
881
Airthcrm Manufacturing Co., 900
American Gas Products Corp.,
880, 053
Carrier Corporation, 853
Dclco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Elcctrol, Incorporated, 898-899, 907
Fox Furnace Co., The, 803-807
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Klectric Company, 902-
903, 105S-:iOf>9
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-900
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-913
S. T. Johnson Co., 008-000
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Lennox Furnace Co,, Inc., UH-015
Lochinvar Corp., 010
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Schwitzcr-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
HEATING SYSTEMS, Gas Fired
Acme Heating £ Ventilating Co.,
881
Airtemp, Incorporated, 882-888
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Gas Products Corp,,
880, 953
American Rndiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Barnes £ Jones, Inc., 1100
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Crane Co., 940-947
Delco-Frigidairc Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
S. T. Johnson Co., 908-909
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Meyer Furnace Company, The, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 018-919
Spencer Heater Division, 048-940
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-873
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Westinghouse Elec. £ Mfg. Co., 870
HEATING SYSTEMS, Hot
Water
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Gas Products Corp.,
886, 953
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Automatic Burner Corp., 904
Beaton and Cadwell Mf«. Com-
pany, The, 1104-1105
Bell & Gossett Company, 1000-1007
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Kk'ctrol Incorporated, S9,H-S<,)9, 907
Our Wood Industrie, Inc., HO(MM) i
General IClectrie Company, 902-
903, 10f>S-10r>9
Gilbert & Barker Mfg., Company,
904-90(5
Henry Furnace & Kounclry Co.,
912-913
S. T. Johnson Co., 008-90!)
Kleon-IIeet, Inc., 00ft
L. J. MiMlkv Kurmuv Co.. U1S-(.H<»
Piirks-Crame.r Company, SOU
Spencer Ileuter Division, 91X-U4U
Sterling Knuincoring Co., llL'l
Taco Heaters, Inc., 100S-100!)
II. A. ThniHh A Co., 1010-101 1
Trane Company, The, 872-N7JJ
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Utira Radiator Corp., 920-921
Williamn Oil-O-Mntio Heating Cor-
poratton, 922-92M
L. J. WiiiK Mfg. Co,, 9S8-989
HEATING SYSTEMS, OH Pfcrcd
Acme Heating it VentilatinK Co.,
881
Airtemp Incorporated, HS2-HM
American Hlower Corp., KoO-Kol
Amcriain Radiator Company, HK4-
885, IMO-JMB, Kmi
Automatic Hunter Corp., OtM
Barnes £ Jone.n, Im:., 1100
Carrier (Corporation, 853
Crane Co,, 94(1-947
Ddco-Fritfiduire Conditioning 1)1-
vision, General Motor* Sales
Corporation, HUO-KD2
Elcctrol Incorporated, 8U8-8U9, iM17
Fox Furnace Co., The, XM-H97
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., UOO-1HU
General ICU'ctric Company. INEJ-
008, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mf«. Co., M4-WW
S. T. Johntion Co., OOH-lHUl
Kelvinator Division <»f Nu«h«
Kelvinator Corp., 007-911
Klecn- licet, Inc., 9(15
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 9H-015
Meyer Furnace Company, Tlie, 1H7
L, J. Mueller Furnace Co.. U1S-U19
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1 (K)o
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, Th<\ K72-K7tt
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, OfflMWU
Utica Radiator Corp., «2(M»2l
Williamfl Oil-O-Matic HeutinK C!or-
poration,
HEATING SYSTEMS, Steam
Airthcrm Manufacturing Co,, 900
American Gas Products Corp,,
880, 953
American Radiator Company, 8H-1-
88f>, 940-MM, 1001
Anderson Products, Inc,, 11 5(1-1 lf>7
Harnea «r Joncu, Inc., 1100
Bell & Goaaett Company, l(XMJ-ltH)7
Burnham Boiler Corn,, 044-945
Carrier Corporation, 8f>3
Crane Co., t)4(M)47
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Salce
Corj>oration, 890-892
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1 KM)
Klcctrol Incorporated, 89K-890, 0«7
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 1KXM)01
General Electric Comjtony, 902-
008, 1058-10,TO
Gilbert £ Barker Mf «. Co., 004-906
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
S. T. Johnson Co,, WS-9W
Kelvinator l)iv. ot Nash- Kelvina-
tor Corp., !)07-!»11
Krwant'e lioiler Corp., OnO-%1
Milwaukee \';ilve ( o., 111S-111U
1.. J. Muelh'r I'lirnaoe Co., {US-91U
Hrrman Nels«»n Corp., 1004-1005
Ric-wiL Company, The, l().'>t
Sirro Company, Inc., 1 122-1 12iJ
SIK-IUV KnKi'mM'iintt Co., 11, "> 1-1 !">,">
Sn<»i»i-er Heater Division, t)4S-iU<)
Sterlinu KnuiiU'eritin Co.. 1121
Trane Company, The, X72-S7,'*
1'nit Heater^ Cooler Co., «)i)4.
I'nitotl Stat<'S Radiator C*orpora-
tion, il.'UM.l.M
rtira Riuliator Corn., U2(M)21
Vtileun Anthrat'itr St"ket Corn..
11 «7
Warren Webxter & Co., 1121-1127
. .,
Willmmti < HI-( >-Mattc Ht«atin« (\»
poratton, D22-U2M
1.. j. \Vin« Mfn. Co.,
HEATINC; SYSTEMS, Vacuum
American (la* IVndtirtH Corn.,
8S(i, IKia
American Kadiator ComiKiny, XS4-
H8,r>, UKMHH, 100!
Barnes it Jone.s, Incorporated, 1KHI
Beattm ami Catlvvell Mf«. Co., The
1104-1105
Burnham Boiler Corp,, tM4-SM.">
Cram* Co., (MIMII7
Di'Inf-KriKuliuie (\nwIitioninK Oi-
vini<»n, tlem-ral Motors .S;ik's
<\ A, Dunham ('<*., UOS-IHK)
Klectrol InooriMttatctI, XUS-HiUI, W\7
(rurWoixl Iiulu*tri<»H, Im\, fKHMIOl
<leneraJ KUt'tiu* Company, (K)li-
,
Colbert & Barker Mfo. <Vh.WH.SKW
Williams. Hainw & Co., 1111
Hotfman Spirialty Co., I no., 1U2-
Knuinwrlnic <*'>.» Ull-Ilir»
Milwaukee Valve ( '«»., 1 1 IS-1 Hit
L, J, Mueller Hurnace Co., iUK-OUt
New Vt»rk Air Valvf <'orp.( tim)
Samt Company, Inr,, 1122-1123
Spemvr Heater Division, !>tH-!M()
StcrliiiK Kn«in<*etiim (,'<»., 1121
Trane Company, Th<% 872-K73
T,tnit«*(l States Radiator Corpora-
tion. OrKMI.M
i Radiator <*orp,, 02(M*21
tn Anthracite Stoker Corp,,
li:*7
amm Welter it Co., 1121-1127
ilHamM Oil-0-Mfitic
pomtion, J
HEATING SYSTEMS, Vapor
Anutriran District Stt>um Corn-
puny, U7.p>, J(^2
American (Ju8 I»ro<IurtH <'orp.,
H80, «f»3
American Kadlutrv Company, 884-
S85, 940-JM8, 1001
BsirncH it Jonen, Incorporated, HOfJ
<Van<i Co., U4fU»47
Dda>-Kri«idaire Conditioning Dl-
vi«ion, General Motont HiU«»8
Corporation, HJK)-8<)2
C. A. Dunham C'o., 110H-1UH)
Klcctrol Incorporated, tt08-8UO, i»«7
(JurWood Indimtricn, Inc.,iKXMK)l
General Klcctric ComrMtny, U02-
(KW, 10JSH-10.W
Gilbert «c Kark«r Mf«. C;o., «04-1K)0
WilliamS. Haintii ifc Co., 1111
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 %vhcn wltlnji to Advcrtisem
1176
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
S. T. Johnson Co., 008-900
Kclvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 007-911
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 018-919
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spencer Heater Division, 948-949
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 050-951
ITtica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Corp.,
1137
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
HOSE, Flexible Metallic (See
also Conduit, flexible; Tubing,
flexible)
American Brass Co., 10(52-1003
Chicago Metal Hose Corp., 1008
Titeftex Metal HOHC Co., 1009
HOSE, Refrigerant Charging,
(See Hose, Flexible Metallic)
HOT WATER HEATING SYS-
TEMS (See Heating Systems, Hut
Water)
HUMIDIFIERS
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Piv.f 849
Air- Maze Corp., 924-925
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Blown: Corp., 850-851
American Moistening Co., 8.12
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1()(U
Armstrong Machine Works, llOii-
1103
Baker lee Machine Co., 854-855
Blnks Manufacturing Co., 972-97,'J
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clarage Kan Company, 8/58
Crane Co,, 040-947
Doloo-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors 8aU»«
Corporation, 890-892
Klectrol, Incorporated, 898-899, 1M»7
FuirlnmkH Morse & Co., 800
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
General Klectric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg, Co., 904-900
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
Ilg Klectric Ventilating Co., 984
Johnson Service Co., 114(M147
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 914-915
Mi^juay Incorporated, 805
Meyer Furnunr Co., The, 917
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Niagara Blower C.ompuny, 8U8
Parkn-Crumer Company, 8(19
Hchwitsgwr-Cummiiw Co., 880, 1130
II. J, Somm, Inc., 931
B, F. Sturtevunt Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 994
United Ktatea Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
tTtfca Radiator Corp., 920-921
Wdl-MdUiin Company, 952
WeBtinghoium Klectric & Manu-
facturing Company, 870
HUMIDIFIERS, Central Plant
Acme Heating & Ventilating Co.,
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Radiator Company, 884,-
8S5, 940-943, 1001
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bayley Blower Company, 980
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clarage Fan Company, 858
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 907
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 860
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
I Iff Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Johnson Service Co., 1146-1147
Meyer Furnace Co., The, 917
Niagara Blower Company, 80S
Parks-Cramer Company, 809
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Research Corporation, 870
II. J. Somcrs, Inc., 931
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Utica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Westinghouae Elec. & Mfg. Co., 870
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
HUMIDIFIERS, Unit
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Moistening Co., 852
Armstrong Machine Works, 1102-
1103
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carrier Corporation, 853
Clamge Fan Company, 858
Crane Co., 94(5-9-17
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-S02
Electrol Incorporated, 898-899, 907
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
GriniK'll Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
IlK Klectric Ventilating Co., 984
Marlcjy Company, The, 974
Mc^uay, Incorporated, 805
Niagara Blower Company, 808
Parka-Cramer Company, 809
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 904
WeHtinghouse Klectric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
HUMIDITY CONTROL
American Moistening Co., 852
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 10(51
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Carrier Corporation, 853
Cocbranc Corp., 1107
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors vSales
Corporation, 890-892
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Julien P. Pries & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
GrinneU Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Johnson Service Co., 1146-1147
Mercoid Corporation, The, 1150
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Niagara Blower Company, 868
Parks-Cramer Company, 869
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
HUMIDITY RECORDERS and
Indicators
Bristol Company, The 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Palmer Co., 1017
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
HYGROMETERS (See also Hu-
midity Recorders and Indicators]
American Moistening Co., 852
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Julien P. Friez & Sons, 1144
Grinnell Co., Inc.. 1000-1002, 1110
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Palmer Company, 1017
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
INDUCED DRAFT COOLING
TOWERS (See clso Cooling Tow-
ers, Forced Draft, Meckancial
Draft)
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Cooling Tower Company, 971
Marley Company, 974
Research Company, 870
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 904
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
INSTRUMENTS, Indicating
and Recording
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Palmer Co., 1017
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
INSULATION, Building
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Co.,
1021
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-l()2f)
Carey, Philip, Co., 102S
Celotex Corporation, The, 1029-
1031
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the (Catalog Data Section
1177
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Chamberlin Metal Weather Strip
Co., 1032-1033
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., 1026
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 1030
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
Insulite Company, The, 1038-1039
Insul-Wool Insulation Corp., 1040
International Fibre Board Limited,
1041
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Pacific Lumber Co., The, 1046
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
United States Gypsum Co., 1048
Western Felt Works, 1049
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
INSULATION, Felt
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 1036
Ehret Magnesia Mfg. Co., 1034-
1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
1037
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Ruberoid Co., 1044-1045
Western Felt Works, 1049
INSULATION, Pipes and Sur-
faces (See Coverings, Pipes and
Surfaces)
INSULATION, Magnesia
Carey, Philip Mfg. Co., 1028
Ehret Magnesia & Mfg. Co.,
1034-1035
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
INSULATION, Sound
Deadening (See also Pelt, Sound
Deadining)
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Co.,
1021
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Celotex Corporation, 1029-1031
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., 1020
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 103(>
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
1037
Insulite Company, The, 1038-1030
Insul-Wool Insulation Corp., 1040
International Fibre Board Limited,
1041
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Pacific Lumber Co., The, 1040
Ruberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
Western Felt Works, 1049
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
INSULATION, Underground
Steam Pipe
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
American District Steam Company.
975, 1052
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 970
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Eagle-Picher Lead Co., 1030
Ehret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
1037
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 030
H. W. Porter & Co., 1053
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Ruberoid Co., .The, 1044-1045
Underground Steam Construction
Co., 1055
Wyckoff & Sons Co., 1056
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
INSULATION, Ventilating
Ducts
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Celotex Corporation, 1029-1031
Cork Insulation Co., Inc., lOUtt
Easle-Picher Lead Co., 10»«
Ehret Magnesia Mfg. Co., 1034-1035
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
1037
Insulite Company, The, 1038-1080
International Fibre Board Limited,
1041
Johns-Manville, 10-12-1043
Mundet Cork Corp., 1027
Owens-Illinois Glass Company, 930
Pacific Lumber Co., The, 1040
Ruberoid Co., The, 1014-1045
Standard Lime and Stone Co., 1017
Western Felt Works, 1049
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
LIQUID LEVEL CONTROLS
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
General Controls Co,, 1145
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Liquidometcr Corp,, 1010
McDonnell & Miller, WJMWO
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Spcncc Engineering Co., 115-1
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1011)
LIQUID LEVEL GAGES (,SV«
Cages, Liquid Level)
LOUVERS
American Cooluir Corp., 078-070
Ancmostat Corp., of America, 1088
Auer RcRiHter Co., 1080
Autovent Kan & Blower Co., 077
Binks ManufacturfnK Co., 072-073
Buffalo Forge Company, OKI
Champion Blower & Forge Co,, 082
Garage Kan Company, H5H
General Controlw, 114,r>
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
012-013
Independent Register Co., 1094
Tranc Company, The, 87S2-87,'*
Tuttlc & Ballcsy, Inc., 1W1M003
TJnit Heater & Cooler Co., The, 004
United States Rc«i«tcr Co., 1005
Waterloo Register Co., 1000
Young Regulator Company* Ottf>
MANHOLE COVERS, For
Underground Systems
American Coolair Corp,, 078-070
Amnrican Diwtriet Steam Company,
II. W. Porter £ Co., i(jfi»
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
MECHANICAL DRAFT APPAR-
ATUS (See Blowers, Forced
Draft)
MECHANICAL DRAFT COOL-
ING TOWERS (See also Cooling
7"<nvers, Forced Draft, Induced
Draft)
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-073
Buffalo Forge Company, 081
Cooling Tower Company, 071
Marley Comiuiny, 074
Research Company, 870
Unit Heater & Cooler Co., 004
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
METALS, Perforated (Sec Perfo-
rated Metals)
METERS, Air
Bristol Company, The, 1012
J alien P. Frie/ it Sons, Inc., 1144
Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
METERS, Air Velocity
Anderson Products, Inc., 115(5-1157
Julien P. Friez fit Sons, Inc., 1144
Illinois TestinK laboratories, 1014
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
METERS, Condensation
American District Steam Company
075. 1032
Carbomlal? Div. Worthington
Pump Ik Machinery Co., 85(1-857
METERS, Feed Water
Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator
Co., J14H-U40
METERS, Flow
American District Stalin Company,
075, 1052
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Cochrune Corp., 1107
Lewis & Northrup Company, 1015
Minnt'apolis-Hoiuiywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1010
METERS, Steam
American District Steam Company,
075, 1052
Cnchntne Corp., 1107
M inxu'U polis-! I on<*y well Regulator
Co., 1018-1010
MOTORS, Electric
Barner-Colman Co., 11 38- U 30
Century Klectdt: Company, 1057
General Klec-tric Company, 002-
003, 1058-1050
Ohio Klcctric Mfg. Co.. KM)
B. F. Sturtevunt Co., 08."
WttHtlnxuouHt' Klw. & Mf«. Co.,87o
Williams OIl-O-MatU' Heating Cor-
poration, 022-023
NOISE ELIMINATORS (.SVr niw
ll<t\et flexible; Tubing .llcxiMf;
Sound f)fatleHfr$; Vibratitm Ab-
NO7.ZLES, Spray (See Sfiray
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writinft to Advertisers
1178
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
OIL BURNER EQUIPMENT
Airtcmp Inc., S82-8S3
American Radiator Company, 884-
8S5, 940-943, 1001
Automatic Burner Corp., 904
Hrunford Div. Malleable Iron
Fittings Co., 900
Crane Co., 940-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Elect rol Incorporated, 898-899, 907
Rux Furnuce Co., The, 898-897
General Klectric Company, 902-
90H, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mf«. Co., 904-9015
S. T. Johnson Co., 908-909
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Kclvinutor Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Kleen-Heet, Inc., 905
Preferred \ rtilitie.s Corp., 970
Westinuhouse Klec. & Mfj?. Co., 870
Williams ( )il-( )-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-921!
OIL BURNERS
Airtcmp Incorporated, 882-883
Automatic Burner Corp,, 004
Bubcock & Wilcox Co., 054
Branford Div. Malleable Iron
Fitting Co., 900
Combustion ICnirineering Co., 1132
Cram* Co., 9-10-947
Delco-Frigidairc Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
reicetrol Incorporated, 898-899, 907
Kox Furnace Co,, 803
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Klectric Company, 902-
908, 10f>8-K)f>9
Gilbert & Barker Mf«. Co., 904-900
S. 1\ Johnson Co., 908-909
Kelvinator Division of Naah-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Kleen-Heet, Inc., 905
Lennox Furmunj Co., Inc., 914-915
Lochinvur Corp., 910
Meyer Furnace Co., 917
Herman Nelson Corp., 1004-1005
Preferred Utilities Corp,, 970
Williams OiW>-Mutic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-02,'*
OIL BURNER MOTORS, (See
s, Mcrtric)
OIL BURNER TUBING, Flex-
ible (See Tubing, Flexible Ji/r/-
allk)
OIL TANK GAGES We Tank
MllW, (HI)
ORIFICKS, Flow Motor
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Codirune Corp., 1107
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
ORIFICES, Radiator
American Radiator Company, 884-
H«r>, 940-943, 1001
Harries & Jottes, Incorporated, 1100
Hell ami Gossett Co., 1000-1007
Detroit Lubricator Co., 11-10-1141
C. A. Dunham <>, 1108-H09
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1118
Illinois Kri«[nevrin« Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
New York Air Valve Corp., 1100
SarcoCo., Inc.,
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster £ Co., 1124-1127
PACKING, Asbestos
Ehrct Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
PANELS, Insulated
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Co.,
1021
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Celotex: Corporation, 1029-1031
General Insulating & Mfg. Co.,
Insulite Company, The, 1038-1039
International Fibre Board Limited,
10-11
United States Gypsum Co., 1048
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
PERFORATED METALS
U. S. Register Co., 1095
Wickwire Spencer Steel Co., 1097
PIPE, Asbestos
Eagle- Picher Lead Co., 1030
Ehrct Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-1035
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 1047
PIPE, Brass
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
Crane Co., 940-947
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Revere Copper and Brass Incor-
porated, 1007
Streamline Pipe and Fittings Co.,
100-1-1005
PIPE, Cement
KaKl«-Picher Lead Co., 1030
Johns-Manvillc, 1042-1043
Rtiberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime £ Stone Co., 1047
Zonolitti Company, 1050-1051
PIPE, Copper
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
American Radiator Company, 884-
KS5, 940-943, 1001
Crane Co., 940-947
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Revere Copper and Brass, Incor-
porated, 1007
Streamline Pipe and Fittings Co.,
1004-1005
PIPE, Copper Bearing Steel
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1099
Crane Co., 940-947
Jones & Laiighlin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
PIPE, Copper Molybdenum Iron
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
PIPE, Return Bends
American Brass Co,, 1002-1003
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-S143, 1001
Crime Co., 94(1-947
Frick Company, 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthur Harris & Co., 1000
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Streamline1 Pipe and Fittings Co.,
1004-1005
Viltcr Manufacturing Co., 875
PIPE, Steel
American Rolling Mill Co., 1098
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Crane Co., 946-947
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthur Harris & Co., 10G6
Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
PIPE, Wrought Iron
Crane Co., 946-947
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
PIPE ANCHORS
American District Steam Co.,
975, 1052
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 976
Crane Co., 940-947
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
H. W. Porter & Co., 1053
Ric-wiL Company, 1054
Underground Steam Construction
Co., 1055
PIPE BENDING
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc..
854-855
Crane Co., 946-947
Frick Company, 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Arthur Harris & Co., 100G
Parks-Cramer Co., 869
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
PIPE CONDUITS (See Conduits,
Underground Pipe)
PIPE COVERING (See Covering.
Pipe)
PIPE FITTINGS (See Fittings,
Pipe)
PIPE GUIDES
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 976
Crane Co., 940-947
H. W. Porter & Co., 1053
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Underground Steam Construction
Co.. 1055
PIPE HANGERS (See Hangers,
Pipe)
PIPE SUPPORTS, For Under-
ground Conduit
American District Steam Company,
975, 1052
E. B. Badger & Sons Co., 970
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
H. W. Porter & Co., 1053
Ric-wiL Company, The, 1054
Underground Steam, Construction
Co., 1055
PITOT TUBES (See Air Measur-
ing and Recording Instruments)
PLASTER BASE, Fire Retarding
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Celotex Corporation, 1029-1031
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
United States Gypsum Co., 104 S
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
PLASTER BASE, Insulating
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Celotex Corporation, 1029-1031
Insulite Company, The, 1038-1039
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1179
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
International Fibre Board Limited,
1041
Johns-Manville, 1042-1013
United States Gypsum Co., 1048
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
PLASTER BASE, Sound
Deadening
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1024-1025
Celotex Corporation, 10294031
InsS Company, The, 1038-1039
International Fibre Board Limited,
1041
Johns-Manville, 1042-1043
United States Gypsum Co., 1048
Zonolite Company, 1050-1051
PLATES, Iron
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
American Rolling Mill Co., IMS
Carnegie- Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
PLATES, Stainless Steel
American Rolling Mill Co., 1098
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
PLATES, Steel
American Coolair Corp., 978-070
American Rolling Mill Co., 1098
Carnegie- Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
PRESSURE REDUCING
VALVES (See Regulators, Pres-
sure)
PROPELLER FANS (See Fans,
Propeller)
PSYCHROMETERS (See also Mr
Measuring, Indicating and Re-
cording Instruments)
American Moistening Co., 852
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc.. 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Palmer Company, The, 1017
Parks- Cramer Company, 809
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
PUBLICATIONS
Air Conditioning— Oil Heat, 1070
American Artisan, 1072
American Society of Refrigerating
Engineers, 1080
Domestic Engineering, 1074-1075
Fueloil Journal, 1077
Heating & Ventilating, 1078
Heating Journals, Inc., 107!)
Heating, Piping and Air Condi-
tioning, 1073
Plumbing and Heating Trade
Journal, 1079
Sheet Metal Worker, 1081
PULLEYS, Chain
Hart & Cooley Mfg. Co., 1000-1001
United States Register Co., 1095
PUMPS, Air and Gas
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Division of Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 859
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 802-863
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
PUMPS, Ammonia
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Worthington Pump and Machinery
Corp., 85(5-857
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
PUMPS, Boiler Feed
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Chicago Pump Co., 10S4
Decatur Pump Company, 108.-)
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 8152-803
Nash Engineering Co., 108(5-1087
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-878
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
Worthington Pump and Machinery
Corp., 850-857
PUMPS, Brine
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc.,
854-855
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1083
Carbondale Div., WorthinKton
Pump & Machinery Co., 85(1-857
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Decatur Pump Company, 1085
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 800
Flick Company, 801
Ingcrsoll-Rand Company, 8012-80,1
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
Trane Company, The, 872-87,'*
Worthington Pump and Machinery
Corp., 850-857
PUMPS, Centrifugal
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Bell and Gossett Co,, 10()(J-1(K)7
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Decatur Pump Company, 1085
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-110!)
Frick Company, 801
Fairbanks, Morse; & Co., 800
Ingcraoll-Rand Company, 8(12-8118
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
Sclrwitzor-Cummins Co,, 880, 1180
H. A. Thrush £ Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-878
PUMPS, Circulating
American Marsh PumpB, Inc., 1082
Bell and Goasett Co., HKW-1007
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-1)78
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Decntur Pump Company, 1085
InKersoll-Rand Company, 8(12-803
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
Sterling Engineering Co,, 1121
H, A. Thrush £ Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, K72-K78
PUMPS, Condensation
American Radiator Company, 88-1-
885, 040-043, 1001
American Mar«h Pumps, Inc., 1082
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Chicago Pump Company, 1084
Decatur Pump Company, 1085
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-11 01)
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1118
Ingcrsoll-Rand Company, 802-803
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
Sterling Enginecrinji Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-878
WorthinKton Pump & Machinery
Co., 850-857
PUMPS, Oil
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 8152-8(58
PUMPS, Steam
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Fairbanks Morse & Co., 800
InflerMoll-Rand Company, 802-808
Trane Company, The, 872-878
PUMPS, Sump
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Buffalo Pumps, Inc., 1088
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Fairbanks, Morse it <\>., 8(50
lUKensoll-Rand Company, S02-H08
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
PUMPS, Turbine
American Murtih Pumps, Inc., 1082
Decatur Pump Company, 1085
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1118
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 802-808
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
PUMPS, Vacuum
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Chicago Pump Co., 11)84
Curtis RefrigeratinK Machine Com-
pany, Division of Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 850
C, A. Dunham Co., 110S-1100
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1118
hwersoll-Rancl Company, 802-8(58
Na«h KnKineeriMK Co., 108(5-1087
Sterling KnicincerinK Co., 1121
PYROMETERS, Portable and
Stationary
BriHtol Company, The, 1012
Illinois Tenting Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
MinncupoliH-I loneywell Regulator
Co,, 1148-1141)
Taylor Internment Companies,
1018- 1010
RADIATION* Aluminum
Aiwfin Corporation, MtMHW
Air DevuvH Corp., Thermal Units
PUMP MOTORS, (See Motors,
Eleclric)
.,
McOuuy, Incorporated, 8«5
Trune Company, The, 872-878
Unit Heater awl Cooler Co,, OlM
Warren Web-ster fc Co., 1124-1127
RADIATION, Bra««
KocldcTH Manufacturing Co., Mil
G Kr O Manufacturing Co,, !HM)
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Revere Copper and Brasn, Incor-
porated, 1007
RADIATION, Cant -Iron
American Radiator Company, S8-1-
885, i)4(M)48, 1001
Hurnlmm Holler Corp., O44.»4r*
Crane Co., 1MMM7
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 004
United Suites Radiator Corpora-
tion. ttnouttai
Utiea Radiator Corp., t)2(M)2l
Weil-McLain Company, 052
RADIATION, Copper
Acrofln Corporation, WIMKW
American Radiator Company, HHt-
SS5, 0404)48, 1001
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advmiwr*
1180
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 800
Fedciers Manufacturing Co., 901
G & O Manufacturing Co., 999
McQuay, Incorporated, 805
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
John J, Neybitt, Inc., 1003
Revere Copper and Brass, Incor-
porated, 1007
B. K. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Tuttlc & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1125
Young Radiator Company, 935
RADIATION, Plain and Ex-
tended Surface
Aerofin Corporation, 990-1)98
American Radiator Company, 88-4-
8K5. 9.10-5)43, 10(il
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Crane Co., IWWM7
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 800
Fodders Manufacturing Co., 991
G & C) Manufacturing Co., 990
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Grinndl Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Modine Manufacturing Co,, 993
John J. Nosbitt, Inc., 1003
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-87,'J
Vtica Radiator Corp., 920-921
Wi'il-McUiin Company, 952
Young Radiator Company, 995
RADIATOR ENCLOSURES
AND SHIELDS
American Radiator Company, 88-i-
885, 9-10-943, 1001
Auer Register Co., The, 1089
Crane Co., 940-947
Modine Manufacturing Co., 993
Revere Copper and Brasa Incor-
porated, 1007
H. J* Somer«, hu%, 931
Wickwire Sponcor Steel Co., 1097
RADIATORS, Cabinet
Air Device Corporation, Thermal
UnllH Div., 849
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 9<1<M»43, 1001
Btirnluim HoHrr Corp., 9-14-945
Crane Co., 940-947
C, A. Dunham Co., 110H-1109
KalrlHinkM, Monw & Co., 8(H)
GrinnHl Co., Inc., 1000-1002, UK)
McOuuy, Incorporated, 805
Modine Mf«, Co., 993
John J. NeHbitt, hie,, 1003
Train* Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and (Cooler Co., 994
T United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Wurri'tt Wrtwtw » Co,, 1124-1127
WHI-Md.ain C 'ompany, 952
Wickwir*' Spomvr Stwl Co., 1097
Young Radiator Company, 995
RADIATORS, Concealed
Air DttvtafH Cortwration, Thermal
Units Div,, 8-19
American Radiator Company, 884-
8S5, 940-94 ,'*, I0«l
Biirnhaxn Boiler Corp., 944-945
Crane Co,, 04fMM7
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Grinnetl Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
MoOuay, Incorporated, Hft5
Mrullnr Manufacturing Co., 903
John J. Ncsbitt, Inc., 1003
Kovcn- Copper and BniM Incor-
porated, Kmr
Trttne Company, The, 872-873
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., 994
United States Radiator Corpora-
tion, 950-951
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Weil-McLain Company, 952
Young Radiator Company, 995
RECEIVERS, Air
Anemostat Corp. of America, 1088
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Butler Mfg. Co., 1131
Crane Co., 946-947
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Division Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 859
Farrar & Trefta, Incorporated, 955
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 802-863
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 900-961
Parks-Cramer Company, 869
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
RECEIVERS, Ammonia
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Cixrbondale Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
RECEIVERS, Condensation
American Marsh Pumps, Inc., 1082
Baker Ice Machine Co., Inc.,
85-1-855
Chicago Pump Co., 1084
Crane Co., 940-947
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Nash Engineering Co., 1080-1087
vSurco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 112-1-1127
RECEIVERS, Water Vapor
American Blower Corp,, 850-851
IIlinoiH Knttinecring Co., 1114-1115
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Wurren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
RECORDERS, Humidity, Tem-
perature
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1018
Julien P, Kriez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Leeds & Northrup Co., 1015
Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
1148-1149
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Tnylor I tiKtrumcnt Companies,
1018-1019
REFRACTORIES, Cements,
Materials
Bitbcock & Wilcox Co,, 054
Carey, Philip, Co., 1028
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Knglc-Pichcir Lead Co., 103(1
Khret Magnesia Mfg. Co., 1034-
1035
Johns-Manvillc, 10-12-1043
Preferred Utilities Corp., 070
Ric-wiL Company, 1054
Xonolite Company, 1050-1051
REFRIGERATION CONTROLS
(See also Controls)
Alco Valve Company, 1155
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Bristol Company, 1012
Carrier Corporation, 853
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1146-1147
Leeds & Northrup Co., 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
REFRIGERATING EQUIP-
MENT, Centrifugal
Airtemp Inc., 882-883
Carrier Corporation, 853
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 862-863
REFRIGERATING EQUIP-
MENT, Steam Jet
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Carbondale Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Ingcrsoll-Rand Company, 862-863
Universal Cooler Corp., 874
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-023
REFRIGERATING
MACHINERY
Air Devices Corporation, Thermal
Units Div., 849
Airtemp Incorporated, 882-883
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Carbondale Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 856-857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Division of Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 859
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Fairbanks, Morse £ Co., 860
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
Jngcrsoll-Rand Company, 862-803
Kelvinator Division of Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 907-911
Merchant & Evans Co., 867
Servel, Inc., 871
Universal Cooler Corp., 874
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
Williams Oil-O-Matic Heating Cor-
poration, 922-923
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
REFRIGERATION EQUIP-
MENT, Water Vapor
Ingersoll-Rand Company, 862-863
REGISTERS (See also Grilles, Reg-
isters, etc.)
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp- 078-979
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Anernostat Corp, of American, 1088
Aucr Register Co., The, 1089
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1181
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Carrier Corporation, 853
Fox Furnace Co., 893-897
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1090-1091
Independent Register Co., 1094
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
United States Register Co., 1095
Waterloo Register Co., 1096
Wickwire Spencer Steel Co., 1097
REGULATORS, Air Volume
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1090-1091
Young Regulator Co., 935
REGULATORS, Damper
American Radiator Co., 884-885,
940-943, 1061
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1130
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 1106
Carrier Corporation, 853
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-006
Williams S. Haines & Co., 1111
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1090-1091
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
912-913
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Johnson-Service Co., 1146-11-17
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148- H49 '
Powers Regulator Co., 1152.1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Tranc Company, The, 872-873
Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1003
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Young Regulator Co., 935
REGULATORS, Feed Water
Beaton & Cadwell Mfg. Company,
1104-1105
General Controls, 1145
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 111H
McDonnell & Miller, 938-939
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Westinghouse Electric £ Manu-
facturing Co., 870
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
REGULATORS, Furnace
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1130
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
Henry Furnace
912-913
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 114S-1149
Pcnn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Spence Engineering Co., 1184
REGULATORS, Gas
American Gas Products Corp.,
880, 9.53
Barber Gas Burner Co., 887
Bryant Heater Co., 888-880
Crane Co., 940-047
Jenkins Bros., 1150
Mercoid Corp., 1150
Penn Electric Switch Co., llfil
REGULATORS, Humidity (Sef
Humidity Control)
REGULATORS, Pressure
American Radiator Company, 88-1-
88,r), 940-94 «, 10IU
Beaton & Cadwell Mfj?. Company,
1104-llOf)
Bell & Gnssett Co., 100(5-1007
Binka Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Company, 9-l(>-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Fodders Manufacturing Co., 991
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1M2-1143
General Controls, lM,r>
General Kleetric Company, 902-
003, Wis-ioni)
Henry Kurnacc & Foundry Co.,
1112-013
Illinois Engineerinfi Co., 11 14-1 lift
Jenkins Bros., llflU
Kieley & Mueller, Inc.» 1110
Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Mueller Steam Specitilty (*o., Inc.,
1120
Penn Kleetric Switch Co., ll,r>l
Powers Regulator Co., llftMl&i
Spence KnuineerinK Co., lini
Taco Heater* Inc., 1008-1009
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. ThniBh «t Co., 1010-1011
Warren Webster it Co., 112'1-11U7
REGULATORS, Temperature
(See Temperature Control)
RELIEF VALVES (.SV Valws.
RflifJ)
SAFETY VALVES (,SV# Valves,
Safety)
SEALS, Inside Door Bottoms
Chamberlin M<ktal Wesitlufr Strip
Co., 1032-1 Oft)
Foundry Co., SEPARATORS, Oil
Air-Mazu Corp., 024-JI25
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Crane Co., 0.1(5-947
Frick Company (Incorporated), S(>1
Kieley it Mueller, Inc., 1110
Stayncw Filter Corp., 1)32-039
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Wriftht- Austin Co., 1128
SEPARATORS, Dust
Air-Mnse Corp., 024-JI25
American Air Kilter Co,, !>26-i)27
American Blower Corp., H5()-Sr>l
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-978
Buffalo For IB: Company, Ml
Coppua Engineering Corp., {)2K
Research Corporation, 870
Staynew Filter Corp., M2-M3
B. K. Sturtevant Co., 9Sf>
Unit Heater and Cooler Co., tt-M
Universal Air Filter Corp., i)»-t
WestinghouBC Klcc. & Mfg. Co., X70
SEPARATORS, Steam
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Crane Co., 040-017
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Wright-Austin Co., 112S
SHEETS, Aluminum Foil
Alfol Insulation Co., 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Co.,
1021
SHEETS, Asbestos, Flat and
Corrugated
Eagle- Pichcr Lead Co., 1030
Khret Magnesia Manufacturing
Co., 1034-10;C»
Jolnw-Munville, 1012-1043
Ruberou! Co., The, 104 1-10 1 f»
SHEETS, Black, Galvanized
American Rolling Mill Co., iu<»S
Carm-gie-UIinoiH Steel Corp., 1100
Jones & Laufchlin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corp,, 1071
SHEETS, Copper
American Brastt Co., 1002-10(13
Revere Copper and Brusn Incor-
porated, 1007
SHEETS, <k>pp«r Alloy
American Brawn Cu., tfmiMOl!.'!
Canu'gie-llHnuiH Steel Corp., 1100
Revere Copper anil Brans Incor-
porated, I(«S7
SHEETS, Copper Bearing, Steel
American Rolling Mill Co., KHKS
Carmr-ie- Illinois St<-cl Corp., 1100
Joni'H & UiiiMlilin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
SHKKT8, Copper Molybdenum
Iron
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
SHKKTS, Felt
Western Kelt Works, KM«»
SHEETS, Lead Coated Copper
Arnerinm Hrass Co., 100^-1003
Revere Copper itn<I Brass lucor-
poratetl, !0(»7
SHEETS, Pure Iron
American Rolling Mill < o., 10US
SHEETS, Special Finish
American Rolling Mill Co., 10US
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
SHEETS, StainleHK Steel
American KolUrw Mill (*o., lOilS
Carwulf-IHinotH Steel Corp., 1100
Republic Stfel Corporation, 1071
SHEETS, Steel
Arnerinin Rolling Mill Co., 1008
Hethlehem Steel Co., 101W
Carnegie- IlIinoiH Steel Corp., 1100
Jones & Laughliu Steel < orpora-
tion, 1070
Republic SU't'l Cf»rporation, 1071
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advertiser*
1182
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
SHUTTERS, Automatic
Air Controls, Inc., 878
American Coolair Corp., 978-079
Autovent Fan ifc Blower Co., 977
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co.. 984
B, F, Sturtevant Co., 985
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
Young Regulator Company, 935
SLIME PREVENTION (See also
Algae Prevention)
Aouatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1 1(>1
Oakite Products, Inc., 1102
SMOKE DENSITY
RECORDING
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
WestinnhoiiHe Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 87(5
SOOT DESTROYER
Vinco Company, Inc., 930-937
SOUND DEADENING, Flexible
Hotte
American Hnuw Co., 1002-1003
ChiaiKo Metal Hose Corp., 1008
(Albert & Barker Mfc. Co., 904-900
Titeilex Metal Hose Co., 10(59
SOUND DEADENING, Insula-
tion
Alfol Insulation Co., Inc., 1022-1023
Aluminum Aircell Insulation Corp..
1021
Armstrong Cork Products Com-
pany, 1021-102.1
Kinkrt MJ'g, Co,, 972-973
Celotex Corporation, The, 1029-
io;u
Cork Iiwtilation Co., Inc., 1020
Kagle-l'ioher Load Co., 1030
Kluvt MuKiu'Hiu Manufacturing
Co., NW-10U5
Gilberts Marker Mfu. Co., 901-900
Insulite Company, The, 103N-1039
liuml-Wool Insulation Corp., 10-10
International Fibre Hoard Limited,
KM 1
Johns-Munville, 1042-1043
Muwlet Cork Corp., 1027
Pacific- Lumber Co., The, 1040
Kuberoid Co., The, 1044-1045
Standard Lime & Stone Co., 10-17
United State* Gypnum Co., 104X
Western Kelt Works, 10-19
Xonolitt! Company, 1050-1051
SPRAY EOUIPMENT
ItinkB Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Cooling Tower Co., Inr., 971
Unit IleaterS Cooler Co,, 99-1
SPRAY NOZZLKS
American Blower Corp., H.">0-X51
Baker lee Machine Co., xr»4-K5r>
Bayley Blower Company, UNO
HinkH Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Korw' Company, 9KI
Chinigit I«'an Company, K5K
Cooling Tower Co., Inc., 971
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Mnrley Co., The, 974
Murtocello, Jon. A. & Co., HOO
Mueller Bram Co., 1004-1005
Niagara Blower (Company, 80H
1'arkH-Cramer Co,, K09
Streamline Pipe and Fitting Co.,
10(W-1(HJ5
B. F, Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co., 876
Yarncll- Waring Co., 1129
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
SPRAY NOZZLE COOLING
SYSTEM
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bayley Blower Co., 980
Binks Mfg. Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Co., 981
Clarage Fan Co., 858
Cooling Tower Co., 971
Marley Company, 974
Niagara Blower Co., 808
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, 872-873
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
STACKS, Steel
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1099
Brownell Co., 1130
E. Keeler Company, 958-959
STEAM HEATING SYSTEMS
(See Heating Systems, Steam)
STOKERS, Mechanical, An-
thracite
Babcock & Wilcox Company, 954
Combustion Engineering Co., 1132
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp.,
890-892
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 800
Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 1134-1135
vSchwiUer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
Vulcan Anthracite Stoker Co., 1137
STOKERS, Mechanical, Bitum-
inous
Babcock & Wikox Company, 054
Brownell Company, 1130
Butler Manufacturing Co., 1131
Combustion ICngineering Co., 1132
Dtilco-Frigldaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp.,
Detroit vStoker Company, 1133
Fairbanks Morse & Company, 800
Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 1134-1135
Ivtilvinator Div. of Nash-Kelvin-
ntor Corp,, 907-911
Meyer Furnace Company, 917
Herman Nelson Corp., 100-1-1005
SchwiUer-Cummins Co., 880, 1130
STOKER MOTORS, (Sec Mnlars,
tilrdric)
STRAINERS, Dirt
Hunuft & Jones, Incorporated, 1100
Crane Co., 940-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
General Controls, 1145
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
Ill 2-1 113
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence tenKinecring Co., 1154
Sterling ICngincering Co., 1121
Warren Wrlwter & C'o., 3124-1127
Wright-AuHtin Co., 1128
Zonollto Company, The, 1050-1051
STRAINERS, Oil
Crane Co., 94(5-9-17
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Staynew Filter Corp., 932-933
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
STRAINERS, Steam
Crane Co., 946-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
General Controls, 1145
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Wright-Austin Co., 1128
STRAINERS, Water
Crane Co., 94G-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
General Controls, 1145
Illinois Engineering Co., 1113-1115
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
McDonnell & Miller, 93H-939
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Staynew Company, Inc., 932-933
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
TANK COILS (See Coils, Tank)
TANK COVERING (See Covering,
Pipes and Surfaces)
TANK GAGES, Oil
Liriuidometer Corp., 1010
TANK HEATERS (See Healers,
Tank)
TANKS, Blow-off
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Farrar & Trefts Incorporated, 955
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 900-901
TANKS, Pressure
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Bell and Goasctt Co., 100(5- 1007
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1099
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 9-14-945
Butler Manufacturing Co., 1131
Farrur & Trefts Incorporated, 955
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
JCcwnnee Boiler Corp., 900-901
H, A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
TANKS, Storage
American Radiator Company, 884-
8S5, 940-943, 1001
1C. B. Badger & Sons Co., 97(5
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1099
Brownell Company, The, 1130
Burnham Boiler Corp., 944-945
Butler Manufacturing Co., 1131
Farrar & Trefts Incorporated, 955
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-900
Kcwanee Boiler Corp., 900-901
Numerate following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog, Data Section
1183
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Air Devices Corporation. Thermal
Units Div., 84=9
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 1106
Beaton & Cadwelll Mfg. Co.,
1104-1105
Bell & Gossett Co., 1006-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Carrier Corporation, 853
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Dole Valve Company, The, 1158
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Fox Furnace Co., The, 893-897
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Mercoid Corporation, The, 1150
Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Penn Electric Switch Co., 11/51
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-973
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1 1127
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 870
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
Yarnell-Waring Co., 1129
Young Regulator Co., 935
THERMOMETERS, Distance
Type
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Liquidometer Corp., 10KJ
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
United States Gauge Co., 1020
THERMOMETERS, Indicating
Bell and Gossett Co., 1000-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Illinois Testing Laboratories, Inc.,
1014
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Liquidometer Corp., 1010
Martocello, Jos. A & Co., 800
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Palmer Company, The, 1017
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
United States Gauge Co., 1020
THERMOMETERS, Recording
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Liquidometer Corp., 1010
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
THERMOSTATS
American Radiator Company, 88 1-
885, 940-943, 1001
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Bell & Gossett Co., 100(5-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Carrier Corporation, 853
Consolidated Asheroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1MO-1141
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., <H)4-WW
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1U7
Mercoid Corporation, The, 1150
Minneapolis- Honeywell Re,gulat< »r
Co., 1148-1140
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
H. A. Thrush £ Co., 1010-1011
TOWERS, Cooling (AVr CtMtlinK
Towers')
TRAPS, Bucket
Armstrong Machine! Works, 1102-
1103
Cochranc Corp,, 1107
Crane Co., 940-947
C. A. Dunham Co.. 1108-110!)
Illinois Engineering (V, 1114-1115
Kideyfc Mueller, Inc., 1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Tnmc Company, The, 872-873
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
TRAPS, Float
American District Stezini Co.,
975, 1052
Armstrong Machine WorkH, 1102-
1103
Barnes £ Jones, Incorporated, 1100
Crane Co., iM 0-047
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Williams S. Hufnu* £ Co., 1111
Arthur Harris & Co., 1000
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co,, 1114-111,"
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Milwaukee Valve Co., 11 18- 11 Hi
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Wright-Austin Co., 112S
TRAPS, Float and Thermostatlc
American District Steam Co.,
975, 1052
Armstrong Machine Works, 1102-
1103
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 1100
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-110',)
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
William S. Haines & Co., 1111
Arthur Harris & Co., 1000
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Wright-Austin Co., 112K
TRAPS, Radiator
Armstrong Machine Works, 1102-
1103
Hiirncti & Jones, Incorporated, 1100
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
William S. Haines & Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 1112-
1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co,, 111H-1119
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Welxster Sr Co., 1124-1127
TRAPS, Return
Humes & Jonen, Incorporated, 1100
Crane Co., t)4(M)47
C. A. Dunham Co.. 1108-1101)
William S. Htiiney ft Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-im
Kie.leyKr Mueller, Inc., 1110
Milwaukee. Valve Co., 1118-1111)
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster £ Co., 1124-1127
TRAPS, Sicam
American District Steam Company,
075. 10f>2
Armstrong Machine WorkH* 1102-
1103
HarncH& Jones, Incorporated, 1100
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Crane Co., 04«M»47
(Irinwll Co., Inc., IIXKM002, 111(1
WilliamS. Hainc* & Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
IIUMIUI
Illinois Engineering C'o., 11M-1U."
KM«'y & Mueller, Inc., lUfi
Milwaukee Valvr Co., HlK-llUI
Mueller St«*tim Specialty Co,, Inc.,
1120
POWTH Regulator Co., IMg-llftf
Sarco ( ompuny, Inc., 1122-112H
Sterling Engineering Co,, 1121
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Adv<?rti«er«
1184
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Wright-Austin Co., 112S
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1129
TRAPS, Thermostatic
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 1106
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002,1110
William S. Haines & Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
TRAPS, Vacuum
Armstrong Machine Works, 1102-
1103
Barnes Si Jones, Incorporated, 1100
0. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
William S. Haines & Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
lllinout KnKineorintf Co., 1114-1115
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 11111
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Sarco Co., Inc., 1122-U23
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster it Co., 1124-1127
Wright- Austin Co., 1128
TUBES, Boiler
Babeook & Wilcox Co., 954
Bethlehem Steel Co., 1009
Carnegie- Illinois Steel Corn., 1100
Jonew & Uuwhiin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
TUBES, PI tot OSV* Air Measuring
and Recording Instruments)
TUBING, Brass
American HruM Co., 1002-10(18
Mueller Brans Co., 100-1-1005
Kevere Copper and HrasH, Incor-
porated, 1007
Streamline Pipe and Fittings Co.,
TUBING, Copper
American Bra«H Co., 3002-1003
American Radiator Company, 884-
,
M miller HriuK Co,, 1004-1005
Revere Copper and Hrusn, Incor-
porated, 1007
Streamline Pipe and Kittings Co.,
1004-1005
TUBINC;, Flexible Metallic (Src
alM Conduit, flexible; 7/mr,
JlrxWt)
Amerieuu Bratw Co,, 1002-1003
Bethlehem Steel Co., If MM)
Carnegie- UliuoiH Steel Corp., HOO
ChicuKo Metal Howe Co., 100K
TiteUex Metal Howe Co., 1000
TUBINC;, steoi
K Wilcox Co., Oft!
jone« & Uugblin Steel Corp., 1070
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
TURBINES
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
UNDERGROUND PIPE CON-
DUITS (See Conduits, Under-
ground Pipe)
UNIT HEATERS (See Heaters,
Unit}
UNIT VENTILATORS (See Yen-
tilators, Unit)
UNITS, Air Conditioning, (See
Air Conditioning Units)
V-BELT DRIVES
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Frick Company (Incorporated), 861
WorthinRton Pump £ Machinery
Co., 850-857
VACUUM HEATING SYSTEMS
(See Heating Systems, Vacuum)
VALVES, Air
American Radiator Company, SS4-
885, 940-043, 1001
Anderson Products, Inc., 115(5-1157
Beaton £ Cadwcll Mfg. Company,
1104-1105
Bell & Gossctt Co., 1000-1007
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-973
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Burnharn Boiler Corp., 941-945
Cnrbondalc Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Co., 850-857
Consolidated Aahcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Division of Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 859
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Dole Valve Company, 1158
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co., 904-905
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Jenkiiifl Bros., 1159
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
New York Air Valve Corp., 1116
Spence Kngineoring Co., 1154
Sterling Knginucring Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Wright-Auwtin Co., 1128
VALVES, Angle, Globe and
Cross
American Bran* Co., 1002-1003
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 10<il
Baker lee Machine Co., 854-855
Burnluun Boiler Corp., 944-945
Carbomlale Div., Worthington
Pump it Machinery Co., 850-857
Consolidated Anhcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1012
Cram* Co., 940-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-3141
Krick Company ( Incorporated), 801
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Milwaukee Valve Co,, 1118-1110
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Streamline Pipe & Fittings Co.,
KMW-1005
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
VALVES, Automatic
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Anderson Products, Inc., 1156-1157
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Beaton & Cadwell Mfg. Company,
1104-1105
Bell & Gossett Co., 1006-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
New York Air Valve Corp., 1100
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, The, 872-873
VALVES, Back Pressure
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Crane Co., 940-947
Fcddcrs Manufacturing Co., 901
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
VALVES, Balanced
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 040-947
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
VALVES, Blow-off
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Consolidated Aahcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 94(5-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1 HI
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1129
VALVES, By-pass
Beaton fc Cadwell Mfg. Co., 1104-
1105
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 940-947
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Kiclcy & Mueller, Inc., 1110
VALVES, Check
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co,, 940-947
Fcddcrs Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company (Incorporated), 8f51
Gilbert^: Barker Mfg., Co., 1)01-900
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to pages in the Catalog Data Section
1185
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
Taco Heaters, Inc., 1008-1009
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1147
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
VALVES, Diaphragm
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Johnson Service Co., 1146-1147
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
101&-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
VALVES, Expansion
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
Crane Co., 946-947
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales
Corporation, 890-892
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
VALVES, Float
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
Anderson Products, Inc., 1156-1157
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Crane Co., 94C-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Dole Valve Company, .1158
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Arthur Harris & Co., 10C6
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1116
McDonnell & Miller, 938-939
Mueller Steam Specialty Co.,
1120
Spcnce Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
York Ice Machinery Corp., 877
VALVES, Flow Control
Bell & Gossett Co., 100G-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc,, 1013
Frick Company, 801
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Mueller Steam. Specialty Co., Inc.,
1120
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred Utilities Corp., 970
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Engineering Co., 1122
Taco Heaters Inc., 1008-1009
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
VALVES, Gate
American Brass Co., 1062-1003
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1061
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 940-947
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Grmnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
VALVES, Hydraulic
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 946-947
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Yarnall-Waring Co., 1129
VALVES, Magnetic
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Frick Company, 861
Julien P. Friez & Sons, 1144
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
VALVES, Mixing, Thermostatic
Barber-Colman Co., 1 138-1130
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Taco Heaters Inc., 1008-1009
VALVES, Non-Return
American ?rass Co., 1002-1003
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 940-047
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 991
Frick Company, 801
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Jenkins Bros,, llf>»
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
VALVES, Pressure Reducing
(See Regulators, Pressure)
VALVES, Pump
Crane Co., 040-947
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Trane Company, The, 872-873
VALVES, Radiator
American District Steam Co.,
975, 1052
American Radiator Company, 8K4-
885, 040-048, 1001
Barnes & Jones, Incorporated, 1100
Bell and Gowett Co., 100(1-1007
Burnham Boiler Corn,, 944-045
Crane Co., 94(W)47
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co,, 1 108-11 09
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
William S. HaincH & Co.. 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
New York Air Vulvc Corp,, 1100
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co,, 1121
Tranc Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
VALVES, Radiator, Electric
Motor Operated
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
903, 1058-1059
Jenkins Bros., 1159
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
VALVES, Radiator Orifice
American District Steam Company,
975, 1052
American Radiator Company, 884-
885, 940-943, 1001
Barnes £ Jones, Incorporated, 1106
Bell and Gossett Co., KXMV-1007
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1109
Grinnell Co., Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
William S. Haines & Co., 1111
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
1112-1113
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Milwaukee Valve Co., 1118-1119
New York Air Valve Corp., 1100
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Sterling Engineering Co., 1121
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
VALVES, Radiator, Pneumatic
Diaphragm
Bell and Gossett Co., 1000-1007
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Johnson Service Co., 114(1-1147
Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator
Co., JL148-1 MH
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
VALVES, Relief
American Radiator Company, H84-
885, 940-943, 1001
Baker Ice Machine To., SiM-SSii
Beaton & Cad well Mf«. Company,
1104-1105
Bell and Gossett Co., 100(5-1007
Cochnmc Corp,, 1107
Consolidated Anheroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co., 04(1-947
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Illinois Engineering Co., 1114-1115
Kieley & Mueller, Inc., 1110
J. K. Loneriflm Co., 1117
Milwaukee Valve Co., 111K-1110
Mueller Bniew Co., K)tW-100f>
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., Inc.,
1 1140
New York Air Valve Corp., 11(10
Tuco Heaters Inc., 100K-1000
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
Trane Company, Th«, K72-K73
York Ice Machinery Corp,, S77
VALVES, Safety
American Radiator Company, 88 l-
8SH, 0'lO-iM3, 10(U
Baker Itv Machine Co., H!M-«r»r,
Beaton & Cadwell Mf«. Company,
HlU-1105
Conwolidatecl Atiiicroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co,, 94(5-047
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
Frick Company ( Incorporated), S(U
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writing to Advertisers
1 IKft
INDEX TO MODERN EQUIPMENT
General Controls, 1145
[enkins Bros., 1159
". E. Loncrgan Co., 1117
^ew York Air Valve Corp., 1100
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
H. A. Thrush & Co., 1010-1011
VALVES, Solenoid
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 1155
Anderson Products, Inc., 1156
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1U1
Frick Company (Incorporated), 801
Julien P. Friez & Sons, Inc., 1144
General Controls, 1145
General Electric Company, 902-
5)03, 1058-1050
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1140
Penn Electric Switch Co., 1151
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Fulton Sylphon Co., 1142-1143
Trane Company, The, 872-873
VALVES, Stop and Check (See
Valves, Non-Return)
VALVES, Thermostatte
Alco Valve Co., Inc., 115,r>
American Radiator Company, 884-
R85, 040.9-13, 1001
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Beaton & Cadwell Mfg. Co., The,
1104-1105
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1140-1141
C. A. Dunham Co., 1108-1100
Feclrlers Manufacturing Co., 001
Julien P. Friez & Sons, 1144
Fulton Sylphon Co., 11412-1143
General (Controls, 1145
General Kleetrie Company, 002-
003, 105N-1050
Orlnnell Co,, Inc., 1000-1002, 1110
lllinoiH Kngineermg Co., 1114-1115
Johnson Service Co,, 1140-1147
M i nne; tpc >lia- 1 1 < mey well Regulator
Co,, 1148-1140
New York Air Vulva Corp., 1100
Penn Klectrie Switch Co,. 1151
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Sarco Company, Inc., 1122-1123
Spence Engineering Co., 1154
Sterling Knumettring Co., 1121
Tuylor I not fitment Companies,
1018-1010
Trane Company, The, 872-873
Warren Webster & Co., 1124-1127
Yarnall-WarhiK Co., 1120
VALVES, Wator Roftulatinfc
Beaton £ Curl well Mfg. Company,
Th«, 1104-1105
Hell and CJ<«wett Co., 1000-1007
ItinkH Manufac'turinK Co., 072-073
Consolidated Anhcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Crane Co,, 04(1-047
Detroit Lubricator Co,, 1140-1141
Kultim Sylphon Co., 1 142*1143
Gilbert & Barker Mfg. Co.. 004-000
Johnson Service Co., 114(MM7
Kteley it Mueller, Inc., 1UO
Mueller Steam Specialty Co., 1120
Penn Klectric Switch Co,, llftl
Powero Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Preferred UtilitieH Corp., 070
H. A. Thrush £ Co., 1010-1011
York lee Machinery Corp,, 877
VAPOR HKATING SYSTEMS
(See Healing Systtrns, Vapor)
VENTILATORS, Attic (See also
Fans, Electric, Propeller and Ex-
haust)
Air Controls, Inc., 878
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Binks Manufacturing Co., 972-973
Buffalo Forge Co., 981
Champion Blower & Forge Co., 982
Clarage Fan Co., 858
Coppus Engineering Co., 928
DeBothezat Division, American
Machine and Metals, Inc., 983
Dclco-Frigidaire Conditioning Div.,
General Motors Sales Corp.,
890-802
Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 900-901
General Electric Co., 902-903,
1058-10,r>9
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
Lau Blower Company, 879
Schwitzer-Cummins Co., 880, 1136
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Torrington Mfg. Co., 986-987
United States Radiator Corp.,
950-951
Westinghouse Electric & Manu-
facturing Co., 876
L. J. Wing Manufacturing Co.,
088-980
VENTILATORS, Floor and Wall
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 078-979
Anemostal Corp. of American, 1088
Aucr Register Co., The, 1089
Barber-Colman Co., 1138-1139
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Hart & Cooley Manufacturing Co.,
1000-1001
Independent Register Co., 1094
L, J. Mueller Furnace Co., 918-919
B. F. Sturtevant & Co., 985
Tuttlc £ Bailey, fnc.» 1092-1003
United States Register Co., 1005
Waterloo Register Co., 1000
Young Regulator Company, 035
VENTILATORS, Mushroom
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Oarage Fan Company, 858
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 018-019
Tuttlo & Bailey, Inc., 1092-1093
VENTILATORS, Roof
Air Controls, Inc., 878
Airthi'rm Manufacturing Co., 000
American Coolair Corp., 078-070
Autovent Win & Blower Co,, 077
Butler Mfg. Co., mi
1)« Hothczat Division American
Machine and Metals, Inc., 083
General Klectric Company, 002-
OOli, 1058-1050
Ilg Klectric Ventilating Co., 084
JohnH-Manville, 1042-1043
Merchant & Kvans Co., S07
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 085
VENTILATORS, Unit
American Blower Corp., 850-851
American Coolair Corp., 078-070
Autovent Kan & Blower Co., 077
Buffalo Forge Company, OKI
Klectrol, Inc., 808-800, 007
Ilg Klectric Ventilating Co., 084
Herman Nel«on Corp., 1004-1005
John J. Nesbitt, Inc., 1003
Staynew Filter Corp., 1132-033
Schwitter-C.iimminB Co., 880, 1130
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Trane Company, The, 872-873
L. J. Wing Mfg. Co., 988-989
Young Radiator Company, 995
VENTILATORS, Window
American Air Filter Co., 920-927
American Coolair Corp., 978-979
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 077
Buffalo Forge Company, 981
Coppus Engineering Corp., 928
Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 984
H. J. Somers, Inc., 031
Staynew Filter Corp., 932-933
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 985
Universal Air Filter Corp., 934
VIBRATION, Absorbers (See also
Sound Deadening)
American Brass Co., 1002-1003
Chicago Metal Hose Corp., 1008
Titefiex Metal Hose Co., 1069
WARM AIR FURNACES (See
Furnaces, Warm Air)
WARM AIR HEATING SYS
TEMS (See Heating Systems,
Furnace)
WATER TREATMENT
American Blower Corp., 850-851
Aquatic Chemical Laboratories,
Inc., 1101
Oakite Products, Inc., 1102
Cochrane Corp., 1107
Vinco Company, Inc., 030-937
WATER COOLING, (See also
Cooling Equipment, Water; Cool-
ing Towers)
Airtemp, Inc., 882-883
Baker Ice Machine Co., 854-855
Binks Manufacturing Co., 072-073
Carbondale Div., Worthington
Pump & Machinery Corp., 85G-
857
Carrier Corporation, 853
Cooling Tower Co., Inc., 971
Curtis Refrigerating Machine Com-
pany, Division of Curtis Manu-
facturing Company, 859
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Di-
vision, General Motors Sales,
Corporation, 890-802
Fedders Manufacturing Co., 001
Frick Company (Incorporated), SOI
General Refrigeration Corp., 804
InKcrsoll-Rand Company, 8G2-K03
Kelvinator Div. of Nash-Kclvin-
ator Corp., 007-011
Marlcy Co., Inc., 074
Servel, Inc., 871
Universal Cooler Corp., 874
Vilter Manufacturing Co., 875
York Ice Machinery Corp., S77
WATER COOLING TOWERS
(See Cooling Towers, Water)
WATER FEEDERS (See Feeders,
Water)
WATER HEATERS (Set Heaters,
Hot Water Service)
WEATHER INSTRUMENTS,
Indicating and Recording
Bristol Company, The, 1012
Consolidated Ashcroft Hancock
Co., Inc., 1013
Julien P. Fries & Sons, Inc., 1144
Johnson Service Co., 1140-1147
Numerals following Manufacturers' Names refer to paftes in the Catalog Data Section
1187
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Leeds & Northrup Company, 1015
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1148-1149
Palmer Company, The, 1017
Powers Regulator Co., 1152-1153
Taylor Instrument Companies,
1018-1019
WEATHERSTRIPS, Metal
Charaberlin Metal Weather Strip
Co., 1032-1033
WELDING FITTINGS (See Fit-
tings, Welding)
WELDING ROD
American Brass Co,, 1002-1008
Carnegie- Illinois Steel Corp., 1100
Mueller Brass Co., 1004-1005
Republic Steel Corporation, 1071
Revere Copper and Braae Incor-
porated, 1007
Wickwire Spencer Steel Co., 1007
WHEELS, Blower
Air Controls, Inc., K78
American Blower Corp., 8f>0-K">l
Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 977
Bayley Blower Company, 1)80
Buffalo Forge Company, OKI
Champion Blower it Forge Co,, OK2
("luniKc Kan Company, 858
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co.,
JH-MUIi
I.au Blower Co., S7J)
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., {H8-019
Nitignm Blower Company, 80S
Kchwitwr-CumminH t'o., 880, 11JJO
B. F. Sturtevant (\»., OST>
Torringlon Mf«. Co., 1
WINDOWS, Supplementary
Sash
Chambi'rlin M*»Uil Weather Strip
Co.,
Please mention THE GUIDE 1938 when writinft to Advertisers
1188
Roll of Membership
AMERICAN SOCIETY of
HEATING and VENTILATING ENGINEERS
1938
Contains Lists of Members
Arranged Alphabetically and
Geographically, also Lists of
Officers and Committees, Past
Officers and Local Chapter
Officers
Corrected to January 1, 1938
Published at the Headquarters of the Society
51 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y.
Officers and Council
AMERICAN SOCIETY of HEATING and VENTILATING ENGINEERS
51 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
1937-38
President - ...-D. S. BOYDEH
First Vice-President .....................™....E. HOLT GURNEY
Second Vice-president - - ........J. F. MclNXiR»
Treasurer.. - - - — ...........A. J. OFFNBR
Secretary , - - •« - ..A. V. HuTCHWSON
Council
D. S, BOYDEN, Chairman
E. HOLT GURNEY, Vice- Chairman
One Year Two Years Three Years
ALBERT BUENGER R. C. BOLSINGER J. J. ABBKKLY
F. E. GIESECKE S. H. DOWNS M. C. BEMAN
G. L. LARSON ' W. L. FLEISHER E. 0. EASTWOOD
W. E. STARK C. M. HUMPHREYS W. A. RUSSELL
Committees of the Council
Executive: G. L. Larson, Chairman; M. C. Beman, F. E. Giestcke
Finance: J. F. Mclntire, Chairman; W. L. Floisher, W. E. Stark
Meetings: C. M. Humphreys, Chairman; J. J. Aiberly, S, II, Downs
Membership: R. C. Bolsinger, Chairman; Albert Buenger, W. A, Russcl!
Advisory Council
G. L. Larson, Chairman; Homer Addams, R. P. Bolton, W. H. Carrier, S. E* Dibble,
W. H. Driscoll, H. P. Gant, John F. Hale, L. A. Harding, H. M, Hart, C. V. Haynes,
E. Vernon Hill, J, D. Hoffman, John Howatt, W. T. Jones, D. D. Kimball, 8. R.
Lewis, Thornton Lewis, J. L Lyle, F. B. Rowley, F, R, Still and A. C. Willard.
Cooperating Committees
A.S.H.V.E. Representative on National Research Council; J. H. Walker (one year),
A.S.H.V.E. Representative on A. S. A, Sectional Committee on Standardization of a
Scheme for Identification of Piping Systems (A-18): E. E. Ashley,
Special Committees
Committee on Admission and Advancement: E. J. Ritchie, Chairman (one year); T. H.
Urdahl (two years), and M. F. Blankin (three years)
Publication Committee: A. I. Brown, Chairman (one year); F. C. Mclntosh (two years),
and W. M. Sawdon (three years).
Guide Publication Committee: Albert Buenger, Chairman; S. H. Downs C H B
Hotchkiss, S. S. Sanford, W. H. Severns, and E. N. McDonnell, Advisory.
Committee on Constitution and By-Laws: R. H. Carpenter, Chairman; W. T. Jones, and
O. W. Ott.
F. Paul Anderson Award Committee: E. Holt Gurney, Chairman; E. 0. Eastwood, John
Howatt, G. L. Larson, and F. C. Mclntosh.
Committee on A.SJLV.E. Code for Testing Stoker Fired Heating Boilers: C. E Bronson
Chairman; L. A. Harding, H. M. Hart, F. C. Houghten, A. J. Johnson, J. F. Mc-
Intire, I). W. Nelson, Percy Nicholls, R. A. Sherman, and E. C. Webb.
A.S.II.V.E.-A.S.R.R. Committee on National Standards for Air Conditioning Applica-
tions: L. A. Harding, Chairman; Glenn Muffly, Vice- Chairman; W. L. Fleisher,
I). E. French, John Howatt, A. P. Kratz, H. J. Macintire, L. A. Philipp, C. W.
Walton, Jr., and W. E. Zieber.
Chapter
Cincinnati
Cleveland
Illinois
Kansas City
Manitoba
Massachusetts
Michigan
Western Michigan
Minnesota
Montreal
New York
Western Now York
Oklahoma City
Ontario
Pacilic Northwest
Philadelphia
Pittsburgh
St. Louis
Southern California
Texas
Washington, I). C.
Wisconsin
COMMITTEES— 1937
Nominating Committee for 1937
Representative
H, E. SPROULL
G. L. TUVE
J. J. HAYES
L. R. CHASE
{. B, STEELE
AMES HOLT
R. K. MIL WARD
L. G. MILLER
N. D. ADAMS
G. L. WIGGS
G. E. OLSEN
P. S. HEDLEY
F. X. LOEFFLER
J. W. O'NEILL
S. D. PETERSON
H. H. ERICKSON
M. L. CARR
P. W. SODEMANN
H. M, HENDRICKSQN
R. K. WERNER
M. I), KICZALKS
ERNEST SZEKELY
Alternate
C. E. HUST
W. R. BEACH
C. E. PRICE
A. H. SLUSS
WILLIAM GLASS
W. T. JONES
G. H. TUTTLE
R. E. BACKSTROM
L. H. LAJFFOLEY
E. J. RITCHIE
B. C. CANDEE
E. W. GRAY
H. R. ROTH
W. W. Cox
M. F. BLANKIN
. F. COLLINS, JR.
,. W. MOON
E. H. KENDALL
W. E. LONG
T. H. URDAHL
C. H. RANDOLPH
t
One Yrur
C. A.
W. L. FMMSHKR
KU.KJTT HARRIWJTON
A. P. KRATZ
H, C,
Committee on Research
W. A. DANIKLSON, Chairman
W. L, KLKLSHKR, Vice-Chairman
F. C. HOUGHTEN, Director
I)R. A, C. WILLARD, Technical Adviser
A. C. FIKLONKR, Ex~0jficio Member
Two 'Years
W, A. DANIKLSON
C. K. LEWIS
I). W. NELSON
C. TASKER
C-E, A. WINSLOW
3
Three Years
H. E. ADAMS
A. E. STACEY
G. L. TUVE
J. H. VAN ALSBURG
J. H. WALKER
Executive Committee
W. A. DANIFXSON, Chairman
W. L. FLEISHER J. H. WALKER
Technical Advisory Committees, 1937-193$
Committee on Air Cleaning— IP A: H. C. Murphy,* Chairman; M. L Dorfan, C. K.
Lewis,* S. R, Lewis, G. W. Penney, A. L. Simison, W. 0. Veclder.
Committee on Air Conditioning Requirements of Glass— IF-1&: M. L. Carr, Chairman;
F. L. Bishop, A. N. Finn, E. H. Hobbic, R. J. Lillibridge, R, A. Miller, F. \V.
Parkinson, W. C. Randall, L. T. Sherwood, J. T. Staples, C. Taaker * G. B. Watkins,
F. C. Wcinert.
Committee on Air Distribution— IP-21: Ernest Szekely, Chairman; S. II. Downs, M. K.
Fahnestock, F. J. Kurth, D. W. Nelson * C. H. Randolph, J. E. Schocn, G. L.
Tuve * J. H. Van Alsburg *
Committee on Air Friction-— IP-6: J. H. Van Alsburg,* Chairman; C. A. Booth, S, H.
Downs, C. M. Humphreys, R. D. Madison, L. B. Miller, L. G. Miller.
Committee on Atmospheric Impurities and Resulting Safety and Health Requirements
IP-26: Theodore Hatch, Chairman; J. J. Bloomileld, C. A. Booth, Philip Drinker,
Dr. Leonard Greenburg, Elliott Harrington,* H. B. Meller.
Committee on Climate and Air Conditioning — C-24: Dr. C. A* Mills, Chairman; Major
G. C. Dunham, James Govan, Dr. W. J. McConncll, C. F. Neergaard, Dr. F. M.
Pottenger, Jr., E. L. Weber, Prof. C.-E. A, Winslow.*
Committee on Comfort Air Conditioning — OH-22: C. Tasker,* Chairman; A. E. Heals,
F. R. Bichowsky, Thomas Chester, F. E. Gicsecke, Elliott Harrington,* R. K.
Keyes, A. B. Newton, C, P. Yaglou.
Committee on Cooling Load in Summer Air Conditioning — IP-30: J, H* Walker,* Chair-
man; C. M. Ashley, John Everetts, Jr., F. IL Faust, H. F. Hutzol, L. S, Morse,
A. E. Stacey, Jr,,* and R, M. Strikeleather.
Committee on Corrosion in Air Conditioning Equipment — IF-14: A. E. Stacey, Jr.,*
Chairman; A. F. L. Anderson, M, L. Diver, F. L. LaQuc, C. K. Lewis,* R, M.
Palmer, F. N. Speller, C. M. Sterne, R. T. Thornton, J. H. Young.
Committee on Corrosion in Steam Systems — IF-2: A. R. Mumford, Chairman; J. K.
Barkley, C. A. Dunham *T. J. Finnegan, R. R. Seeber, F. N. Speller, C. M. Sterne.
Committee on Effect of Water on Roofs — IF-29: A. B. Snavely, Chairman; M. R. Beasley,
J. B. Griffiths, Elliott Harrington,* E, H. Hyde, W. L. Murray, K. R. Queer, C. S,
Reeve, E. T. Selig, Jr.
Committee on General Air Conditioning Comfort Requirements— Oil- fa C. P, Yaglou,
Chairman; J. J. Acberly, R. R. Sayers, C.-E. A. Winslaw.*
Committee on Heat Requirements of Buildings — IF-8: 0. W. Armspach, Chairman;
P. D. Close, W. H. Driscoll, H. M. Hart, V. W. Hunter, IL H. Mather, E. C,
Rack, F. B. Rowley, R. J. J. Tennant, J. H. Walker.*
Committee on Heat Transfer of Finned Tubes with Forced Air Circulation— IP-IQ: K. B.
Rowley, Chairman; H. F. Hutzel, R, H. Norm, C. H, Randolph, W, K. Stark,
G. L. Tuve * C. F. Wood.
Committee on Insulation— IF-23: L. A. Harding, Chairman; K. A. Allcut, H. C. Bates,
H. C. Dickinson; J. D. Edwards, E. C. Lloyd, W. E. McMullen, R. T. Miller,
E. R. Queer, T. S. Rogers, F. B. Rowley, W. S. Steele, C. Tasker,* B. Townshend,
G. B. Wilkes.
Committee on Intermittent Heating— IP-20: E. K. Campbell, Chairman; W. L. Casnell,
Prof. E. F. Dawson, N. W. Downes, F. E. Giesccke, J. M. Robertson, J. H. Kitchen,
Prof. A. H. Sluss, G. L. Tuve.*
*Member of Committee on Research.
Committee on P$ychrometry—C-\\i F. R. Bichowsky, Chairman; C. A. Bulkeley, J. A.
Goff, Dr. E. V. Hill, F. G. Keyes, A. P. Kratz,* W. M. Sawdon.
Committee on Radiation with Gravity Air Circulation — IP-9: M. K. Fahnestock, Chair-
man; B. C. Benson, H. F. Hutzel, J. P. Magos, J. W. McElgin, J. F. Mclntire,
D. W. Nelson,* R. N. Trane, T. A. Novotney.
Committee on Relation of Body Changes to Air Changes— OH-3: Dr. E. V. Hill, Chairman;
N. D. Adams, J. J. Aeberly, John Howatt, A. P. Kratz,* P. J. Marschall, V. L.
Sherman ,
Committee on Sound Control — IF-1: J. S. Parkinson, Chairman; C. M. Ashley, G. F.
Drake, V. 0. Knudsen, R. F. Norris, C. H. Randoplh, J. P. Reis, A. E. Stacey,*
G. T. Stanton, F. R. Watson.
Committee on Summer Air Conditioning for Residences — IP-7: M. K. Fahnestock,
Chairman; H. A. Brandt, John Everetts, Jr., Elliott Harrington,* H. F. Hutzel,
K. D. M Honor, K. W. Miller, E. B. Newill, F. G. Sedgwick, J. H. Walker.*
Committee on Transportation Air Conditioning — C-12: L. B. Miller Chairman; T. R.
Crowder, F. B. Rowley, A. E. Stacey, Jr.,* L. W. Wallace.
Committee on Treatment of Air with Electricity — C-17: Prof. C.-E. A. Winslow,* Chairman;
R. D. Bennett, W. H. Carrier, L. W. Chubb, Major W. D. Fleming, R. F. James,
L. R. Keller, Dr. C. A, Mills, Prof, E. B. Phelps, Prof. G. R. Wait, Prof. W. T. Wells.
Committee on Weather Design Conditions — IF-31: W. E. Stark, Chairman; E. W. Good-
win, A. C. Grant, J. H. Kinccr, A. P. Kratz,* L. S. Ourusoff.
•Mcrnbor of Committee on Research.
Officers of Local Chapters, 1937-38
Atlanta
n<M<l<iuurtcrn, Atlanta, <»a.
MrttM First Tttftdtiy in Month
xfcfrttf, K. \V. KI.KIN
152 XaHsuu Street, N. W.
fftwy, C, T. BAKUK
7j;i<il<»nii Stnrt, S. W,
Cincinnati
H<M<t'iiurt<T:-i, (*in< iimati, Ohio
/A.* .SVfrHW Tuesday in Month
t, I. B. Hm.wrKN
Oil) Ohambrr of Omirarri'c Whig.
Mry, H, K. Srawi.i.
1<X)5 Aiwricun HuiltlinK
Cioldcn Cjatc
Hr*.uI«|U.ut(*m. Sun KnmciiH'**, Calif.
MtrtM Pint Tueftthty in Munth
. ». Nt. W«K«m
iii. . .
lfniv**rjty of C.ilifornlu
* • .
ia Tenth ft»t,, Oakland, Caht.
, Chu-uKo* III.
t'f .SVnmrf Al*<»diiy in Month
t. S, I. Kc»rtM,\VMt
,SV<rrfrtr.v, C. K.
tj N. Mirhittan
Iowa-Nebraska
Headquarters, Omaha, Neb.
President, M. J. STKVHNSON
ltM3 South aoth Street, Lincoln, Neb.
Secretary, W. R. WHITE
4&JU Larimorc Ave., Omaha, Neb.
Kansas City
Headquarters, Kansas City, Mo,
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, A. H. SLUSS
827 Miasissippi AveM Lawrence, Kan.
Secretary, GUSTAV NOTTBERG
914 Campbell Street
Manitoba
iktultiuurters, Winnipeg, Man,
Meets: Fourth Thursday in Month
President, D. F. MICHIB
402 Wiirdlaw Avenue
Secretary, U. J. ARC«TE
Ste. M, Kstelle Apis.
Massachusetts
Headquarters, Boston, Mass.
Meets: Third Tuesday in Month
President, JAMES HOLT
MasHadmsetts Institute of Technology.
" Cambridge, Mass.
Secretary, II. C. MOORE
(W Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, Mass.
Michigan
Headquarters, Detroit, Mich.
Meets: First Monday after the 10th of the Month
President, F. J. FttELV
050 Trombley Rd., Grosse Pomtu Pk,
Secretary, G, H. TUTTLE
J2000 Second Avenue
Officers and List of Chapters, l937-3S-~(Continued)
Western Michigan
Headquarters, Grand Rapids, Mich.
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, W. W. BRADFIELD
901 Michigan Trust Bldg,
Secretary, S. W. TODD, JR.
309 Paris, S. E.
Minnesota
Headquarters, Minneapolis, Minn.
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, R. E. BACKSTROM
Room 1981, First Natl. Bank Bldg.
St. Paul, Minn.
Secretary, F. C. WINTERER
836 Juno St., St. Paul, Minn.
Montreal
Headquarters, Montreal, Quc.
Meets: Third Monday in Month
President, G. L. WlGGS
University Tower
Secretary, C. W. JOHNSON
630 Dorchester St., W.
New York
Headquarters, New York, N. Y.
Meets: Third Monday in Month
President, W. E. HfliBBL ,
11 West 42nd Street
Secretary, T. W. REYNOLDS
100 Pinecrest Dr., Hastings-on-Hudson, N, Y.
Western New York
Headquarters, Buffalo, N. Y.
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, B. C. C ANDES
19 Tremont Ave., Kenmore, N, Y,
Secretary, W. R. HEATH
119 Wingate Ave.
Northern Ohio
Headquarters, Cleveland, Ohio
Meets: Second Thursday in Month
President, PHILIP CoilEN
401 East Ohio Gas Bldg.
Secretary, C. A. McKBEMAN
Case School of Applied Science
Oklahoma
Headquarters, Oklahoma City, Okla.
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, E. F. DAWSON
University of Oklahoma, Norman, Okla.
Secretary. E. W. GRAY
Box 1498, Oklahoma City, Okla.
Ontario
Headquarters, Toronto, Ont.
Meets: First Monday in Month
President, G. A. PIA-VFAIR
113 Simcoe Street
Secretary, H. R. ROTH
57 Bloor Street, W.
Pacific Northwest
Headquarters, Seattle, WaHh,
Meets: Second Tuesday in Month
President, W. W. Cox
3120 Columbia Street
Secretary, M. N. MUSURAVK
314-9th Avenue, N.
Philadelphia
Headquarters, Philadelphia, Pa.
Meets: Second Thursday in Month
President, L. P. HVNits
240 Cherry Street
Secretary, C. B. KASTMAN
530 Brookview Lane
Brookline. Upper Darby, Pa.
Pittsburgh
Headquarters, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Meets: Second Monday in Month
President, M. L. CA&R
P. O. Box 1046
Secretary, T. H. ROCKWELL
Carnegie Inst. Tech.
St* Louis
Headquarters, St. I-OWH, Mo.
Meets: First Tuesday in Month
President, G. W. F, MYKRS
3947 W. Pine Blvd.
Secretary, D. J, FA«;IN
oodruff Avenue
Southern California
HeadqmirterH, I-os Angeles, Calif.
Meets: Second Tuesday in Mtmtk
President, E. K. KKNUAU,
1U78 S. Los Angeles St«f*t
Secretary, J. K. PAfeK
1234 South Grand
Tex**
Headquarters, College Station, Texat
President, R. F. TAYLOR
000 Bunker's Mortgage Bldft.. Houston, Tex.
Secretary, W. H. BAW;KTT
Texas En^rg, Experiment Station,
College Station, Tex.
Washington, D. C.
Headquarters, Wa shins ton, D. C.
Meets: Second Wednesday in Month
President, L. OuRUSCW
411 Tenth Street, N. W.
Secretary, L. F. NOROINB
Room 203, 734 Jackson PL, N. W.
Wisconsin
Headquarters, Milwaukee, Wig.
Meets: Third Monday in Month
President, J. H. VotK
1900 W. St. Paul Avenue
Secretary, H. C. FRfcNTZttL
3000 W. Montana Street
Roll of Membership
AMERICAN SOCIETY of HEATING and VENTILATING ENGINEERS
1938
(Corrected to January 1, 1938)
HONORARY MEMBERS
BALDWIN, WM. J, (1915), New York, N. Y. (Deceased May 7, 1924.)
BILLINGS, DR, J. S. (1896), New York, N. Y, (Deceased March 10, 1913.)
BOLTON, REGINALD PELHAM (1897), New York, N. Y.
BRECKENRIDGE, L. P. (1920), North Ferrisburg, Vt.
GORMLY, JOHN (Charter Member), Norristown, Pa. (Deceased January 31, 1929.)
NEWTON, C, W. (Charter Member), Baltimore, Md. (Deceased August 6, 1920.)
HOOD, 0. P. (1029), Washington, D. C. (Deceased April 22, 1937.)
JELLETT, STEWART A. (Charter Member), (Presidential Member), Philadelphia, Pa.
(Deceased April 5, 1935.)
LIST OF MEMBERS Arranged Alphabetically
(Asterisk indicates authorship of papers)
1923; A 1918; J 1916) indicates, Election as Member 1923; Associate 1918; Junior 1916.
eft* 1933) indicates, Elected President in 1023 and is now a Presidential Member.
ABRAMS, Abraham (Af 1927; J 11)24), PrM..
Abbey I tatting Co,, Inc., HI Centre AvcM and
tfor mail), IM Clov* R<1,, New Rwhclle, N. Y.
ACIMSON, Albert R. (Af l«l»), Consulting Kngr.
(for mail), fiOJ Kcktf Theatre BW«., and SA2
< tat rum Ave»,, Symctiw, N, Y.
ADAMS, Benjamin (Af 1010), Commercial Mgr.
(for main, Amwintn Bloww Corp,, Room 7H1
Hroud Street Station Hlcl*. and 3000 W. Coulter
St., Oiiwn Utnc Manor, Xluhdolphia, Pa,
ADAMS, !k4»nj«mln C., Jr. (,V l«»»fi), Kngrg.
Student (for maih, 724 Ouuita»<iua, Norman,
Okla., am! 5IL7 Suncwt Drive, Kansas City, Mo.
ADAMS, Bruce I>. f/1 IttWJ), Gen. M«r, (for mail),
McDonnell & Miller, '100 N, Michigan Aviv and
Hrta Kawhrr Avc.. C*hi«i«o, 111.
ADAMS, Oharle* W. (A/ W20). Hnlmmun, U, S.
Radiator <4<iri»,, 1U21 VVo«t IUh St.
, ,
ADAMS, Harold K. (A/ 1««0), Chief Kngr. (for
nmtU, Nawli Knginrcring Co., Wilson R<IM South
Norwalk und Mrrrill Heights, Norwulk, C'onn.
ADAMS, NvU I). (A/ Wltf«; /I H»af>; J' «wa), Supt.
I-'rwnklin 2 tailing Station (for mail), 220 Second
Av<r,, S,WM anrl HJUi Kighth Avn,r S.W., Rochester,
ADDAMS, Homer (t'ktrtfr Mtmbtr; Liff Jl/rmM,
(PnHMrntM Mfmbff)* (Prt%, 102-1; l«t Vice-
I'rc*i,, I«a;»j Trcaji., I«lfl-1«22; Council, 1015-
HWAK l»rw., Kewanee Holier C'oM Inc., and
HWKiWxms Hotter Co., Inc., 101 Park Ave,,
NPW York, N. V,
ADLAM, T. Napier (Af »r«2), Vlcf-Preii. and Gen.
Mgr., Sitrco Mf«, Co,, l«J* Madiwrn Av<*., Now
York, N. Y.t uncl (for mail), M W«HinKtcm Ave.,
XVr^t Orang<% N, J,
ADtKK, Alph<mne A.* (M 101>1), Conaulting
Kngr,, JJft StC'wnrt Av^., Arlington, N. J.
ADLER, Jack C, (A 1937; J 1936), Sales Mgr., Air
Cond. Dcpt, Frigidaire Corp., 224 West 57th
St., New York, and (for mail), c/o B. W. Adler,
<H)S2 Groton St., Forest Hills, L. I., N. Y.
ADSHEAD, Bernard (/ 1936), Tech. Director,
National Air Conditioning & Humidifying Co.,
Ltd., 46 Britannic Bldg., Manchester, and (for
mail), T>3 Shamrock Rd., Birkenhead, Cheshire*
England.
AEBERLY, John J.* (M 1928), (Council, 1937),
Chief of Div. of Htg., Vtg. and Ind, Sanitation,
Chicago Board of Health, 707 City Hall, and
(for mail), 0225 N. Newcastle Ave., Norwood
Park P. 0., Chicago, III.
AHEARN, William J. (M 1929), Htg. and Vtg.
Kn«r., 21 Lake Rd., Cochituate, Mass.
AHLBERC3, Henry B. (A 1938; J 1933), Chief
Kn«r., Anderson Products Co., 17 Tudor St.,
Cambridge, and (for mail), 140 Orlando St.,
Mattupan, Mass.
AHLPF, Albert A. (M 1023; A 1918), Branch
M«r. (for mail), National Radiator Corp., 2124
Arch St., Philadelphia, and 43 Rock Glen Rd.,
Overbrook Hills, Philadelphia, Pa.
AIKMAN, Joseph M. (M 1930), Consulting Air
Cond. Kngr., 2351 N. Cleveland Ave., Chicago,
111.
AITKEN, James (A 1935), 740 Gladstone Ave.,
Windsor, Ont., Canada.
AKERMAN, Joseph Reid (J 1937), Htg. and
Air Cond. Engr. (for mail), Phoenix Oil Co., 700
Twiggs St., and 831-15th St., Augusta, Ga.
AKERS, George W. (M 1929), Secy.-Treas.,
George W. Akcrs Co., 16525 Woodward Ave.,
Detroit, and (for mail), R. F. D. No. 2, Birming-
ham, Mich.
ALBRBCHT, Henry P. (J 1937), Engr. (for mail),
Reinhard Bros. Co., Inc., 11 S. Ninth St., and
3521 Park Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ALEXANDER, Samuel W. (M 1935), Mgr. Htg.
Div., James Morrison Brass Co., 276 King St.,
S.W., and (for mail), 124 Kingsmount Park Rd.,
Toronto, Ont., Canada,
ALFAGEME, Braulio (M 1935), Engr., Mgr.,
B. Alfageme, Almagro 1. Madrid, Spam.
ALFSEN, Nikolai (M 1933), Civil Engr., Alfsen
£ Gunderson, A/S Oslo, Prinsensgate 2b, and
(for mail), Shabekk near Oslo, Norway.
ALGREN, Xxel B.* (M 1930), Asst. Prof. Mech.
Engr., University of Minnesota, Exp. Engrg.
Lab., and (for mail), 5109-17th Ave., S., Mmne-
AL£AN, wfiSam (A 1937), Prcs. and Treas. (for
mail), Allan Engineering Co., 724 E. Mason fat.,
and 2735 N. Farwell Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
ALLAIRE, Lucien (J 1937), Dramasc Engr.,
Department of Agriculture, Quebec Uty, and
(for mail), 2182 Sherbrooke St., E., Montreal,
Canada.
ALLCOT, Ed£ar A.* (M 1937), Prof, of Mech.
Engrg. (for mail), University of Toronto, Dept.
of Mech. Engrg., and 48 Foxbar Rd., Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
ALLEN, A. Walter (M 1936), Sales Engr., Pease
Foundry Co., Ltd., Toronto, and (for mail), 151
Glen Ave., Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
ALLEN, Carl V. (Af 1937), Engrg. Mgr,, Midwest
Air Conditioning Corp., 1909 Washington, and
(for mail), 5562 Clemens, St. Louis, Mo.
ALLEN, DeWitt M. (M 1936; J 1922), Dist. Mgr.
(for mail), Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 310
Board of Trade Bldg., and 6700 Olive St., Kansas
City, Mo.
ALLEN, William W. (A 1930), Pres. (for mail),
American Coolair Corp., Box 2300, Jacksonville,
and DaVinci St., Venetia, Fla.
ALLONIER, Howard R. (A 1936), Dist. Mgr.
(for mail), Buckeye Blower Co., Box 195 (425
W. Town St.), Columbus, and R. F. D. No. 1,
Powell, Ohio.
ALLSOt, Rowland P. (J 1934), Engr, (for mail),
Mathers & Haldenby, Archts., 90 Hloor St., W.,
and 89 Neville Park Blvd., Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
ALT, Harold L.* (M 1913), 115-27-225th St.,
St. Albans, N, Y.
AMES, Charles S. (/ 1937), Sales Kn«r., Barber-
Colman Co., Parker-Carpenter, Inc., 005 Mission
St., and (for mail), 550 Judson Ave., San Fran-
Cisco, Calif.
AMMERMAN, Charles R. (U 1916), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), 772 Century Bldg., and 3908
Guilford Ave., Indianapolis, Ind.
AMMERMAN, Andrew S., Jr. (J 1037), Sales
Engr. (for mail), Aerofin Corp., Ill W. Wash-
ington St., Room 704, and 4737 N. Hermitage
Ave., Chicago, 111.
ANAYA, Marvin (M 1937), Mech. Designer and
Draftsman, Bureau of Engineering, Room 367,
San Francisco, Calif.
ANDEREGG, R. H. (M 1920), Vicc-Pres., The
Trane Co., and (for mail), 420 N. Losey Blvd.,
LaCrosse, Wis.
ANDERSON, Carroll S, (M 1920), Mgr. (for
mail), American Blower Corp,, 211 Architects
Bldg., 816 W. Fifth St., Los Angelea, and 4267
Holly Knoll Drive, Hollywood, Calif.
ANDERSON, David B. (J 1938; S 1933), Engr.,
Wood Conversion Co., 1981 First National
Bank Bldg., and (for mail), 1335 Grand Ave.,
Apt. 6., St. Paul, Minn.
ANDERSON, Georftc A. M. (/ 1936), Secy, (for
mail), King Ventilating Co., and 409 E. Main
St., Owatonna, Minn.
ANDERSON, John W. (J 1937), Branch Engr.
(for mail), Sidles Co., Airtemp Div,, 502 South
19th St., and 101 South 34th St., Omaha, Nebr.
ANDERSON, Slfturd H. (J 1936; 5 1935),
Research Asst., Experimental Engrg. (for mail),
University of Minnesota, 208 Exp. Eng, Bldg.,
and Veterans Adm. Facility, Bldg., No. 14,
Minneapolis, Minn.
ANDRESEN, Garwood C. (J 11W8; ;S' I WO),
Branch Engr. (for mail), York let! Machinery
Corp., 471 St. Paul St., and IW Sommcrshire
Drive, Rochester, N. V.
ANDREWS, CfeOffte H. (A ltt»-n, Partnw and
Supt, Frank P. Andrews & Son, &>4 Nesliunoek
Ave., and (for main, 213 Meyer Avo., New
ANGERMEYER, Albert II. (,i 10««J. C>wro'r (for
mail), 110 N. Commercial St., and 70.> h. luirest
ANGUS^Frrnk M^'jA/ 1037), Branch Mxr.t for
mail). General RrfriKMftwn SaVw < »».. 1 Ml
Main St., Kansas City, Mo., and 38D8 Paikdale
St., Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
ANGUS, Harry H.* (W 1018). (Council, 1027-
192<J), Consulting Bmir., 1221 Buy St., and (for
mail), 34 Kurnham Aye., Toronto, Ont., ( anada.
ANNAS, Henry O. (.1 ll*»7), Salw-hn«w. Air
Cond. (for mail), R. L, SpiUloy itattimi Co..
1202 W, Fort St., and 4801 Bedford Rrt., Detroit,
ANSPACin&R, Thomas H. (J ltt»fl). I>l*t. M«r.,
Buffalo Forge Co., Dallas, Texan. .
ANTHES, Lawrence L. (A IflJW). Pre*., Impruil
Iron Con)-, 1-td.. 30 Jefferaon Ave.. ami (for
mail), Anthes Foundry, Ltd., «W Jkffewon Ave.,
and 119 Dowling Ave., Toronto, (tat.. C uimda.
APT, Sanford R. (Af I«35). Mech. Kn«r., New
York World's Fair H)3», Inc., AdnUniMtration
Bldff., and (for mail), 30-2<M08th St., KltiatitnR,
ARCHER, David M. (Af 1034), Sale* Renr. (for
mail), Siirco Co., Inc.. 143 Federal St,» Boston,
and 10 Thurlow St., West Koxbury, Mara.
ARDEN, Irwln L. (J IU87), Kn«r., Gantonia Mill
Supply Co., HCVi Independence Bld«.. and (for
mail), 1130 Queens Rd., Charlotte. N. C.
AREN^ER(J, Milton K. (A 1020), Prc». (for
mail), Robert Barclay, Inc., W2 N. Pctma St.,
Chicajso, and Wildwowd Unc, Htghlund Park, III.
ARGUK, Bagar J. (A 1»»5), SiUcn Kn«r., Anthca
Foundry, UU,, Saskatchewan Ave., and (for
mail), Ste 11, Kutelle Apt*., Winnipeg Man.,
ARMBRUSTBR, Frank T. W. (J/ 1836) .Sates
Kn«r., PortBinouth Supply Co., lg3a-34 GaUla
Ave., Portsmouth, und (for mail), 103 Hwt Ave.,
ARMIST^ATX WUHam C. (A/ 1W), Salett Engr.
(for mail), 20fl Church St., and Murfrecuborn
ARM^PAOH, Otto°W> (M 1010), Vtee-Pres. and
Chief En«n, Krocuchell Knalnwsring Co« ,215
W, (Ontario St., Chicago, and (for nwul), 205 b.
Summit Ave., Villa Park, 111. , ,A^
ARMSTRONG, Robert W. (J 1037
2800 E. Lake of the I»Ie» Blvd.. M
^ „
37; 5 ,
Minneapolis,
ARNDT, Htfnrlch W. (A 1035), M«r.. jib* and
Htg. Dcpt,, Sears Roebuck & Co,, 732 Broad
St.* and (for mail). 1114^ Ruwell St., Augusta,
ARNOLD, Robert S. (A 1026; J 1922), Pres.,
Lowell Air Conditioning Corp., 127 & Fifth St.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
ARNOLDY, William F. (A 1930), Branch Mgr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co,, and (for
mail), 415 Brainard St., Detroit, Mich.
ARROWSMITH, John 6. (Af 1034), Plant En«r,
(for main, Canadian Kodak Co,, Ltd., and 0
Humbcrview Rd., Toronto 0, Ont., Canada.
ARTHUR, John M,, Jr. (M 1923), Commercial
Sales Mgr. (for mail), Kansas City Power &
Light Co., 1830 Baltimore, Kansas City, Mo.,
and 3311 State Ave.. Kansas City, Kan.
ASHLEY, Carlyle M> (U 1931), Dir. of Develop-
ment (for mail), Carrier Corp., and 207 Brattle
SIEJMwdE.' (M 1012), Consulting JEnar.
(for mail), 10 East 40th St., New York, N. Y.,
and Middlesex Rd., Norton Heights, Conn.
ATHERTON, Alfred E. (A 1937), Director (for
mail), A. E. Atherton & Sons, Pty. Ltd., #83
Latrobe St., and 39 Esplanade, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia.
8
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
ATKINS, Thomas J. (J/ 1031), Mgr. Air Cond.
I>iv., C nrbondaie Machine Corp., Harrison, and
(for mail), iili S. Munn Ave.f East Orance N T
AtfGHKNBAUCH, Harry EV(^FlO;^Tork Ice
Machinery Corp., 1238-10 North 44th St
Philadelphia, and (for mail), 7105 Penarth Ave
t pper Darby, Pa.
AUSTIN, William II. (S 1037), York Tee Ma-
chim>ry Corp., i!00 Causeway St., Boston, and
Ai£?iviat>f *KM> £dum? yt" Iiaat Milton- Mass
AVKRY, JLvstiMT T. (A/ 1934). Prca. (for mail)
Avwy KiiKinrering Co,, 2341 Carnegie Ave
Cleveland, and 211-tt) Colby Rd,, Shaker Heights;
Ohio.
AXEMAN, James R. (M 1032; A 1031; J 1025)
Cftm. Sales M«r. (for mail). Spencer Heater Div
of LyrominK Mf«. Co., Box GOO, and N. Camp-
bell St., WiliianmiKttt, Pa.
AYERS, Karl II. (.-1 11)38; J 1035), Supt.. D. W
Ilickvy & Co.. l«Ktt University Ave,, and (for
mail), 18 W Palace tft,, St, Paul; Minn.
B
BACHMAN, Fr«d
IOS6), Contractor (for
St./ Philadelphia, and
ve., \ radon, Pa.
HtUcroat, St. Paul, Minn.
BA<;KUS\ Theodore U. L. (A/ 1010), Htg. and
Vttf. (for mail), ttOU-ttOtt Hill St., and 1018
Vaughn St., Ann Arbor, Mich.
BAPARA<X:o> Jfohn A, (A I»37), Owner (for
snail), ttndurtuYo Appliance Co., 115 W. Monroe
St., und li Southmor St., Mexico, Mo.
BADGftTT, W. Howard* (At HKJ7: / 1932),
KtttKirch Amt,, Texaa Knginecring Experiment
Station, Agricultural and Mechanical College of
Tetaft, P. (>. Hox 213 Faculty Kxchangft, College
Station. Tews,
BAKNDKK, Frederick <;. (A/ 1037), Pres. (for
nuiih* Thermo Air Conditioning Institute, Inc.,
IXft S, Alvtuado St., and 3021 Boycer Loa Angeles,
< ttlif.
BAHN8ON, Frederick F> (Ajf 1017), Vke-Prcs.
ami Chid f inter, (fur mail), The Uahnwon Co.,
1001 S. Mattluitt St.. Pres,, Southern Steel
Ktiiiupfnidi, lm\. T, O. Box 1W2, and 28 Covcade
Ave,, Wtiuiton «al«w, N, C.
BAILKY, Kd^Ard P,, Jr, (Ajf KKZW^ Dist. Repr.,
Iron Mrantan (*orp,f 3170 Went 10(Jth St., Cleve-
land, < Ihio. ;md (for mail), 151 Crocker Blvd.,
Mt. i'U'funis, Mit'h.
BAILKY, W. Muniford (A/ !»:«)), Managing
Ulr., Miuniur<l Ltuiley & Preston, Ltd., and Joint
Man;i«irtK l)ir,, British Trane Co., Ltd. (for
mtulu "NVwswtlc HIMIH**" C*I«rkenweH Clone*
t^mdon. K. C*. I, uml "Ultlbury Court," Daincs-
vray. Thorpe Bay, Kaunx, Kngland.
IJAIKI), 8. Aluu t,V/ lU.'i:.), ConmiltinK Kngr. (for
iniiilj, riUi (\mimt*rcml Mrrchanty National
Hunk I*ld«.. ami Mil K. Vir«lnia Ave., l»coria, 111.
BAKKR, <:. T. (A/ Ht:W). C(m«iiltin« Kn«r. (for
uiuit). 713 <;trna St., S.W., und ttlW Piedemont
Avr.. Athtntu, <>u.
BAK&K, (K'orftc R,, (A/ 1930), Pres. (for mail),
<J, R. ii;tkt*r t o,r Ltd,, U24 Adelaide St., W., und
37 Luiwin Av»»., Toronto, Canada.
BAKICK, Harold S. (/I 1W), SUct) Kn«r. RefriK-
n.iti'm, '-!UI.'» C h<;nH'r Av<:,, and (for nuiil), 241
Ji-f(«-i;.on St., H.tkciHl'u'Ul, Calif,
IIAKKR, Hurry tM Jr. (J IW*5;, Sitks Kngr, (for
nntih, Aiu^ricun Blower Corp., /X) W<?8t 4()th St.,
NVw Vork, and «Jtt»5 Third Ave.f Bnx>klyn, N. Y.
BAK.KR, Howard C. (M lil^l), Pros, (for mail),
Tin* Howard C. Buker Co,, lUK S, St. CUdr St.,
and HHH Manorwofxl Kd., Toledo, Ohio,
BAKKR. Irvinft C* (A/ IttaiJ, Viat-Prea. and
OfH<r«it,iii{( Mgr,, IHV I-co St. and Mad River
Kfl.. Day urn, Ohio,
BAK.KR, Ix>rnc P. (/ 11KJ7), KnKr., Caiui
Ckun-r.il Klcc-trk Co,, Ltd., und (for muil),
e.» Toronto, Out,, Canada.
BAKER, Richard H. (S 1936), Junior Engr.,
Chrysler Motor, and (for mail), 3765 W. Chicago
Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
BAKER, Roland H. (AT 1928; A 1924), Pres.,
R. H. Baker Co., ElkinS, New Hampshire.
BAKER, William H., Jr. (A 1935), Mgr. Western
Air Cond. Div. (for mail), American Radiator
Co., 816 S. Michigan Ave., and 1211 N. State
St., Chicago, 111.
BALDI, Giuseppe (A 1936), Engr. (for mail),
Compagnia Itallana Westinghduse, via Pier
Carlo Boggio 20 and Corso Racconigi, 39, Torino,
BALDWIN, William H. (M 1921), Sales Engr.
(for mail), 5757 Caas Ave., and 2432 Atkinson
Ave., Detroit, Mich,
BALL, WUliam (A 1936), Pres. (for mail), Inter-
sialf Beating & Plumbing Co., 521 Southwest
Blvd., Kansas City, Mo., and 1026 Shawnee Rd.,
Kansas City, Kan.
BALLANTYNE, George L. (A 1936), Mgr., Htg.
Sales Dept. (for mail), Crane, Ltd., P. O. Box
840, Montreal, and 141 Bedbrook Ave., Montreal,
West, P. Q., Canada.
BALLMAN, William H. (ff 1937), Division
Engr., Nash Kelvinator Corp., 2012 Chanin
Bldg., New York, N. Y.
BALSAM, Charles P. (M 1932), 324 Fourth St.,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
BAMOND, Manuel J. (M 1936), Engr., Reynolds
Corp., 600 N. LaSalle St., and (for mail), 4715
Magnolia Ave., Chicago, 111.
BANKS, John B. (A 1937), Branch Mgr., Minne-
apolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 2405 N. Mary-
land Ave., and (for mail), 4544 N. Larkin St.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
BANNER, F. L. Dan (M 1937), Branch Mgr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., and (for
mail), 5623 Corby St., Omaha, Nebr.
BANNON, Lucas E. (A 1935), Archt., 18 Church
St., and (for mail), 16 Church St., Paterson, N. J.
BARBIERI, Patrick J. (J 1936; 5 1933), Asst.
Engr., Armo Cooling & Ventilating Co., 30
West 15th St., and (for mail), 2166 Belmont
Ave., New York, N. Y.
BARNARD, M. Everett (A 1931; J 1929), Sales
Kngr. (for mail), Carrier Corp., 12 South 12th
St., and 341 Vernon Rd., Philadelphia, Pa.
BARNES, Arthur R. (M 1924), Chief Engr. (for
mail), U. S. Supply Co., 1315 West 12th St., and
320 East 70th Terrace, Kansas City, Mo.
BARNES, Harry P. (A 1936), Mgr., Construction
Dept. (for mail), Johns-Manville Sales Corp.,
2030 Walnut St., and 0101 Walnut St., Kansas
City, Mo.
BARNES, Herbert (M 1936), Mgr. (for mail),
Herbert Barnes Plumbing & Heating, Delta
Block, and 114 Grosvenor Ave., SM Hamilton,
Ont., Canada.
BARNES, Lewis L. (J 1937), Engr., Carrier
Atlanta Corp., 348 Peachtree St., and (for mail),
3005 N. Stratford Rd., Atlanta, Ga.
BARNES, Walter E. (M 1933), Pres., Barnes &
Jones, inc., 128 Brookside Ave., Jamaica Plain
(Hcmton), and (for mail), 7 Woodlawn Ave.,
Wellealey Hills, Mass.
BARNEY, William E. (M 1930), Mgr. and
Research Engr, (for 'mail), Hydraulic-Press
Brick Co., South Park, and 4929 East 108th St.,
Cleveland, Ohio,
BARNS, Amos A. (Af 1933), Owner (for mail),
440 W. State St., and 318 W. State St., Ithaca,
N. Y.
BARNSLEY, Frank R. (A 1936), Mgr., Air
Cond. Div. (for mail), Canadian General Electric
Co., Ltd., 1000 Beaver Hall Hill, and 0245
Byron Ave., Montreal, Que., Canada.
BARNUM, Charles R. (A 1938; 5 1935), 1494
Capitol Ave., St, Paul, Minn.
BARNUM, Marvin C. (M 1030; A 1928), Eastern
Repr. (for mail), waterman- Waterbury Co.,
1133 Broadway, New York, and Cherry Lane,
Moneey, N. Y.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
BARNUM, Willis E., Jr. (M 1033; A 1933;
J 1930), Mgr., Air Cond. Div., York Ice Ma-
chinery Corp., and (for mail), 30 N. Vernon fat.,
York, Pa.
BARR, George W. (M 1905), (Board of Gover-
nors, 1910), Dist. Mgr., Aerofin Corp., Land
Title Bldg., Philadelphia, and (for mail), Woods
End, Villa Nova, Pa.
BARRON, John T. (J 1037), Kinncy Mfg. Co..
3529 Washington St., Jamaica Plains, and (for
mail), 1867 Beacon St., Brookline, Boston, MUSH.
BARRY, James G., Jr. (M 1033), VIce-Pn-H. (for
mail), Elliott & Barry Engineering I o., -UM)
W. Pine Blvd., and 5051 Queens Avc., St. Louis,
Mo.
BARRY, Patrick I. (M 1920), (Peace Commis-
sioner), MIHVE (for mail), M. Barry, Ltd.,
4 Marlboro St., and Budaka, Sidney Park,
Cork, Ireland.
BARTH, Herbert E. (M 1920), Vice-Prcs. (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 6000 Russell St.,
and 700 Seward, Detroit, Mich.
BARTLETT, Amos C. (M 1919), Mgr., HtR. and
Vtg. Dept. (for mail), B. F. Sturtevant . C <>.,
Damon St., Hyde Park, Boston, and 30 Hotlines-
worth Ave., Braintree, Mass.
BARTLETT, C. Edwin (M 1922), Prca, (for main,
Bartlett & Co., Inc., 3223 Arch St., and 3111 W,
Coulter St., Philadelphia, Pa.
BARTON, Delbert H. (J 1930; 6' 1935), Box 4 t-K,
Somerville, Texas.
BARTON, Jay (M 1937), Mtfr., National Mt«. &
Engineering Co., 628 E. Forest Avc., and (for
mail), Box 221, Detroit, Mich.
BASTEDO, Albert E. (M 1919), Vice-Pres,-
Treas.-Mgr. (for mail), Burnham Boiler ( orp.,
Irvington-on-Hudson, and 55 Burnaidc Drive,
Hastings-on-Hudson. N. Y.
BASTEDO, George R. (J 1037), Lab. As«t,,
Standard Air Conditioning, Inc,, New RochdlP.
and (for mail), 102-30-86 Road, Richmond Hill,
N.Y.
BATES, H. Clifford (M 1937), Chief, Fibre Prod.
Lab. (for mail). Corning Glass Worka and K VV.
Sixth St., Corning, N. Y.
BAUER, Albert E. (M 1935), U. S. Air Con-
ditioning Corp., N. w. Terminal, Minneapolis,
and (for mail), 59 S. Victoria St., St. Paul, Minn.
BAUGHMAN, L. R. (M 1935), Htg. Kn«r..
Helms & Baughman, 103 N. Sheridan Rd.,
Waukegan, and (for mail), 2700 Kschol Ave.,
Zion, 111.
BAUM, Albert L. (M 1910), Member of Firm (for
mail), Jaros, Baum & Bolles, 415 Lexington
Ave., and 001 West 113th St., New York, N. Y.
BAUMGARDNER, CarroU M. (M 1028), Branch
Mgr. (for mail), U. S. Radiator Corp., 3254 N.
Kilbourn Ave., Chicago, and 002 Michigan Ave.,
Evanaton, 111.
BAUR, John W. (J 1930; 5 1935), 2f>17 Leland
Ave., Chicago, 111.
BAYSE, Harry V. (M 1923), Pres. (for mall),
American Furnace Co., 2719-31 Delmar Blvd,,
and 0959 Hancock Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
BEACH, Walter R. (A 1930), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co., 75
Public Square, Cleveland, and 1185 Yellowstone
Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
BEAN, George S. (A 1935), Mgr., Stoker Div. (for
mail), North Western Fuel Co., E-1203 Firat
National Bank Bldg,, St. Paul, and 4949-16th
Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
BEARMAN, Alexander A. (M 1937), Engrg.
Dept. (for mail), Twentieth Century-Fox Film
Corp., 444 West 56th St., New York, and 47
Edward St., Baldwin, L. L, N. Y.
BEAULIEU, Adrian A. CM 1937), Utilization
Engr., Boston Edison Co., 39 Boylston St.,
Boston, and (for mail), 535 N, Elm St., W.,
Bridgewater, Mass.
BEAURRIENNE, Auftuste* (M 1912), Consulting
Engr., 25 Rue des Marguettes, Paris, France.
BEAVERS, Georfte R. (M I'.e.H, Chii'f Knur..
Canadian Blower £ Forw r»t Ltd., \\ixKlwde
Ave., and (for muih, M Church St., Apt. *!>/
Kitchener, Ont. I'uiuda.
BEGHTOL, Jack J, {J 1W7*. ( <mtlit:nniT (tor
mail), JOH. 1C. Scannim S; Son*, In**.. I ..iwn-mv-
burg, Ind., :ind 3U7 Kllxwn Avc., Cincinnati,,
Ohio.
BECKKR, Walter A. {.U l'.KV»), Salo« Knar,.
Grinncll Co.. Inc.. •<•*-"> «• Woti-m Avi>,. and
(for mail), S.'IU M, Artosun Av*».. ( hiruyju. Ill
BEEBR, Frederick K. W. M I'.H.'n, Johnson
Service Co., 1!8 Kust UWli St., NVw York, N. V.
BEECHLER, Jack S. (J I«.i:i7». Oiv. Kepr,,
Kelvinator Corp., 17 H Kh<*lf* H,ivi»rty Bltiit..
Atlanta, C»ii.
BEERY, Clinton R. (,U l«.)i:n, OwiM'M»rf»». (for
mail), H<»ut is: Kt«»l HnKintrriim ('«»„ -10 N.
Dearborn St., and -t()t^ tir*M«nvnrw Ave,» ChtouKO,
111.
BEGGS, WllUam R. (M 1U27), Pre^.. \V. K.
BefiKH Co., W\T Ltoy<l HMK., and ((** nuin,
30HU Palutint* Avt>., ,VattI<*, \V.k«lu
BEIC;HEL, noxvard A. (,l Hii!7), Siilrn Rcpr. (tor
mail), Horman NHHon 1'orp.. ">C»a t't»ltniibia
BldK., Pittsburgh, ami 1207 Puritan RtL. K«»s«lyn
Farms, C'ariwMie, Pa.
BEITXRLL, Albert R. (.1 1SKW; J !»:«)), Mnr.. Air
Cond. Div,, (Jnrnott, Kastman tk KJentinni, Inc.,
2100 Arch St., Philadelphia. an<! (for mail*,
1M (VfHtvicw Rd.» ItywrKxi Hei«ht«, ri>t>rr
Darby, Pa.
BRLD1NC;, Harry H. (.1 It»»7), Chief Kn«r. (for
mail), tiathriKht. lnc.f 18 M) W. Uroatl St., and
2010 Chamber Laynv Avc.t Kichmoml. Va.
BELINC;, Karl H.* (.U l\m\ A HiWJj ^ IU25),
l*r«pri«*t<)r, Belinn lMU»infM»n« (to,. 1*4 14 Kith
St.. and (for mail), JiliW lath St., Nlotinr, UI.
BKLL, R. Floyd (Af HiHrt). Hram:h Micr, «for wait),
Huffalo Purfte C'o., 010 Kimhay Tower, an«t WW7
Giranl Av*4., S., Minneapolis, Minn,
BKLSKY, <Jtx>rjic A. (A IM7)> Air C'tmit. KnRr.,
Miui-Htic Rcfrirtrrator <'nrp., :«:* \\Vr<i «VJwl St.,
and (fttr maUj, 3012 (Jrand (Ntnr»urH«, New
York, N. V.
BELT, Newton O. (M IMftO, KHKFK, Drpl. (for
mail), 1C. L I>u Pont tl* Nemoum *: Co., and
824 Went 10th St,, Wilmington, Url.
BEMAN, Myron CI. (Jtt 1«2«), ((NmnciU 1»«4-
1DW7), Consulting Kn«r. (for mail>* lifinan &
Candee, a7-t Dt-htwirf Ave., and M Richmond
Ave., Huffnio, N, Y,
BEN H AM, Colin S. K. (J 1D37K A:m. MKr.-Htg.
and Vtg. Section (fur mail), Itcnhum it Sttrw,
Ltd., WJ Wigmorc St., London W, 1, and 31
Ormonde T<trruce, London, N.W, H, KitKland.
BENNETT, <:h*rle# A. (JW lil»<i), 17^) Harvard
St., N.W,, WaHhington, D.
BENNETT, *Mw!n A. (Af IWWJj A !«««', -
Sales Knur, (for rmul)» Anicriciin Blower O»rp..
5() West 40th St., N<*w York, and 4,"> i'<m«»ield
Rd., WM Bronxville, N. Y.
BENNITT, <5eorfte E. (Af 1U18), C(»nnt»iitbited
Kdlson Co. of N: Y., 4 Irving Place, New York,
and (for mail), 81 N. Broadway, White- I*luin»,
N.Y,
BENOIST, LoRoy JU (,Vf l»34), M«r. (for mtUl).
Benolat Bros. Sum>ly Co., 117 S, Tenth St., and
1500 Main St.» Mt. Vernon, 111.
BENOIST, Raymond E. (A ItKti)}. Mitr., Bcnoitit
UruH, Supply Co., and (for mnit;, 811 North 12th
St., Mt. Vernon, III,
BENSEN, Clarence L. (/ l\W». Kngr. (for mail).
McOuay, Inc., KKK) Broadway, N. K., and 2722
Benjamin St., N.tt., Minneapolis, Minn.
BENSINGER, Mark (J 1930), Sales Kngr.4 c:orn-
buationecr Stoker Corp., 10th a*d I> Sts., S.W.,
and (for mail), 27.'J7 Devonshire Place, Wueh-
ington, D. C.
BENSON, Bernard O, (Af 1037), Sales Promotion
Mgr., Chicago Branch (for mail), American
Radiator Co., 81 fi S. Michigan Ave., and 8127
Clyde Ave., Chicago, UK
10
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
BENTLEY, Clyde E. (M 1037), Consulting Mech.
Engr., G. M. Simonson, Room 430, 74 New
Montgomery, and (for mail), 1875 San Antonio
Avc., Berkeley, Calif.
BKNTZ, Harry (Af lt)lf>), Vice-Pres. (for mail),
Davis Engineering Corp., 10(54 E. Grand St.,
Klizabeth, and 18 Holland Terrace, Montclair.
N. T.
BEROHTOLD, Edward W. (Af 1027; A 1925),
Rate Kngr. (for mail), Boston Consolidated Gas
Co., 100 Arlington St., Hoston, and 20 Randolph
St., £„ Weymouth, Mass.
BKRGAN, John R. (J HW7), Repr. (for mail),
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 1220
Maditum St.. and WKI5 Monroe St., Toledo, Ohio.
BKRGHOKFKR, Victor A. (Af liW; J 1020),
Vice-Pre«,, Sterling KnRineerinK Co., 3738 N.
Holt cm St., and (for mail), 5-140 N. Kent Ave.,
Milwaukee, Wi«,
BKRGLUNl). NIel» W. (A 11130), Draftsman (for
mail), York lee Machinery Corp., 5051 Ktinta Fc
Ave,, and 721) S. Bonnie Brae St., Los Angeles,
Calif.
BRRMAN, toula K. (A/ 190K), Pros, (for mail),
KuiHler HeatinK Co., 12U Amsterdam Ave., and
aK."t Central Park West. New York, N. Y.
BERMKU Alfred II. (A im\ J 11)28), 10 William
St., North Arlington, N. J.
BKRNKRT, Lawrence A. (A 1087). Mgr. Htg.
and Air Coml. IX»pt. (for mail), The Maag Co.,
JM N. Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, and 381
IVrkiiw Blvd.. BurllnRton, Wis.
BKRNHAKD, George (Jlf UI35; A 1020), Manag-
inn Knxr., Associated Heating it Power Corp.,
1 Hantton Ware, and (for mail), 085 Park Place,
Brooklyn. N. V.
BKRNSTROM, Bert* (A/ W»0), Mech. Kngr.,
B. Itortwlrom Air Conditioning Consultant, 844
Riwh St., ChtaiRO, HI.
BKRKKUUS, <fcrl E. (A-/ 1»), Captain, Com-
mnndiftK twicer (XXI Camp (for mail), Co. 7K4
< '<*<!, and 101 Wisconsin St., Neodeslm, Kan.
ftKST, Mlllard W. (A IMrt), Pres. (for muil),
Kolflrctrir Underfeed Stoker Co., Ltd., iM5
Kcnilworth Avr. S., and 17f>0 King St. K,,
Hamilton, Ont., Cunuda.
IIKTLKM, Henrietta T. (J IWMU Air Cond.
Kn«r, (for main, Bellem Heating Co., 1020 K&st
Avr.. nnd 12U3 Park Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
BK'rW, Howard M. (M 11127), Senior Mech.
Knxr.. Htg. and VtK. (for mail), Dept. of Build-
ings, 218 Hty Hall, and 41)23 Jtosell Avc. S,,
Minneapolis. Minn.
BKT7*. Harry D. (At 1028), Prw, (for mail), BeU
Air Conditioning Corp., 0 W. Ninth St., and
1<UO Valentine Kd.. Kunnim C?ity, Mo.
mtVINCTON, <:urtm II. (M IttSft). Director of
Sale** (for mall). Marsh Tritrol C^o., 720 N.
MichiKan Ave,. ChtraKO, and Park Ridge, 111.
BIANC1ILU. Vincent A. (J 1037), Knw.,
Currier ('*>rp,. Chrynler Hldfr, and (for mail),
557 Broomr St., New York, N, Y.
IUHKR, Herbert A. (A 1087), Kn«r,f Mellon
National Bank, Kifth Ave, and Smithfielcl St.,
(f*»r mwil), IWWI Sim Juan St., 1C. Liberty,
uno. Ru«e»eU (M 1035), Consultant,
tt<»r mull), Dow Ohemleul Co., 204 Nickels
Arrud«, and 150H (banner St,, Ann Arbor, Mich.
BILLIN<;8LKY, Oliver F.» 2nd (J 1037), Sales
and n*«ittn Kn«r., C, K, Wflwm, Inc. (WeatinK-
houw I)i«t,l, 810 Broadway, and (for mall),
No. I* !,inc.«tn Apt*., 127 W. Cram Place, San
<;. (tf WMIO). M«r. Htg.
Warren Wrtmur «t Co,, 17th and I^fdm ,
<'»nvtlpn, ami (for mtul), n.r> <>ak Terrace,
le. N, J.
l H. a 1W7». ChW En«r..
u$U
, England.
BISCH, Bernard J. (M 1931), Engr., St. Mary-
of-the-Woods College, St. Mary-of-the-Woods,
Tnd.
BISHOP, Charles R. (Life Member; M 1901),
22 Sagamore Rd., Bronxville, N. Y.
BISHOP, Frederick R. (M 1921), Mfra. Agent,
8011 Dexter Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
BISHOP, Marion W..(/ 1935), Sales Engr. (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 228 N. LaSalle
St., and 7024 Sheridan Rd., Chicago, 111.
BJERKEN, Maurice H. (M 1937; A 1927), Sales
Engr., Hoffman Specialty Co., and (for mail),
4Q52-17th Ave. S., Minneapolis, Minn.
BLACK, Edgar N., 3rd (M 1922), Philadelphia
Mgr., Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., Inc., 1215-6 Land
Title Bldg., Philadelphia, and (for mail), 111
Woodside Rd., Haverford, Montgomery Co., Pa.
BLACK, Frank M. (A 1937), Chief Engr., U. S.
Government, Army Medical Center, Washing-
ton, D. C., and (for mail), P. O. Box 164, Silver
Spring, Md.
BLACK, F. C. (Life Member; M 1919), Pres. @or
mail), F. C. Black Co., 622 W. Randolph St.,
and 453.r> N. Ashland Ave., Chicago, 111.
BLACK, Harry G. (M 1917), Prop, (for mail),
P. Gormly Co., 155 N. Tenth St., and 927 North
(tfth fit., Philadelphia, Pa.
BLACKBURN, Edwin C., Jr. (M 1929), Con-
suiting Engr., Crow, Lewis & Wick, Archts,, 200
Fifth Ave., New York, and (for mail), 5 Kenwood
Rd., Garden City, L. I., N. Y.
BLACKHALL, Lewis C. (M 1935), Engr., Gurney
Foundry Co., Ltd., 4 Junction Rd., and (for
mail), 234 Brock Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
BLACKHALL, Wilmot R. (M 1922), Partner (for
mail), McKellar & Blackhall, 1104 Bay St., and
332 Waverly Rd., Toronto, Canada.
BLACKMAN, Alfred O. (M 1911), Consulting
Kngr., 145 West 45th St., and (for mail), 450
West 24th St., New York, N. Y.
BLACKMORE, F. H. (M 1923), Mgr., Operating
Dept. (for mail), U. S. Radiator Corp., Box 686,
Detroit, and 515 Tooting Lane, Birmingham,
BLACKMORE, Georfte C. (Charter Member; Life
Member), Pres. (for mail), Automatic Gas Steam
Radiator Co., 301 Brushton Ave., and Cathedral
Mansions, Pittsburgh, Pa.
BLACKMORE, J. J.* (Charter Member; Life
Member), 32 West 40th St., New York, N. Y.
BLACKMORE, James S. (J 1931), Philadelphia
Dist. Mgr., H. A, Thrush & Co., Peru, Ind., and
(for mail), 728 Manoa Rd., Upper Darby, Pa.
BLACKMORE, Joseph J. (J 1937), Sales Engr.
(for mail), McDonnell & Miller and Bell &
Gossctt, 400C Papin, St. Louis, Mo., and 312
S. Fillmore, Edwardsville, 111.
BLACKSHAW, J. L.* (M 1937; J 1929), Engr.,
Air and Refrigeration Corp., 11 West 42nd St.,
New York, and (for mail), 59 Joralemon St.,
BLBAIR^SfowaVd'A. (A 1937; / 1935), Air Cond.
Service Engr., Westinghouse Electric & Mfg.
Co., «i>3 Page Blvd., and (for mail), 105 Edendale .
St., Springneld, Mass.
BLAKELEY, Hugh J. (Af 1935). Consulting
Bngr. (for mail), Hubbard, Rickerd & Blakeley,
1109 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn., 110 State
St., Boston, Mass., and 5 Doty Place, New
Haven. Conn.
BLAKESLEE, Donald (A 1935), Pres. (for mail),
Donald Blakeslee, Inc., 89 E. Main St., Patcho-
gue, and Main Rd., Bellport, N. Y.
BLANDING, Georfte H. (M 1919), Salesman,
Johnson Service Co., 1355 W. Washington Blvd.,
Chicago, and (for mail), 729 Hayes Ave., Oak
BLANKIN, Merrill F. (M 1927; A .1026; / 1919),
Pres. (for mail), Haynes Selling Co., Inc., S. L.
Con Ridge Ave. and Spring Garden St., and
528 E. Gates St., Roxboro-in., Philadelphia, Pa.
BLASr Romualdo J. (M 1930), Apartado Postal,
1006 Caracas, Venezuela. .
BLEDSOE, Raymond P. (/ 1937), Design Engr.,
Trane Co., and (for mail), 2201 George St.,
LaCrosse, Wis.
11
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
BLESSED, WllHam A. (A 1935), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Mueller Brass Co., 1925 Lapeer Ave., and
1407 Court St., Port Huron, Mich.
BLISS, George L. (A 1933), Engr. and Sales (for
mail), Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., llth and Main
St., Room 1410 Waldheim Bldg., and 7(H1
Brooklyn Ave., Kansas City, Mo.
BLOOM, Louis (M 1935), Partner, B. Bloom &
Son, and (for mail), 1450-52nd St., Brooklyn,
N. Y.
BLUM, Herman, Jr. (J 1936), Engr., Leo S, Weil
& Walter B. Moses, Cons, Engrs,, 42f> S. Peters
St., and (for mail), 613IH Hurst St., New
Orleans, La.
BLUMENTHAL, Moritz I. (M 1930), Engrg. In-
structor, (for mail), Air Cond, and Rcfrifieration,
National Schools, 4000 S. Figueroa St., and
648 W. Santa Barbara Ave., Los Aageles, Calif.
BOALESr William G. (M 1935; A 1923), Mpr
(for mail), Win. G. Boales and Associates, 0430
Hamilton Ave., Detroit, and 195 McMillan Rtl.,
Grosse Pointe Farms, Mich.
BOCK, Bernard A. (A 1020; J 1927), Mech.
Engrg. Draftsman, 57 Elizabeth Avc., Arlington,
BOCK. I. I. (A 1934), Pres. (for mail), Carrier-
lii South
BORLINC, John R. (,l ,,„,«,, ™>;r,-v »»inwan
(for mail), Chicago Board of Induration. S)">10
S. Prospect Avc., and i»r>3 Kaat 81th Mace,
Chicago, 111.
BORNKMANN, Walter A, (.U WiM
Sales Knur, (for mail), Carrier Corp
12th St., Philadelphia, and Ilia \V. \Vh irton
Ave., Glenside, Pa.
BORNSTOIN, WfWIam.Cl 1«:*7>. Pros, and
rreaa., \\ilhani Dornstfin, Inc., UKM) \V( Hnnid
St., Kethlchem. Pa.
BORUCH, Edwin R. (A i»;w. Vi^l'rPs (for
mail), Standard Klootric Mf«. iN>.f HOL'O Ru-hurd-
BOTELnO, NantoJ. (.1 li^7n hiiK^'aml M«r.,
< cibnisit Rcpreacntacnw Uda. (i'nr nwih. Kua
General (. amara, «4 -71) andar, Kio do Janeiro,
BOUCJIERLK?"Henry N. (A/ ls»«n. Sivy, (for
mail), The SeUolK'hoffin Co., Mahmjin« AVT
and Hojsuc St., and a-t!2 HutiDon Av..., Ynwnjw'
(for mail), B. K. Sturtrvani tto.'.AM : •* ** ™KT'
Bldie., and '"
BOUILLON,
, Walter F. (A 1937), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Modine Mfg. Co., 420 E. Wells St., Mil-
waukee, and 628 Michigan St., South Mil-
waukee, Wis.
BODDINGTON, William P. (M 1027), Mgr. (for
mail), Canadian Powers Regulator Co., Ltd.,
195 Spadma Ave., and 280 Clendcnan Ave.,
Toronto, Ont., Canada.
BODINGER, Jacob H. (Af 1931), Pres. (for mail),
B°An^ S Co" In«c" 53° Tcntfa A™-« New York
and 1429 East 19th St., Brooklyn, N, Y.
BOOMER, Emmanuel (M 1937), Knar Oil
Htg William8-Oil-0-Mat* Burner, 2$Boul£
(f
; ^ - i -
BOWERMAN, Rvmtt L. (.1 IM7), Sale.s Knur
Canadian <ioncral Klwjrlp Co., I.W., 2W Kin!
Ont Can?^°r ie*vnt Rd., Toronto,
BOWE'RS, Arthur F.
BOWLES, Kdmuml N. (.1 1«KJ7) Air
- -
CWea«i», III.
Potter
U»iv«, and
(tor nuil)
"
, .
BOEHMER, Andrew P. (J 1937; S 1935), Sales
Engr,, Mills Novelty Co., 4100 Fullerton
and (for mail), 3012 N. Kostner Av£T
f« " «W»
, SiHtneor ; W. <A/ HOT; J IKU», Cinwultinn
Knur, tfor mail), Kewc.t«nh «: Boyci; TiW VV lt"n
n«««»7uniKar.S.
iv .euuregne
mil)'
BOLTE E. Endicott A 1929), Salesman, National
Radiator Corp,, 11U East 83rd St and
mail), 6518 Kenwood Ave., Chicago, ill
B(»i'T<?NN' ^^l*1 p«* (honorary M
Member) (Presidential Member) > (P
1st Vice-Pres., 1905-1910; 2nd viceS
BOND, Horace A. (M 1930),
Webster & Co., 1^ Washington A
mail), 12 Ramsey Place, Albany NT Y
n -.
BOYIX Thomaw I). (,V/
Sffi^te
4^0 lirie
BOY1>XN, Dftvls S.* (\t
BOZEMAN, Richard W* (.V/ U):j(j.
4.W S, Affafend Ave., Leriniton, Ky.f
BRAATZ, Obiter J.* (A/ luao) Salea
Temperature Control ^und
BRABBfeB, Dr. Oharleft W> (A/ 1$>2;>), (far mull)
American Radnor Co.. 40 West 4<ih St. New
MLwfeSh? fuUnf?In Avc" TuckahS. N Y.
BRACKEN, John II. (A/ 1027) Mur ItuluHfH'ti
tt?wl>«Pt. (for nuiilk CelJtex tSrp . «l? Ij1
Mlchlitan Ave., and 4&> Oakdalc Av«,t CUica«V»;
"SSTS^^ga
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
BRADFORD, Gilmore G. (M 1036), Mgr.,
Frigidaire Div.t General Motors China, Ltd.,
201 Route Cardinal Mercier, Shanghai, China.
BRADLEY, Eugene P. (At 1900), Pros, (for mail).
Hester- Bradley Co., 2835 Washington Avc., and
G935 Perahin« Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
BRANDI, O. H. (A/ 1030), Dipl. Ing., Rud. Otto
Mpyer, Hamburg 23, and (for mail), Reinbek/
Hamburg, Hamburgcrstr. 14, Germany.
BRANDT, Krnst H., Jr. (A/ 1928;, Pres., Reliance
Engineering Co., Inc. (for mail), P. O. Box 1292.
and 1101 Providence Rd., Charlotte, N. C.
BRATT, Hero D. (At 1037), Sales Engr., Warren
Webster it Co,, 228 Ottawa Ave., N.W., and (for
mail), 2li:>U Stafford Ave., S.W., Grand Rapids,
BRAUKR. Roy (A/ 1920). Prop, (for mail),
Ventilating Equipment Co., Magee Bldg., and
f>7(i Aubtin Ave,, Mt. Lebanon, Pittsburgh, Pa.
BRAUN, John J. (AI 1932), Factory Mgr., U. S.
Muyinic Card Co., Norwood Station, Cincinnati,
and (tor mail), 430") Floral Ave., Norwood, Ohio.
BRAUN, LouiH T. (At 11)21), Executive Secy, (for
mail), C'hicaK<» Master Stvamlittcrs Association,
L'L'S N. USulle St, and 1548 Pratt Blvd.,
Chicago, 111,
BRAYMAN, Albert 1. (J 1937), Draftsman and
Itatiimitor, Kdw. Braynum, Heating Contractor,
81 t'liambcni St.. Bonton, and (for mail), 2 Page
St., Dorcht»nt<kr, Maws.
URKCKKNRUX;*:, L. P.* (Honorvry Member;
Ltjt Atttntor; At 1920), The Brackens, North
K<»rririimrft. Vt.
HREDKSKN, Bcrwhard P. (A 1931), Knar, (for
nwill, K«H'ie £ Hmhwn. 410 Essex Bltig., und
*'WJU Knoit Avc., N., Minneapolis Minn.
BRKNKMAN, Robert I*. (A 1931; J 1927), Sales
Kngr. (for mail), Armstrong Cork £ Insulation
Co., 1U1 Orchard Lane, Columbiw, Ohio.
BRK21NA, Edwin A, (J 1937; .V 1930), 3731 East
laisi St., Cleveland, Ohio.
BRU>K, WlHIftm T. (A/ 1928; J 1925), Supt.
KnKig., Kridt'-GrimoH £ Co., 9 Franklin St. (for
m;uU» I\ O. Box 777 Uwrence, and 60 High St.,
MHhucn, Maw».
BRIGHAM, <Uar« M. (A/ I03r»), Vice-Pres. in
ch.trRtt oi «U**« (for mull), C. A. Dunham Co.,
•»;*> K. Ohio St., Chicago, and 420 Maple Ave.,
Wiwu'tku, I!i.
BRIGHTLY, Frederick a, Jr. (A itw), vice-
Prc-M,, Suuulanl Galvanizing Co., 2019 W. Van
Huwn St., und (Jor mail). 917 S. Austin Blvd.,
riwMjto. 111.
IIRXNKKR, Marry A. (M 1934), 524 Village St.,
KaUtmu/nn, Mich.
BRINTON, Jowtph W. (M 1920), Dist. M«r. (for
mut), American Itluwer Corp., 1(X)3 Stnxler
,. tiimu>ii. and 42 Gltttaon St., West Med-
, >
BKIS«K'1TK, L«o A. (A/ 1030), Treaa. (for mail),
Triftk H«Mtinx Co., 4 Merrimac St., Uouton, and
ItJS M<»r**ncr St., MHnw, Mu»8.
imo<;HA., Jt»hn F, (At 193(1), Huyor of Plb«. and
HtK.» Mnntitnmwy Ward «t Co., 019 W. Chicago
'
.»
., itml (Jor mail), M7f> Hinwh St., ('hteMCO, 11U
BKCKIKINl'ON, CJ. K. (A 1937), Air Cond, Sales
Kt. Oor utttih* Artvuncwl Refrigeration, Inc.,
» I'nwhtrw St,, N.K.. an<l 138-i W. Peuditrce
St , N.K,, Atliimu, Cla.
IftKOIHtRlCK, Kdwln L.* (W 1933), Retwarch
A*!rt- in Mwli. KfiKftf. (for mull), University of
illmwb, tttti M. K. I-ub., Urbiintt, und 909
St,,
n, 111*
ttRONSON, <*4irloB K.* (M 1919), Mech. Engr,
(tor mail), Ki-wamir Holler Corp., and 311
McKitilcy Avr.t Krwunce, 111.
BR(M)KK, Irvlnft K. (A/ 1937), Consulting Kngr.
(for luttit), 1HU W, Mttdfoon St., Chicago, and
^:«) Keystone Avt?,, River Korest, 111.
BROOKS, Herbert ». (A 1937), Stil<* Engr.,
Smith hi«trihutin« C'w., W*l K. Broadway,
Uouinvillc, awti (tor mail), Anchorage, Ky.
BROOM, Benjamin A. (M 1914), Sales Promo*
lion Kn«r,, W«ll-McUln Co., Ml W. I-uke St.,
ami <for mail), ir>;n l*ar«o Ave., Chicago, 111.
BROOME, Joseph H. (.4 1936), Sales Engr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 801
Second Ave., New York, and (for mail), 1556
Pacific St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
BROWN, Alfred P. (M 1927), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Reynolds Corp., 609 N. LaSalle St.,
Chicago, and 551 Hill Terrace, Winnetka, 111.
BROWN, Aubrey I.* (M 1923), Prof, of Htg. and
Vtg. (for mail), Ohio State University, and 169
Richards Rd., Columbus, Ohio.
BROWN, David (M 1936), Owner (for mail), 67
Cooper Square, and 54 West 174th St., New
York, N. Y.
BROWN, Foskett* (M 1926), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Gray & Dudley Co., 222 Third Ave., N.,
P. O. Box 722, and 2314 West End Ave., Nash-
ville, Tenn.
BROWN, John S., Jr. (J 1937), Sales Engr.,
Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning Division, General
Motors Sales Corp., and (for mail), 35 E. Norman
Ave., Dayton, Ohio
BROWN, Mack D. (A 1938; J 1936), Mech. Engr.
(Htg. and Vtg.), (for mail), Northrup & O'Brien,
Archts., 602-03 Reynolds Bldg., and 915 East
21st St., Winston-Salem, N. C.
BROWN, Norman A. (A 1938; / 1936; 5 1935),
4723 West 19th St., Cicero, 111.
Brown, Ronald E. G. (M 1933), 5501 Woodward
Ave., Detroit, Mich.
BROWN, Tom (M 1930), Vice-Pres.-Gen. Mgr.
(for mail), Auto vent Fan & Blower Co., 1805-27
N. Kostner Ave., and 5325 N. Laramie, Chicago,
111.
BROWN, William (A 1037], Vice-Pres.-Gen. Mgr.
(for mail), Carey Co., 6197 Hamilton Ave., and
WiO Virginia Park, Detroit, Mich.
BROWN, William H. (A 1923), Mgr., Brown
Bros., Inc., 3015 North 22nd St., Milwaukee, Wis.
BROWN, W. Maynard (A 1930), Warren Webster
& Co., 17th and Federal Sts., Camden, N. J.
BROWNE, Alfred L. (M 1923). 253 Highland
Ave., South Orange, N. J.
BRUNETT, Adrian L. (M 1923), Assoc. Mech.
Engr., U. S. Supervising Architects Office,
Treasury Dept, Washington, D. C., and (for
mail), P. O. Box 36, Rockville, Md.
BRUST, Otto (M 1930), Consulting Engr.,
Lufttcchnische Gesellschaft, Ing. Broz & Co.,
Pralia 1. Rcvolucni 13, and (for mail), Praha,
VII, Mala Vinarska 4, Czechoslovakia.
BRYANT, Dr. Alicfc G. {Life Member; M 1921),
405 Marlborougb St., Boston, Mass.
BRYANT, Percy J. (M 1915J), Chief Engr. (for
mall), Prudential Insurance Co. of America, 763
Broad St., Newark, and 754 Belvidere Ave.,
Westtield, N, J.
BUCK, David T. (A 1936). Pres. (for mail),
Buck Engineering Co., Inc., 37-41 Marcy St.,
and 110 W. Main St., Freehold, N. J.
BUCK, Luclcn (Jlf 1928), Engr., Proctor &
Schwartz, Inc., Seventh St. and Tabor Rd.,
Philadelphia, and (for mail), 101 Waverly Rd.,
Wyncote, Pa,
BUENGER, Albert* (M 1920; J 1917), (Council,
1034-1937), Mgr., Coram. Sales and Application
Engrg. (for mail), Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning
Div., 1420 Wisconsin Blvd., and 224 Schantz
Ave., Oak wood, Dayton, Ohio.
BUKNSOD, Alfred C. (M 1918), Pres., Buensod-
Stacey Air Conditioning, Inc., 00 East 42nd St.,
and (for mail), 33 Fifth Ave., New York. N. Y.
BULKELEY, Cteude A. (M 1923), Chief Engr.,
Niagara Blower Co., and (for mail), 205 Sanders
Rd.;Buffalo, N. Y. ^
BULLEIT, Charles R. (Jkf 1932; J 1930), 1811
Bayard Park Drive, Evansville, Ind.
BULLOCK, Howard H. (A 1933). Commercial
Engr. (for mail), General Electric Co., 212 N.
Vignes St., Los Angeles, and 2442 Cudahy St.,
Huntington Park, Calif.
BULLOCK, Thomas A. (M 1930), Engr. (for
mail), Densmore LeClear & Robbins, 31 St.
James Ave., Boston, and 35 Everett St., Arling-
ton, Mass.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
BUR, Jullen R. C. (A 1936; J 1931), Chief Engr.
(for mail). Bur & Co., 10 rue du Chapeau Rouge,
and 1 Place Francois Rude, Dijon, France.
BURCH, Laurence A. CM 1934), Sales Mgr.,
R. L. Deppmann Co., 957 Holden Ave., Detroit,
and (for mail)* 78 Amherst Rd., Pleasant Ridge
(Royal Oak), Mich.
BURKE, James (J 1930), Engr., Carrier Corp.,
12 South 12th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
BURKHART, Elder M. (J 1935), Sheet Metal
Estimator, Overly Mfff, Co., 574 W. Otterman
St., and (for mail), 22 Westminster Ave., Greens-
burg, Pa.
BURKS, Roland H. (J 1936; 5 1935), 120 Second
St., Detroit, Mich.
BURNETT, Earl S. (M 1920), Mech. Knar.,
Amarillo Helium Plant, U. S. Bureau of Mines,
and (for mail), 4223 West llth Ave., Amarillo,
BURNHAM, C. M., Jr. (A 1937), Engrf?. Editor
(for mail), Keeney Publishing Co., 6 N. Michigan
Ave., and 10621 Hale Ave., Chicago, 111.
BURNS, Edward J. (M 1923), Harris Bros.
Plumbing Co,, 217 W. Lake St., and (for mail),
4716 Aldrich Ave- Minneapolis Minn
BURNS, John R. (J 1936; 5 1933), Htg. Enptr.,
Delius Co., 43 N. Main St., and (for mail), 504 N.
Main St., Wallingford, Conn.
BURR, Griffith C. (M 1937), Pres., Controlled
Heat, Inc., 569 Main St., Poughkeepsie, and (for
mail), Hyde Park, N. Y.
BURR, Kimball (A 1936), Mgr. Air Cond. Div.
(for mail), American Radiator Co., 40 West 40th
St., New York, and Ardsley Park, Dobbs Kerry,
N. Y.
BURRITT, Charles G. (4 1916), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), Johnson Service Co., 922 Second Ave.,
S., and 615 Second Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
BUSHNELL, Carl D. (A 1921), Pres. (for mail),
Bushnell Machinery Co., 311 Ross St., Pitts-
burgh, and 94 Pilgrim Rd., Rosslyn Farms,
Carnegie, Pa.
BUTLER, Peter D. (M 1922), Salesman, U. S.
Radiator Corp,, Detroit, Mich., and (for mail),
127 Edge\vater Rd., Cliffside Park, N, J.
BUTT, Roderick E. W. (A 1930; J 1030), Air
Cond. Engr., Frigidaire, Ltd., The Hyde,
Hendon, London, N.W. 9, and (for mail),
605 Beatty House, Dolphin Square, London,
S.W. 1, England.
BUTTARAVOLI, Frank (J 1937: S 1036),
2426 Kings Highway, Brooklyn, N. V,
BYRD, Tom (A 1936), Salesman (for mail),
American Rolling Mill Co., 703 Curtis St., and
2403 Fleming Rd., Middletown, Ohio.
C
CABOT, Mathew A. (J 1937), Mech. Kngr. (for
mail), University of Kentucky, Building Pro-
gram, College of Engrg., Lexington and R. R.
No. 1, Brannon Pike, Nicholasville, Ky.
CADY, Edward F. (J 1937), Engr., 1003 Euclid
Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.
CAIRNS, John H. (A 1936), Asat. Sales Engr.,
Frigidaire Corp., and (for mail), 127 Scarboro
Rd., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
CALDWELL, Arthur C. (Jkf 1930), Engr. and
Estimator, P. Gormly Co., 155 N. Tenth St,, and
(for mail), 550 South 48th St., Philadelphia, Pa,
CALEB, David (M 1923), Eng. (for mail), Kansas
City Power & Light Co., 1330 Baltimore Ave.,
and 141 Spruce St., Kansas City, Mo,
CALL, Joseph (A 1938; J 1930), Air Cond. Engr.,
ElliottrLewis Co., 2518 N. Broad St., Phila-
delphia, and (for mail), 609 Jamestown St.,
Roxborough, Philadelphia, Pa.
CALLAHAN, Peter J. (Af 1934), Inspecting Kngr.,
Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co., (JO Broad-
K'Grelt K&ls^t 8?^°' ^ Amb0y
C4PV1& Ro]>er*trtW- (^1987), Prop, (for mail),
Box 832, and 77 Queen St., Kirkland Lake, Oat.!
Canada.
CAMERON, William R. (A liM'O, Dist. MKT.,
L. J. Mueller Kurnace Co., Milwaukee, W*g4, ami
(for mail), ,TO7 Hinhland Ave., KantuaCity. M<».
CAMPBELL, Alfred Q., Jr. (J !'.»:«». Snev.
Repr., HuttiK Sash & Door Co., Charlotte,
N. C. (for mail), 10K8 Mcriwether Ave., MemphiH,
CAMPBELL, Everett K.* (.U I'.WW, (Coum-il,
1931-1933), Prert.-Treas. (for mail), K. K,
Campbell Heating Co., 2445 Charlotte St., ami
3717 Harrison Blvd., Kansas City, Mo.
CAMPBELL, K. Klrkcr, Jr. (.1 1(W; .; WW,
Secy, (for mail), K. K, Campbell HeathiK Co.,
244 f> Charlotte St., and 3717 Harrison Blvd.,
Kannatt City, Mo.
CAMPBELL, Frank B. (.1 1027), Sales Kn«r..
American Radiator Co., 40 \\Vst 4<)th St.,
New York, N. Y.
CAMPBELL, (ieorftc S. (J 1!»»7). Sales Knur..
John Bouchard & Sons Co,, Xanhviltc, ami (h*r
mail), HUM Ivy St., Clmttan<nw»i, Tenn,
CAMPBELL, Ralph I*. </l HW7K S.ilcs Kn«r..
Chrysler Airtemp, l.'JIU Nh'nllrt Ave,, S,, and
(for mail), 441H W. Lake Harriet Hlvd,, Minne-
apolis, Minn,
CAMPBELL, Robert K. (J UW»; ,S !«;«». T. S.
Air Conditioning Corp,, 2100 Paramount Hltlg.,
New York, and (for mail), &W Kant ittnt St.,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
CAMPBELL, Thoma* F. (.U 1WJX), T. F.
Campbell Co. (for mail)* 1013 IVnn Avo,, and
8»27 Krancwtown R<1M Wilkin^btir«t Pa.
CANDBE, Bertram G. (,U H»:Wt, Partner,
Beman & Candee, »74 Delaware Ave,, Buffalo,
and (for mail), W Trernrmt Ave,, K»»nmo:e,, N. Y.
CAPPS, Mftar LCN> (A 11W7), Sal»«H KtiKf. {for
mail), Tidewater Klectrie Corp., ia7 K. <»lney
Rd., and OH) PerniHylvania Ave,., Norfolk, Va.
(JARBONK, James If. (M ll«7>, HtK,-Vt«. Knur..
L. J. Win« Mfg. (*OM 1M West Mlh St., New
York, ami (for mail), UU (irove St,f Baldwin,
L, UN. Y,
CAREY, James A. (Af lt»ii«h Carrier <*«rn.,
Syracuse, N. Y., and (for mail), ViIU Nova, Pa.
CAREY, Paul O. (Af 1«>30). C(»m»i!tinK Kn«r, (for
mail), Runyon ife Carey, 113 Fulton St., Newark*
andttl Claremont Drive, MaplewtwHt, N. J.
CARLE, William E. (Jlf l«afl). Pren. (for mail),
Carl, Boehlinit C*o., Inc., Kit! W, Hwad St..
and 2220 Kloyd Ave., Richmond, Va,
OARLOCK, Marion F. (.U IWm, Dim. Repr.,
American Foundry & Furnace C'.o. (for mail),
50* Henry, Alton* 111.
CARLSON, C. O. (A HKm, Owner ffor mail),
1027 Washington Ave., Nu and iHtm Thomas
Ave,, N,, Minneapolis Minn,
CARLSON, Conrad V. (J HK«7)f Kngr. (for muilK
Clarence A. Ktar»hdmr Inc.. II. M* A. Ittdg.,
Kan«a» City, Mo., and Axtell, Nebr,
CARLSON, Everett B. (M 1M2; A HIM), Brandt
Mgr. (for mall), Powers Rcttulator Co,, 1010
Loudcrman HldR., tmd 005^ WuMhin«ton Ave.,
St. Louis, Mo.
CARNAHAN, John H. (J IJKi7), DeHlgn Kn«r«.
Dept. (for mail), Oklahoma Gas Klectrie Co.,
Third and Harvey, und 3110 Northweat 2(Uh St.,
Oklahoma City, Okk.
CARPENTER, R. H. (A/ ItW), rCtiundl. 1U30-
1935), MRr., New York Office (for muil), Na»h
EnglneerinK Co., C/ ray bar Hidji,, '120 Uxinwton
Ave., New York, and 20 Jfiffenon Ave., White
Plains, N. Y.
CARR, Maurice L. (Af liKU), Director, Pitt*bur«h
TentinR Laboratory, Stevemion and Locust St«,,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
CARRIER, Earl G. (Af 10M; J WW), CJen. M«r.
and Chief KnRr, (for mail). Carrier Knicfngerinx.
, . .
S. A., Ltd., P. <). 7821 und IS Victoriu Ave.,
Melroae, Johannesburg, South Africa.
CARRIER, WUUa H.* (Af IMS). (PmidrntM
Membfr), (Pres., 1031; 1st Vice-Pres., 1«»0; 2nd
Vice-Pres,, 1029; Council. 1U2:J-1«32), Chairman
of the Board (for mail), Carrier Corp*, and 8870
Valley Drive, Syracuse, N. Y.
14
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
CARTER, Alexander W. (J 1930), Heating Engr.
(for mail), Monarch Brass Mfg. Co., Ltd., 71
Browns Ave., and 2178 Queen St., E., Toronto,
CARTER, Doctor (M 1934), Ilollycombe, 359
Croydon Rd., Caterham, Surrey, England.
CARTER, John II. t.U IU30), Special Repr. (for
mail), Krick Co., UK) N. Broadway, St. Louis,
and 52tt Atalsinta Ave.. Webster Groves, Mo.
GARY, Edward B. (.U 1035), Partner (for mail),
John Paul Junes. Cary & Millar, Inc., 448
Terminal Tower, ( Cleveland, and Clullicothe Rd.,
o V. (At 1037), M«r, Air Cond.
Dent., B. IX R. KnuineerinK Corp., 402 Midland
HldK,, and (for mail), 3727 Brooklyn, Kansas
GAS*?,'Roy'H. (A lt)30), Resident M«r. (for mail),
417 Central Bid*. and 3322 Hunter Blvd..
GASt"1 Walter '<;, (A 1030). Asst. M«r. Ideal
BoilrrH & Racluitora. Ltd., Ideal House, Great
Marlborounh St., London, W.I., and (for mail).
The Ridtfevwy, K>nton» Harrow,, Middlesex,
CASKY\m*Wn L. (Af 1021), Solra Knar, (for
mail), Il« Klwtrie Ventilating Co., 182 N.
l*aSall* St., Chit'Jiito, and 307 vine Ave,, Park
CAKP^fei)!' Henry W. II. (.1 1U38; J 1030), Engr.,
Carrier Co., Ltd., 24 Buckingham Cute, London,
and tfortm»il). 21 Robin HOIK! Lane, button,
{^^i^lihn' a* (Life Member; M 1013),
Retired <fw mull). #X)H Walnut St., Philadelphia,
Pa., and 740 < iarttdd Ave., Palmyra, N. J,
GASSKLU William L, (A/ 1030), Owner (for
mail), !M<H Telephone Bldg., Kansas City, and
R. K, l>. No. 0, Independence, Mo,
CAWBY, Klm«r L. W W»H; J 1WW, Sato Knur.
rt'nr mail). Carrier Corp. l( 748 K. Washington
Blvd., and aai.'i S. Mower St., Uw Angeles, Ca if.
CHAMBERS, Fred W.%<&ritWfl>, Pra. (for nail),
K. W. Chambers & < «•« Ltd., M Hloor St., W.,
Toronto 5. und 1*22 Gurficld Ave., Toronto, Ont.,
. >.
& Huiirfn Mfg. Co., 231 State .,
Harbour Place* New London, Conn.
Harvey «. ,{W W/,^,^-^
mail), Westrrtin 8t (*ftm«bcll c:«., 1)1^^ Cor-
wtw Ave.. am! 81.W Ingfcside Ave., CWago, 11-
Jr.
, Thrnnw J. (A/ WKM), 175 Marine
) llgr ;, N. Y
Mt. Verw»n. N. Y. .
CHARTERS WUHftm A. (/t Wi.^ISi?1!^
I»ir»Itl l*'nier.. Canada I'W»«lne« & I^orgmgH, Ltd.,
ttwtoffi, *$ (r«r mail). 57 Newton Ave.,
Humilttm. (>nt», C anada*
riiASF <:hauncey L. (Af l«3l). Partner (for
minrMwaniK. AHhle-y, Ccmnultln* Kngr.. 10
ffiil lOlU WKt ! N*^ V«rttt«d 8K«» Kort Hamil-
t*m Parkway, Brcmklyn, N. Y.
.
To l!M3 feiric Ave./an<l 2705 Uuhdana.
^ffi»S«,KiiK^
nui"™a«XI I»nwpect Avc,, Clevclund, c Wo.
wnjffvw » « • ' ~"t -" t „ ,
r. <M l««6). Director and Partner
rifwn Kngiwering Corp., ««w
<d,, and 122 Route flrelupt,
ShVinftiialt Oilna.
CHENOWETH, Dale M. (J 1938; 5 1936),
Junior Project Engr., Armstrong Cork Co., and
(for mail). 536 W. James St., Lancaster, Pa.
CHERNE, Realto E. (A 1938; J 1929), Engr.,
Carrier Corp., and (for mail), 105 Columbia
Ave., Syracuse, N. Y. „
CHERRY, Lester A.* (M 1921), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), Industrial Planning Corp.. 271
Delaware Ave., and 155 Euclid Ave., Buffalo,
N Y
CHERRY, Virgil H, (M 1937), Instructor, Uni-
versity of California, Dept. of Mech. Engrg., and
(for mail), 1269 Hearst, Berkeley, Calif.
CHESTER. Thomas* (M 1917). Consulting
Engr., c/o Davidson & Co., Ltd., Central House,
Kingsway, London, England.
CHEYNEY, Charles C. (A 1913). Asst. Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co., 490 Broad-
way, and 255 Lincoln Parkway, Buffalo, N. Y.
CHRISTENSON, Harry (A 1931), Secy.-Treas.
(for mail), Hunter-Prell Co., 38 S. Madison St..
and R. F. D, No. 1, Battle Creek, Mich.
CHRISTIE, Alfred Y. (A 1933), Salesman, U. S.
Radiator Corp., 233 Vassar St.. Cambridge, and
(for mail), 715 LaGrange St., West Roxbury,
CHRISTMAN, William F. (A 1932; J 1931),
Engr. (for mail), Kroeschell Engineering Co.,
215 W. Ontario St., and 2803 Lunt Ave., Chicago,
CHRISTOPHERSEN, Andrew E. (M 1935),
Engr.-Custodian (for mail), Board of Education,
Franklin & Waller Br. High Schools, 226 W.
Goethe St, and 2923 N. Kilpatrick Ave., Chicago,
CHROUCH, Richard B. (J 1936; 5 1935),
Consumers Power Co., and (for mail), 225 S.
Butler Blvd., Lansing, Mich.
CHURCH, Herbert J. (M 1922) Mgr. (for maty.
Darling Bros., Ltd., 137 Wellington St., W.,
Room 904, Toronto, and 358 Mam St., N..
Weston, Ont., Canada.
CLARE, Pulton W. (M 1927), 935 Plymouth Rd..
N.E., Atlanta, Ga.
CXARK, E. Harold (M 1922), Mfrs. Agt.. 600
Michigan Theatre Bldg., and (for mail), 2539
Lakewood, Detroit, Mich.
CLARKE, Joseph G. (M 1936). Sales Engr..
Frigidaire Div.T General Motor Sales Corp., and
(for mail), 1233 Carlisle Ave., Dayton, Ohio.
CLEGG, Carl (M 1922), Dist. Mgr. (for mail),
American Blower Corp., 311 Mutual Bldg., and
3513 Gillliam Rd., Kansas City, Mo.
CLEGG, Robert R. (A 1933), Zone Mgr., Owens-
Imnois Glass Co., 1538 LaSalle Wacker Bldg.,
and (for mail), 3270 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago,
CLERICUZIO, Gerald P. (J 1935), 87 Grove St.,
Hloomficld, N. J,
CLEVELAND, Clyde C. (A 1936), Htg. Engr.,
Johnson & Cleveland, 192 Main St., and (for
mail), W E. Main St., Bradford, Pa.
OLINE, Edward A. (M 1937), Sales Engr.,
General Klectric Air Conditioning Co,, 1510 S.
Los Angeles St., Los Angeles, Calif.
CLIPPINGER, J. Verne (S 1936), Student Engr,,
York Ice Machinery Corp., and (for mail),
Yorkco Club, York, Pa.
CLODFELTER, John L. (A 1932), Supt. (for
mail) Carolina Sheet Metal Corp., 17th St. and
Chelten Ave,, Philadelphia, and West Chester
IMke and Brief Ave., Elizabeth Manor Apt.,
Upper Darby, Pa.
CLOSE, Paul D.* (M 1928), Asst. Mgr., Metuchen
Sv*.!^ff£^ Wfi^Ns, w£
COCHRAN, Charles C. (A 1935) Asst. J&les
fe«^^
vt "enmore Ave., Chicago, 111. „
,k£j&&£^Sfc#&g
130 Camino Del Mar, San Francisco, Calif.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
COCHRAN, William B. (J 1936; 5 1935), Air
Cond. Engr. (for mail) , Cochran Air Conditioning
Co, (Westinghouse), 1303 Lamar Ave., and 3316
Telephone Rd., Box 16, Houston, Texas.
COCKINS, William W. (J 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Trane Co., 1129 Folaom St., San Fran-
cisco, and 2466 Virginia St., Berkeley, Calif.
CODY, Henry C. (M 1936), Sales Engr., Pierce,
Butler Radiator Corp., 19th and Glenwood Ave.,
and (for mail), 7336 North 2Ist St., Philadelphia,
COGHLAN, Sherman F. (A 1037), Metropolitan
Water Dist. of So. Calif., 306 W. Third St.. Los
Angeles, and (for mail), 414 Ninth St., Santa
Monica, Calif.
COHAGEN, Chandler C. (M 1919), Archt., 211
Hidden Bldg. (for mail), Box 2100, and 235
Avenue G.. Billings, Mont*
COHEN, Harry (J 1937; 5 1936), 3630 East 140th
St., Cleveland, Ohio.
COHEN, Philip (U 1932), Dist. Mgr. (for mail),
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 401 E. Ohio Gas Bldg.,
Cleveland, and 3681 Lynnfield Rd., Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
COLBY, Clyde W. (M 1915), Consulting Kn*r.
(Air Cond.), 1215 Main St., Springfield, Mass.,
578 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y., and (for
mail), 80 N. Pleasant St., Holyoke, Mass.
COLCLOUGH, O. T. (A J.933), Custodian,
American Legation, American Government
Bldg., and (for mail), 180 Lisgar St., Ottawa,
Canada.
COLE, Charles B. (J 1937), Chief Engr, General
Air Conditioning Co., 160 Peachtrec St., and (for
mail), 1843 Flagler Ave., N.E., Atlanta, Ga.
COLE, Grant E. (A 1925), Vice-Pres. and Gen.
Mgr. (for mail), Trane Co, of Canada, Ltd,,
4 Mowat Ave., and 117 Royal York Rd., Toronto,
and Out., Canada,
COLEMAN, John B. (M 1920), Chief En«r. (for
mail), Grinnell Co., Inc., 260 W. Exchange St.,
and 237 Cole Ave., Providence, R. I.
COLFORD, John (A 1937), Pres., John Colford,
Ltd., 2007 Guy St., Montreal, and (for mail),
51 Upper Bellevue Ave,, Westmount, Que.,
COLLIER, William I. (M 1921), Pres. (for malt),
W. I. Collier & Co., 522 Park Ave., Baltimore,
and Ellicott St., Ellicott City, Md.
COLLINS, John F. S., Jr. (M 1933), Supervisor
of Steam Utilization (for mail), Allegheny
County Steam Heating Co., Philadelphia
Company Bldg., 435 Sixth Ave,, and 827 N.
Euchd Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
COMB, Fred R., Jr. (/ 1938; S 1937), Sales
Engr., Delco-Frigidaire Conditioning DIv.,
2446 University Ave., St. Paul, and (for mail),
2425 Bryant Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
COMPTON, Warren E. (J 1936; 5 1935), Engr.,
904 W. Green St., Urbana, 111, ' V '
COMSTOCK, Glen M. (A 1926), Dist. Repr,,
(for mail), 604 Chamber of Commerce Bldg.,
JPittsburgh, and 154 College Ave., Beaver, Pa.
CONATY, Bernard M. (M 1935), Sales Mgr. (for
mail), American District Steam Co,, N» Tona-
^ wanda, and P. O, Box 342, Eden, N. Y.
C<X?E', ?i]ll!amt.E- <7 19^2' Air Cond- Engr.,
Shook & Fletcher Supply Co., 1814 First Ave.,
N., and (for mail), 1037 Tenth Ave., S., Birming-
ham, Ala.
CONNELL, Harold (M 1935), Engr. and Esti-
mator, Anno Cooling & Ventilating Co,. Inc
30 West 15th St., New York, and (for mail);
12 Donald Place, West New Brighton, S. L, N. #
CONNELL, Richard F. (M 1916), Mgr., Caplto
Testing Lab. ffor mail), U. S. Radiator Cbrp.
1056 National Bank Bldg., and 2970 Burlingame
Detroit, Mich. '
CONSTANCE, John I>. (J IW17>. Draftsman,
York Ice Machinery Corp., lihul St. and Socoml
Ave., Hrooklyn, N. Y., and (for mail), 'J07-U7th
St.. North Hencon, N. J.
CONSTANT, Earl S. (J HTO, Air Cond. Stiles
Engr., Viking Air Conditioning Co,, 1H1S Main
St., and (for mail), 8i!"» N. Crawford St., Dallas,
Texas.
COOK, Benjamin F, (A/ UW20). ContuiltinK Fn«r.,
114 W. Tenth St. Bld«., Kansas City, and vt'or
mail), 1720 Overton Ave., In<I<»j>cnti«>n<'<s Mo.
COOK, Ceorfte E. (A 1M7), Vtw-l*rrj«. (for mail),
Airconditioninff, Inc., i!32t Hamixion Av?.. St.
Paul, and 2115 BlaisdoII Ave,, Minneapolis,
Minn.
COOK, HarrteR. (A 15KW), I)i»t. M«r. (for main,
American Foundry & l»"urnar<» Co., 7<H» North
nth St., and 2325 North ."Kith St., Milwaukee,
Wis.
COOK, Ralph P. Of 10MK Atwt. Stint,, Knsrg.
and Maintenance I> pt. in <-harKe of Kn«rf». Div,,
Kaatman K<xiak (*«. (for math, Kmlak Park
Works, and (UJ3 Seneca Tarkway, R(H'hfHt^r,
COOKE, Thomas <:. (A Ii>;i7), Snt<*m;in (for
mail), Tomlinaon Co., Inc., -HKHOL1 IVaJwxly
St., and 305 Monmouth Ave., Durham. N, C.
COOMBE, Jmmcs (A 1032), Vic«».|*rr». (for main.
William Powell Co., sr»2ft SprinK Umvc Av«r,, and
2363 Grandin Rd.( Cincinnati, Ohio.
COOLEY, Edftcrton C. (Af HK«7>, Mfrjt. A«c»nt
(for mnil), (125 Market St.* Sun Kranoiwo, and
Box 780 B, Rtc. 1, 1.o* Alton, Calif*
COON, Thurlow E. (A/ I»im, Prc«, (for mail),
Coon-DcViswr Co., Inc*, 20fll W* !-afttynt<\ a«d
820 Eclteon Av*., Detroit, Mich.
COOPER, Albert W. (A* 103TO. Branch Mftr. (for
mail). Johnson Service Co., 15,'i W. Ave, 34,
Loa A nicies, and 2H14 Hermosita Drivts Gten-
dttle, C'alif,
COOPER, Dalo S. (A 1037) » Air Cond. Knxr, (for
mail), Air CondJtionin« Co., 4304 Main St., und
2237 Bellair* Blvd., Houiton, Texas.
COOPER, John W, {Af 1032; A 1W*; J I«2J|,
Repr, (for mail), Buffalo Korgc Co., iMis Arradc
Bld«v St. Loui«, and (U2 Hawbrook Drive,
Kirkwood, Mo.
COOPER, Tom E. (J 1037; .9 HTO, «W West
50th St., Minneapolis Minn.
COOPER, WUHam B. (J 19H7), Kn«r.f Lamnci-k
Products, Inc.. 4l«-3« Dublin Ave,, unrJ (f<»r
mail), 2394 Nell Ave.t Columbus, Ohio.
COPPERtJD, Edmund R. (J Itm), A wit. M«r.
(for mail), Minneapolis Mumblng Co., I-fiiO
Nicollet Ave.( and 17 Wegt 25th St.,
Minn.
COKEV, Georfte R. (J(f JftaO),
Massachusetts Wharf Coal Co.. M Devonshire*
St. Boston, and (for nunil), 100 Central Ave,,
Milton, Mn&s.
CORNISH, Donald F. (J 1036), ConHiiIUnK Knjtr,,
Dominion Heating Specialty Co,» and (for rnaflU
95 Dinnick Crc«., Toronto, Ont, Camuln-
CORNWALL, Ch*rle* C. (J Ifiafi), Rfwurt-h
Engr., Bahnson Co., 1001 S, Mar»hall St., an<!
(for mall), 473 Carolina Circle, Win»tr>n-Salem,
CORNWALL, Georfte L (Af 1010), f«alw»man (for
CONRAD, Roy (M 1935), Comm. Dist. Mgr.,
Kelvmator Diy. (for mail). Nash-Kelvinator
Corp., 1355 Market St., and 751-20th Ave,,
San Francisco, Calif.
"
633 Madison Ave., Elisabeth, N. J,
CORRAO, Joseph (XI 1030; J 1033), Kn«r., City
and County of Sun Krancisco, City Hall, ami
(for mail), 854-31st Ave., Sitn Francisco, Calif.
CORRIGAN, James A. (J UWi; .V 1080), Kngr,
(for maH), Corrigan Co., aflOl St. Uuls Avc.»
and 6180 McPherson, St. Louis, Mo.
COTTER, Robert P. (/ 1M7; S 1935), Carrier
Air Cond. Kngr., Martin Wright Klectric Co,,
1001 Navarro-bt.. and (for mail), 935 W. Summit
Ave., San Antonio, Texas.
COVER, E. B. (U 1»37), Salw Engr., York Ice
Machinery Corp., 115 South llth St., St. Uui«,
Mo.,and(forroan),3252Waverly,#.St.LouI«,Ill
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
COVER, Richard R. (A ll)tt«), Carrier Corp., 301
Tow*r Bldtf., and (for mail). 1802 Gallatin St..
NAV., \Vu«hinKton, I>. C.
OX, Thomas M.. Jr. (J 1H37), Sales Engr.,
Ncal it Massy linKinccring Co,, Ltd., Port of
Spain, Trinidad. H. W. I.
(X)X, William W, (M 1923). Pros.-MRr, (for
inaiH. Ueatinit Sorvirc Co., 81U» Columbia St.,
. ........... ... . » *f ».* i.*_.-..«ii.. tic. _i.
...... „ Vice-
,, Thermador
and U4C) Hacienda Drive, Arcadia, Calif.
CRAWFORD, John H., Jr. (A 1930; / 1930), Air
Cond. hwir., Hitctukn ICnin'm'tiring Co., 441 Lex-
ington Av«,, Now York, N. Y,, and (for mail),
't;w Lincoln Ave., Orunws N. J.
CRIBARI, Hufto (/t 1««7), Salesman, American ~ —
Radiator Co.. -10 West -10th St., New York, and B.
(for mail), JWK) Gramatan Ave., Mt. Vcrnon, (foj
CRKilfrON. Howard C. (J 1M8; .V 14)30), 709
Heaver Av<*.» Midland, Pa.
CRIQUI, Albert A.* (M 19110, Chief Engr.,
Httf, and VtK. Dcpt., Buffalo Korgo Co., 400
Hroadway, Buffalo, and (for mail), 30 St. Johns
Ave., Kennutrc, N. Y.
CRONK, Ch«rlc» K., Jr. (M 1922), Sccy.-Treas.
(tor mail). Wendt £ Crone Co,, 2124 N. South-
tmrt Avis, and 1320 N. State St., Chicago, 111.
CfcONK, Thorn** K. (Lift Member; U 1920),
Salt** Kn»:r., IVlhain r«al it oil Co., and (for
nwilU -'«•> IVlluimdak* Ave., IWham, N. Y.
CROSBY, Edward L. <M UW»t Prcs. (for matt).
Henry Adamw, Inc., Consulting Knars., 1203-00
Culvert liUlit.. and fihll Merville Ave,, Kalti-
CUNNINGHAM, John S. (J 1937; 5 1935), Htff.
Engr., Rudy Furnace Co., and (for mail), 311
N. Front St., Dowagiac, Mich.
CUNNINGHAM, Thomas M. (M 1931: J 1930),
Production Mgr., Carrier Corp., 7-122 Mer-
chandise Mart, Chicago, 111.
CURRIE, Francis J. (A 1935), Prop., Plbg.-Htg.
Contractor, 16 South 39th St., Philadelphia, and
(for mail), 9 Montrose Ave., Kirklyn, Upper
<:R(KS«,Frc«jman G. (A/ W80), Sales Mgr.,
(\Hitrote Div. (for mail), Fulton Sylphon Co.,
11* Rector St., New York, N. Y.( and 11 Inwood
PUlCf. ^lultU'WiKXl. N, J.
CROSS, Robm <!.* (Af 1U37), Kuel Kn«r. (for
mail), Hattrlle Memorial InHtitute, fiOo King
Av^. and 17-10 Ktn« Ave., Columbus, Ohio.
CROSS, Robert B. (/I HW), 05 State St., Spnng-
t. (Af H)«7). Saltt Kn«r. (for
nmill. JNtvwts Krgulator Co,, 2780 Grecnvjew
Ave., Chiam<>» and 2701 Payne St., hvanston. 111.
tKXU. Victor J. U/ 1W«0. <^n«uItinK Kn«r. (for
muiU,4»'M7 Mudison Av<s, Nfcw York, and 4ol-
WHUafm K W- l»l«», Secy, (for mail),
itby Co., 20W RJttenhouflC bt..
uml UtfU Ahtxandcr Ave., Drexel
ttN," Auduiitlno <;, {A 1030), I'reg. (for
I CutlonT Inc., au L. St., S.W., and 1301
iettH Ave., N.W., Wa«UinRt(m, D. C.
, Ford J* (A/ UW«), Prw. (for mail),
, * , . ,
iipctihtit-Cumminjc. J«c., H20 Second Ave., S.,
Min»eai»oiia, and laO InterJuchen Kd., Inter-
Uclt«*n F»irk, R. R. 1* Hopkins, Minn.
<:UMMIM;, Robert W. (W IVaH). Kngr^Wet
bxc«;uttv<% Sarco Co., Im*., 1K3 Madison Ave.,
tsVw York* uml (for mail), KJ Alkamont Ave.,
r .
mail). lwlni«ri*a Amiliancir Co. oi ,
HO AiltnKt<»n St., Button, and 41 hd«clull Rd.,
Chentntit Hitt< Miifttt.
<JUMMIN<;S. <;. J. tA/ UlttS). Mur. (for mail),
The Scott < u., nil Tenth .wt., and X»(H)1 Hoover
. (M 1919), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Ross Heater & Mfg. Co., Inc., 1407 West
Ave., and Park Lane Apta., 33 Gates Circle,
Buffalo, N. Y.
CURTICE, Jean M. (A 1936), Repr.. House Htg.
Engr., Public Service Co. of Colorado, W. Moun-
tain Ave., and (for mail), 309 Locust St., Fort
Collins, Colo.
CURTIS, Herbert F. (A 1934), Chief Engr. (for
mail), Henry Furnace & Foundry Co., 3471
East 49th St., Cleveland, and 59 Fourth Ave.,
Berea, Ohio.
CURTIS, Walter A. (J 1938; S 1930). Sales Engr.,
B. F. Sturtevant Co., 220 Delaware Ave., and
:or mail), 2429 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
uHIBERTSON, Merle W. (A 1937), Supt.
Mech. Equip, and Bldgs., Hardware Mutual
Fire Insurance Co., 2344 Nicollet Ave., Minne-
apolis, and (for mail), 1466 Hague Ave., St.
Paul, Minn.
CUTLER, Joseph A. (U 1916), (Council, 1920-
1920), Vice-Pres. (for mail), Johnson Service
Co., 1355 Washington Blvd., Chicago, and 649
Hinman Ave., Evanston, 111.
D
DAHLSTROM, Godfrey A. (A 1927), Htg. Sales
Engr,, Central Supply Co., 312 S. Third St., and
(for mail), 3721-47th Ave., S., Minneapolis,
Minn,
DAILEY, James A. (A 1920), 31-64-30th St.,
Astoria, L. I., N. Y.
DAITSH, Abe (J 1937), Post-Grad. Student (for'
mail), Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Graduate House, Cambridge, Mass., and 87
King Edward Rd., Parow, C. P., Union of South
DAKIN,' Harold W. (J 1934), General Electric
Co., Woodlawn Ave.. Pittsfield, and (for mail),
169 Park Ave., Dalton, Mass.
DALY, Charles P. (A 1935), Member of Firm (for
mail), Rautman Plumbing & Heating Co., 115
Jackson St., and 2438 Queen Anne Ave., Seattle,
DALY, 'Robert E. (M 1931), Dir. of Engrg. (for
mail), American Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St..
New York, and Bronxville, N. Y.
DAMBLY, A. Ernest (M 1924; / 1921), (for mail),
c/o H. B. Hackett, 001 Architects Bldg., Phila-
delphia, Pa., and Harvey Cedars, N. J.
DAMM, Daniel A. (J 1937), Air Cond. Engr.,
Surface Combustion Corp., 1435 Dorr St., and
(for mail), 1908 Joffre Ave., Toledo, Ohio.
DANIELSON, E. B. (A 1936), Owner-Mgr. (for
mail), Air Conditioning Co., 627 Main St., and
H19 Main St., Russell, Kan.
DANIELSON, Lloyd <1 (J 1938; 5 1930), Test
Dept. (for mail), General IJlectnc Co.. and 223
ninn, ^wiiv <U* (A/ Mil*), I)iMt. Mgr. (for
oHuli. Awrwhn < orp.. ttlH United Artist's Bid*,,
and wait) Anliton Kd., Urtrolt, M ch.
(X'NLIPFK, Jack A, (A lt«*7;, Wcatcrn Can.
Mjtr. (l«»r mail), A. P. G*wn Co. of Canada,
1.1(1,. K«M Arlington St., and 138 ArHn«ton St.,
Man,, C*anadtt,
Knur., Air Cond. Dept,, General Electric, S. A.,
Avenida Kio, Branco No. 114, Rio de Janeiro.
DULLING, Arthur B. (A 1929), Asst. Sales Mgr.
(for mail , Darling Bros., Ltd.. 140 Prince St..
Montreal, P. Q., and 4326 Sherbrooke fet.,
. EnSr.. Sidles Co..
£>iv., and (for mail), 1414 C St., Lincoln,
ft »»•»«..»
Mgr. (for mail
Ruascll S
l St., a
, American Blower <_..,.
" "U, Detroit, Mich.
17
HEATING VENTILATING Am CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
DARTS, John A. (M 1919). Kewanee Boiler Co.,
Inc., 101 Park Ave,, New York, N. Y.
DASING, Emil (M 1937), Designing Engr., Sears
Roebuck & Co., 92/5 S. Homan Ave., and (for
mail), 4729 N. Talman Ave., Chicago, 111.
DAUBER, Oscar W. (M 1937), Owner (for mail),
224 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, and 366 Winneta
Ave., Winnetka, 111.
DAUBERT, LeRoy L. (J 1937), Branch MKr.,
Sidles Co. Airtcmp Div., 805 Walnut St., and
(for mail), 2315 Grand, Des Moines, Iowa.
DAUCH, Emil O. (M 1921), Secy.-Treas. (for
mail), McCormick Plumbing Supply Co., 167/5
Bagley Ave., and The Whittier Hotel, Detroit,
Mich.
DAVENPORT, R. F. (A 1933), Furnace Sales
Mgr., Canada Foundries & Forgings, Ltd., and
(for mail), 258 Melrose Ave., Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
DAVEY, Geoffrey I. (U 1937), Consulting Kngr.,
Haskins & Davey, 00-06 Hunter St., Sydney,
N.S.W., Australia.
DAVIDSON, John C. (J 1936), Warm Air HtR.
and Air Cond. Inspector, City of Minneapolis,
213 City Hall, and (for mail), 4233 Nicollct
Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
DAVIDSON, L. Clifford (M 1927), Associate
Dist. Mgr. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co., 220
South 16th St., Philadelphia, and 439 Anthwyn
Rd., Merion, Pa.
DAVIDSON, Philip L. (M 1924; J 1921), Con-
sulting Engr. (for mall), 1204 Commercial Trust
Bldg., Philadelphia, and 14 Radnor Way,
Radnor, Pa.
DA VIES, George W. (M 1918), Mgr. (for mail),
G. W. Davies £ Co., 19 Maclaggan St., Dunedin,
Cl, and Colinswood, Macandrew Bay, New
Zealand.
DAVIS, Arthur C.* (M 1920), Supt. of Main-
tenance, Port of New York Authority* 111
Eighth Ave., New York, N. Y., and (for mail),
73 Preston St., Ridgefield Park, N. J.
DAVIS, Arthur F. at 1934), Pres. (for mail),
Johnson & Davis Plumbing £ Heating Co.,
2235 Arapahoe St., and 1901 Ivanhoe St.,
Denver, Colo.
DAVIS, Bert C. (Life Member; U 1904), (Council,
1917), Pres.-Treaa. (for mail), American Warming
& Ventilating Co., 317-19 Pennsylvania Ave.,
and 603 W. Church St., Elmtra, N. Y.
DAVIST Calvin R, (M 1927), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Johnson Service Co., 2328 Locust St., and
7534 Westmoreland Drive, St. Louis, Mo.
DAVIS, George C. (J 1936), Sales Engr, (for mail),
Northern Public Service Corp., Ltd., 307 Power
Bldg., Winnipeg, and 923 Somerset Ave., Fort
Garry, Man., Canada.
DAVIS, Joseph (M 1927; A 1020), Owner-lit*.
Engr. and Contractor (for mail), 316 Root Bldg.,
70 W. Chippewa, and 166 Huntington Ave.,
Buffalo. N. Y.
DAVIS, Keith T. (M 1937), Engr. (for mail),
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 200J3 W. Oklahoma
Ave., and 2426 N. Cramer St., Milwaukee, Wia.
DAVIS, Otis E. (M 1929; A 1925), Sales ICngr. (for
mail), Hoffman Specialty Co,, Box 98, and 1402
Third Ave., Scottsbluff, Ncbr.
DAVIS, Rowland G. (A 1921), Sales Repr., 887
Nela View Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
DAVISON, Robert L. (M 1934), Director of
Housing Research (for mail), John B, Pierce
Foundation, 37 West 39th St., New York, and
Meadow Glen Rd., Fort Salonga, L. I., N. Y.
DAWSON, Euacne F.*(M 1934), Aast. Prof.,
Mech. Engr. (for mail). University of Oklahoma,
and 916 S. Flood St., Norman, Okla.
DAWSON, G. Stewart (A 1935), Mdse. Sales
Engr. (for mail), British Columbia Electric
Railway Co., Ltd., 425 Carroll St., and 1800
Barclay St., Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
DAWSON, Thomas L. (M 1930), Pres, (for mall),
Thomas L. Dawson Co., 2035 Washington St.,
Kansas City, Mo., and 56th and Shawnee Mis-
sion Rd.. Rosedale Station, Kansas City, Kan.
DAY, Harold C. (A 1934), Mgr. (for mail),
American Radiator Co., 1X07 Elmwood Ave., and
Stuyvcsant Hotel, Buffalo, N, Y.
DAY, Irving M. (A !!)««), Sales KURT, (for main,
709 Mills Bldtf., Washington, I>. C.. and 405
Cumberland Ave., Chevy Chanr, Md.
DAY, V. S.* (<tt HUM), Knur, tf'or main, Carrier
Corp., 3(W Highland Ave,, Sytncusp. N. Y.
DEAN, Carl II. (M 11M>), Ittu. Kn«r. ifor main,
Oklahoma Natural Gas Co., P. (K STI. and 1007
N. Main, Tulua. Okla.
DEAN, Charles L. (,U 1932), Aswt. Prof, of Mech.
Engr., University of \Visrniuun. .'*0f» t'niveraity
Extension Blclg., and (for mail), 102 (irantl Ave.,
Madison, Wis.
DEAN, David (A/ 1937), Ht«. Kn«r. and Salesman,
New York Specialties Co., Inc., :W-l-<» Hast 08th
St., New York, and (for mail), 171 Kadfnrd St.,
Yonkcrs, N. Y.
DEAN, Frank J., Jr. (J liW>; .V HKW, Sulo« Knur.,
Guatin-Hacon Mf«. Co., 1412 West lltth St., and
(for mail), W)12H Walnut St., Kuxuutt City. Mo.
DEAN, Marshall II. (J 1M8; S HKIO), IOIK) WfHt
55th St., KaiiKns City. Mo.
DEE, Leo II. (J Ilia?). Kn«r., Carrier ('or;).,
Syracuse, and (for mail), HWH W, Onondajta St.,
Syracuse, N. Y.
DEKLY, James J. (A Ii>37; J !«»«), Snporvinor
HOUHP HtK- Div. (for mail), Hrooklyn t'nion Gas
Co., 180 Komsen St., Brooklyn, ami (U CoIUw
Ave., N., Turrytown, N, Y.
DeLAND, Charf«« W. U/ 102-t; / Iil2«), Sery.-
Treas. (for mail), C. W. Johnson, Inc., 211 N.
DcHplainea St., and 2021 Kste» Ave,, t'hicaKO, 111.
DENISE, John R. (A 1UH7; J UKWi), Kn«rM
Surface CombtiBtion <\>rp., 400 Dublin Avp,f
Columbus, Ohio.
DENNY, Harold R. (A 193-1), Kastern Mdse.
Mgr. (for mail), American Blower Corp., W)
West 40th St., New York. N. Y,, and 420
Kdwwood Ave., Westfield, N. J.
DEPPMANN, Kay L. (.-I 1«B7», Trt-H. (for main.
K. L. Deppmann Co,, W Iloltkn Ave,, 13201
Clover lawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
DcSOMMA, Anthony R. (J li»;J7)t Sitlen Knxr.,
Oliver Kc Mct'ldlan, Inc., 30 Church St.. N*w
York, imd (for mail). H27 40th Stt. Brooklyn,
DES REIS, John K. (.Y/ HWJ), M«r.t W«t Indies
and Caribbean Div., Carrier Corp., and (for
mail), M)7 S. Heech, SyracuHt\ N, Y.
DETERLINCJ, WWtem <;. (A I«:i7), Salesman
(for mail), General Electric Co.* 570 I,e?iinKton
Ave., New York, and M VV, Milton St., Free-
jport, N. Y,
DEVER, Henry F* (,W 1»3«; A IMS), Brunch
M«r., Minntapuli«- Honey well JR^KuIutor Co,,
., ,
Wayne and Kobertu Avc«., Philadelphia, and (for
mail). 502 Merwyn Rd.. Narbcrth, Pa.
DoVILBISS, Parker T. (A HW7), Chief Kngr. and
Secy, (for mail), I', S, Air Conditioning v^ale*
('orp,, 1701 (Jrantl Ave,, and 5M5 Tracy,
Kantk'18 City, Mo.
DEVORE, Anftu» B. (A »Ki7), Ssilc« EnKf. <f<»r
mail), Jamc» A. M«»wer (+o., Inc., 1200 K St.,
N.W., and 247 Uuttckcnboa St., N.W., Wash-
in«ton, D. C.
DEWAR, William G* (A 1«), Purchitsirm Agt.,
Construction Equipment Co., Ltd., IUOO H«noit
St., and (for mail), Apt. 4, fifi&O C(»tt St. Luc,
Montreal, Que., Canada.
DEWEY, Ritchie F, (At HKM), M«r., Temp.
Control and Uni-Klo UepU., Burber-C Oilman
Co., River and Loomis StH., and (for mail),
2301 Oxford St., Hockford, 111.
DeWITT, Karl S. (A WM), Branch M«r. (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 41*8 Woodward
Bldg., and 3224 Oliver St., N.W., Washington,
D. C.
DEXTER, Ernest R. (J 1937), Junior Kn«r. (for
mail), Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., 425 Stuart
BldK., and 136 South 17th St., Lincoln, Nebr.
DIAMOND, David D* (/ 1D37K Dc«rfgninj< Kn»r.,
Twin City Furnace Co. of Minneapolis, 410 W.
Lake St., and (for mail), 118 E. Congrtifu St.,
St. Paul. Minn.
18
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
DIBBLE, S. E.* (.U 11)17), (Presidential Member},
(Prcs., ll)2f>; l8t Vice-Pres., 1924; 2nd Vice-
Pros. » 11)23; Council, 1921-1920), Supt., Thomas
Ranken Patton School, Elizabethtown, Pa.
DICK, Andrew V. (J 1935), Pres., A. V. Dick
Heating Co., 141 Jay St., Albany, N. Y.
DICKENSON, Frederick R. (A/ 1930; A 10341,
Asat. Sales Mgr. (for mail), American Blower
Corp., 0(XK) Russell St., Detroit, and 284 Pilgrim
Rd,. Birmingham, Mich,
DICKRNSON, Malcolm E. (Af 10301, Gen. Mgr.
(for mail), Livingston Stoker Co,, Ltd., 78
Cnth^rin*" St., N., and 904 Cumberland Ave.,
Hamilton, Canada.
DICKEY, Arthur JL (Af 10211, Vicc-Prcs.-Gcn.
Mgr., C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., 1.5123 Davenport
R<1., and (for mail). 0 Mossmn Place, Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
DICKINSON, Tom (A 103«1f Draftsman, York
Ice Machinery Corp., and (for mail), 419 West
r».1th St,, Los Angdos, Calif.
DIC-KSON, Georfttt P, (Af 1919), Diat. Mgr. (for
maih* I*. K. Sturtwant Co., 89 Broad St.,
Bo«t<m, Mann., ami P. O. Box 22, Canterbury,
Now Hampsihire.
DICKSON, Robert B. (\t tOlOl, Pros, (for mail),
Ktwant* Boiler Corp., Franklin St., and Q
Trsu-K ami M"» K. Division St., Kewance, III,
DIKTC. C. Fred (Af 1937), Sales Engr. (for mail),
HayneH Selling Co., Inc., 1124 Spring Garden
St., and 402H Ncilwm St., Philadelphia. Pa.
DION, Alfred M. (Af 1937), Air Cond. Kngr. (for
mail), Tnvne Co. of Canada, Ltd., King and
Mowat Stn., and 133 Cottingliam St., Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
DXSNEY. Melvin A. (A 193-1), Pres., Disney-
Lrffrl Co,, Inc., 02i) New York Life BIdg., and
(for mail}, WMK Kenwood, Kansas City, Mo.
DIVER, M. I*. (Af imtf), Consulting Kngr., P. O.
Box 10111, San Antonio, Texas.
DIXON, Arthur <;. (Af I92K), Sales Mgr. (for
mail), Mwline Mfg. Co.. and 442 Wolff St.,
Racine, Win,
DIXON, Meredith V. (A 1937), Combustion
Ftmr,, Fuel Oil uml Oil Burner Div., Imperial
Oil, Ltd,. P. O. Box 1440, and (for mail), 2281
WUsoft Ave*., Montreal, Que,, Canada.
DOBIK, Thorn** K. (A l»S«). Supt. of Bldgs.,
London I.if« Iwmrunw Co., and (for mail),
OfW Colborne St., London, Ont., Canada.
DODIXS* Forre«t F* (Af 1«20), Mgr., K, C, Branch
(for mail), American Radiator Co., 1023 Grand
Ave,, and U2U Ward Parkway, Kansas City, Mo,
IHHKiK. Harry A. (Af ItW), Elec. Kngr,, S. H,
Kraft* Kr Co,, 114 Fifth Ave., and (for mail), 425
Ka*t Htith St., New York, N. Y.
IXHUUNtt, Frank L. <W 1919), Sales Kn«r,,
Kadhttor Co., 2;i« Boston Avc.T
, .
DOLAN. Raymond G. (Af 192«: J 1022), Secy.-
Trcus. (f«»r mull)* Tom Dolan Heating Co., Inc.,
ftH W. <ir:aul, and ^112 West 20th, Oklahoma
City,OkIu.
DOUSON. <:h*rte<i N. (X IWITJ. Sales En*r.,
IHinoiN I«»n «r Bolt, 008 S, Michigan Ave., and
(for mall), 4tt HawWnn Ave., (Chicago, III.
DOME, Alan «. (A 1MK; 7 lj)»«). Kn«r,. Bryant
Air Conditioning Corp., 230 Park Ave., New
Ynrk, and (for mall), 448 River Ave., North
IVJtwm, N. Y.
DONKtSON. WU!l*m N. C/ «W), Knj?r. (for
main, T, J, (VmnerH, Inc., 321K) Spring (jrrove,
nnJInnuti, Ohio, ttiul 1W»H Mudieon Ave.,
Covirwton, Ky.
IX)NNKtLY. Jumw A.* (Life Affwftw; Af 1004),
(TrrnH,, 1(112-11114), Lament, W, Va,
DONNELLY Martin A. (/ 1037), Salesman,
McAr M* I \"S" 5W Arch St.. Philadelphia,
ami tfor mttfl). W)0 Manoa Kd.. BrookUne, Del,
DONNIULLY, Ruw«Il. (Af W**).
Nttsh Knglneerlntt Ca, Gniybar
L<*xln«ton Ave., Nfrw York, N. Y.
DONOHOE, John B. (A 1937; J 1935), Engr.-
Estimator (for mail), B. F. Donohoe Co., 51
Albany St., Boston, and 24 Primrose St., Roslin-
dale, Mass.
DONOVAN, William J. (A 1930), 2239 North
27th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
DORFAN, M. I. (M 1929), Dust Control Special-
ist, Pangborn Corp., 604 Chamber of Commerce
Bldg., and (for mail), 1217 Malvern Ave.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
DORNHEIM, G. A. (M 1912; J 1906), 15 Hamil-
ton Ave., Bronxville, N. Y.
DORSEY, Francis C. (M 1920), Engr.-Contractor
(for mail), Francis C. Dorsey, Inc., 4520 Schenley
Rd., Roland Park, and 212 Gittings Ave..
Baltimore, Md.
DOSTER, Alexis (A 1934), Vice-Pres.-Secy. (for
mail), Torrington Mfg. Co., 70 Franklin St.,
Torrington and South Plains, Litchfield, Conn.
DOUGHTY, Charles J. (M 1925), Pres.-Man-
aging Director (for mail), C. J. Doughty & Co.,
Fed. Inc., U. S. A., 30 Brenan Rd , and 1920
Ave., Joffre, Shanghai, China.
DOUGLAS, Howard H. (A 1930), Air Cond.
En<?r. (for mail), Southern California Edison Co.,
001 W. Fifth St., and 2317 Kelton Ave., Los
Angelea, Calif.
DOVOLIS, Nick J. (J 1936; 5 1935), 3403 Chicago
Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
DOWLER, Edward A. (M 1937), Sales Engr,,
B. F. Sturtevant Co. of Canada, Ltd., 137
Wellington St., W-, and (for mail), 9 Prince
Arthur Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
DOWNE, Edward R. (M 1927), Vice-Pres.,
American Gas Products Corp., 40 West 40th St.,
New York, and (for mail), 35 Ho well Ave.,
Larchmont, N. Y.
DOWNE, Henry S. (Life Member; U 1895), Cie
Nationale des Radiateurs, 149 Boulevard
Hauasman, Paris, and 5, rue Verdi, Paris, 16e,
France.
DOWNES, Alfred H. (A 1937), Draftsman,
1342 M Bond St,, Los Angeles, Calif.
DOWNES, Henry II. (M 1923), Dist. Mgr (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 438 Woodward
Bldg., Washington, D. C., and 4021 Chevy
Chase Blvd., Chevy Chase, Md.
DOWNES, Nate W. (k 1917), (Council, 1928-
1930, 1937), Chief Engr.-Supt. of Bldg. (for
mail), School District of Kansas City, Mo., 317
Finance Bldg., and 2119 East 68th St., Kansas
City, Mo.
DOWNS, Charles R. (M 1930), Vice-Pres.-Treas.
(for mail), Weiss & Downs, Inc., 50 East 4 1st St..
New York. N. Y., and Sylvan Lane, Old Green-
wich, Conn.
DOWNS, Sewell H. (Af 1931), (Council, 1937)
Chief Engr., Oarage Fan Co., and (for mail), 211
Creston Ave., Kalamaxoo, Mich.
DOXEY, Harold E. (A 1937), Engr. (for mail),
Ocean Accident & Guarantee Corp., Ltd., 308
Phoenix Bldg., and 4251 Quincy St., N.E.,
Minneapolis, Minn.
DOYLE, William J. (M 1920), Designing Engr..
Williamson Heater Co., 335 W. Fifth. St., and
(for mall), 376C Hyde 'Park Ave., Cincinnati,
Ohio.
DRAKE, G. Forrest* (M 1937) , Development
Engr., Barber-Colman Co., and (for mail), 709
Camlin Ave., Rockford, 111.
DRAKE, George M. (J 1930), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), George H. Drake, Inc., 218 I^ington
Avc.'and 351 Norwood Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
DRIEMEYER, Ray C. (/ 1937), Prod. Engr.,
Airthcrm Mfg. Co., 1474 S. Vandeventer Ave.,
and (for mail), 5410 Vernon Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
DRINKER, Philip* (M 1922), Prof, (for mail),
Harvard School of Public Health, 55 Shattuck
St,, Boston, and 40 Puddingstonc Lane, Newton
Center. Mass.
DRISCOLL, Marvin G. (M '1937), Vice-Pres. (for
i mail), Bryant Eauipment Co., Inc., 1725 Rhodes
Haverty Bldg., and 20 Collier Rd., Atlanta, Ga.
19
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
DRISCOLL, WilHam H.* (M 1904), (Presidential
Member), (Pres., 1926; 1st Vice-Pres., 1925;
2nd Vice-Pres., 1924; Treas., 1923; Council,
1918-1927), Vice-Pres. (for mail), Carrier Corp.,
S. Geddes St., Syracuse, N. Y., and 50 Glenwood
Ave., Jersey City, N. J.
DROPPERS, G. J. (A 1937), Sales Supervisor,
Home Insulation Co. of St. Louis, 2504 Texas
Ave., St. Loui?, Mo., and (for mail), 2111 Yale
Ave., Maplewood, Mo.
DuBOIS, Louis J. (M 1931), Air Cond. Encr.,
York Ice Machinery Corp., 117 South llth St.,
St. Louis, and (for mail), 7451 Bland Drive,
Clayton, Mo.
DUBRY, Ernest E. (M 1924), Asst. Supt., Central
Htg., Detroit Edison Co., 2000 Second Ave., and
(for mail), 9116 Dexter Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
DUFAUI/T, Felix H. (A 1936), Mgr. Furnace Div.
(for mail). General Steel Wares, Ltd., 2355
Delisle St., and 1277 Visitation St., Montreal,
Que., Canada.
DUFF, Kennedy (M 1915), Mgr. Eastern Ter-
ritory (for mail), Johnson Service Co., 28 East
29th St., New York, N. Y., and 9 Park Ave.,
Maplewood, N. J.
DUG AN, Thomas M. (M 1920), Sanitary-Htg.
Engr., National Tube Co., Fourth Ave. and
Locust St., and (for mail), 1308 Freemont St.,
McKeesport, Pa.
DUGGER, Earl R. (J 1936; 5 1934), Service-
Installation Engr., Oklahoma Refrigerating Co.,
18 W. Grand, and (for mail), 3409 Classen,
Oklahoma City, Okla.
DULL, Edgar J. (4 1937), Engr.-Contractor (for
mail), 218 Water St., Baltimore, and 3014 Third
St., Brooklyn, Baltimore, Md.
DULLE, Willferd L. (J 1930), Asst. Secy., E. E.
Southern Iron Co,, St. Louis, and (for mail), 2910
Lincoln Ave., Normandy, Mo.
DUNCAN, James R. (M 1923), Sales Engr., Air
Cond., Carrier Corp., Room 408, Chrysler Bldg.,
New York, N. Y.
DUNCAN, William A. (A 1930), Dtot, Service
Engr. (for mail), Dominion Oxygen Co., Ltd.,
92 Adelaide St., W.f and 20 Tyrell Ave,, Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
DUNHAM, Clayton A.* (M 1911), Pres. (for
mail), C. A. Dunham Co., 450 E. Ohio St.,
Chicago, and 150 Maple Hill Rd., Glencoe, III.
DUNNE, Russell V. T>. (M 1937), Engr. (for mail),
Carrier Corp., Russian-American Chamber of
Commerce, Ul. Kuibisheva 0, Moscow, U.S.8.R.,
and 43 E. Park St., East Orange, N. J.
DUPUIS, Joseph R. (A 1930), Dist. Mgr. (for
mail), Trane Co. of Canada, Ltd., 000 St.
Catherine W.f Montreal, Que,, and 331 Clarke
Ave., Westmount, Que.f Canada.
DURKEE, Merrltt E. (A 1930), Sales Engr.,
Dunham Heating Service, 121 Grandview Ave.,
DURNING,' Edward H. (A 1030; J 1931), Com-
mercial Sales, Dallas Gas Co., Harwood and
Jackson Sts., and (for mail), 1830 Moser St.,
Dallas, Texas.
DWYER, Thomas F, (M 1923), Mcch. Engr. (for
mail), Board of Education, 49 Ktatbush Ave.
Ext., Brooklyn, and 1103 Clay Ave., New York,
DYKES, James B. (J 1930], Estimator (for mail),
T. A. Morrison & Co., Ltd., 1070 Bleury St.,
and 3141 Maplewood Ave,, Montreal, P, Q.,
Canada.
E
EADE, Hugh R. (M 1935), Archt. (for mail),
Eade & Co., 2 Imperial Bank Bldg., and 103
Chenton Ave., North Kildonan, Winnipeg,
Man., Canada.
EADIE, John G. (M 1909), Consulting Engr.,
Eadie, Freund & Campbell Co., 110 West 40th
St., New York, N. Y.
EAGLETON, Sterling P. (M 1930), Assoc. Air
Cond. Engr., National Park Service (Bldgs,
l^w&r %vy^1l*-' a£? £for
St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
EARL, Warren (A 1930), Sales Kngr., Howard E.
Melton, Inc., 207 N.W. Tenth St., and (fur mail),
1421 N. Ellison St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
EARLE, Frederic E. (A/ 1M7), Sales Knur, (for
mail), 520 Howard Ave., Bridgeport, and ir»8fi
Main St., Stratford, Conn.
EARLEY, Thomas J. (,-t 1035) » Pales Kn«r.,
Jennivson Co., Putnam St., and (for mail), 40
Elizabeth St., KItchburff, Mass.
EASTMAN, Carl B. (A/ UW2; J li»3»), MRr.t
Philadelphia Sales OlVu-e, C. A. Dunham Co.,
1500 Walnut St., Philadelphia, and (for mail),
530 Brookview I-ane, Hrookline, Upper Darby, Pa.
EASTWOOD, R. <). (A/ I'.Wll, (Council, 1931-
1<W; 1037), Prof, of Modi. KnKni. (for mail),
University of Washington, and 4701! 12th Ave.,
N.K., Seattle, Wash.
EATON, Byron K. (A/ 1020), Zone Mur,, !>lco-
FriRicIairc Conditioning I>»v,, General Motors
Sales Corp., 1-tUO Wisconsin Ave., Dayton,
Ohio, and (for mail), 12-10 S. Hrainard Ave.,
I'tiGmnKo, III.
EATON, William CJ. M. (A 1034), Sale** Kn«r.,
Pease Foundry Co., Ltd., 2127 Victoria St.,
Toronto li, and (for mail), 50 Symington Ave.,
Toronto 0, Canada*
EBBRT, William A. (A/ 1020), Mech. Contractor
(for mail), 1()2C> W. Asliby, and 2151 \V. Kinxa
Highway, Sjin Antonio, Texan.
ECKERT, B. Kendall (J Ul3f>>, Rngr. (for mail),
American Blower Corp., UOOO RuwieU St., and
»1 K. Kirby, Detroit, Mich.
KDKLMAN, Bernard P. (A 10.15), Aw«t. Sales
Mgr, (for mail), U. S. Air Conditioning Corp.,
2101 Kennedy St., N.K., and 428B NicoHet
Ave,, Minneapolis, Minn.
EDWARDS, Arthur W. (Af IBM), Dist. M«r..
The Trane Co., 020 Broadway, and (for mail),
3428 Paxton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
EDWARDS, Daniel K. (Af 1020), 2,'MCMli Pine
vSU St. Louia, Mo.
EDWARDS, Don J. (A 1033), Vice-Pie*. (for
mail), {Jenerai Heat & Appliance Co,, f»liil
Commonwealth Ave,f and 8 Devon Terrace,
Ko.slon, Mann.
EDWARDS. Henry B. (Jf li)«5), Chief Kn«r, (for
mail), Refriueracfon y uirc Aamdiciomulo, S. A.,
Oftcioa IK, and Calle4, No, 10, Habana, Cuba.
EDWARDS, Junlus D. (A/ 3U«Wjf Anjtt. Director
of Ke«eareh (for mail), Aluminum Company of
America, I*. (), Itox 77U (Kreeport Rd.), New
Kcn«inKtf)iif and f»3tt Sixth St., i >akmont. Pa.
EDWARDS, Paul A. (A/ liM), Pres. (t<»r mail),
G. V. HigKlna Co., (K»8 WahJiwh Hld«.. arul :«>74
Pinehuret Ave,, Pittsburgh 10, P,i,
EIILKRS, Jacobu* (J 1M7). Kn«tr. (for muih,
Carrier KnuineermK South Africa, Ltd,, Box
7821, und Jaewal Court, OuarU St., J«»hanne»-
burg, South Africa.
EHRUCH, M. WllHam* (Af Wflj, Chief KnKr.,
Commodore Heaters Corp., 11 We«t »l2nd St.,
N«w York, N. Y., and (for mail), M Rid«e Rd,.
Lymihumt* N. JT.
BICIIBR, HuBert C, (Af 102i>), C'hief, Uiv. t»f
School Plant, Pennsylvania State IJept. of
Public Instruction State Capitol, and (for mail),
ii07 North «0th St., HurrlsburK, Pu.
EH-S, Loo C. (J iu:m>, Ami. Supt,, <^ev>r«e J.
Meyertfe Son, ai!^ Kennett Square, Pitt»btir«h,
EXSELE, I^wi» G. (A 1JKJ7), Secy, (for mail),
Kiscle Automatic Heating Co., Box 30"., and tHJii
W. Huffhitt St., Iron Mountain. Mich.
EISELE, William S. (A 11*37), Supv. Kngr (for
mail). Ideal Heating & Air Conditioning Co.,
jMJl Seneca St., and 83(1 Tacoma Ave., HufTalo,
EISS, Robert M. (A/ lO.'UJ; J 1030), Kngr..
Kimberly-Clark Corp.. and (for mall), 714
Hewitt St., Neenah, Wia,
ELBERT, Ben F. (J 1U37), Salcu Kngr., Sidles
Co,. Airtcnm Div.f 80S Walnut St., and (for
^T^ikJiiSv8^1^111 *st" D*8 Moinej* Iowa.
ELtmGWOOD, Elliott t. (M HH)U), Consulting
Mech. Engr., 124 W. Fourth St., Lo« Angeles.
Calif.
20
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
ELUOT, Edwin (.U 1029), Edwin Elliot & Co.
(For niail), frtU) North Kith St., Philadelphia, and
403 W. Prieo St., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
ELLIOTT, Irvvin (.1 1M7), Chief Kn«r., Universal
Oven Co., 271 Hroadway, New York, and (for
main, 103 IVnticld Ave,, Croton, N. Y.
ELLIOTT, Louis (tU 11)32). Consulting Mech.
Knur., Kbiisro Sen-ices, Inc., 2 Rector St., Room
lfi,'H), Now York, N, Y,
ELLIOTT, Norton B. (A 10,'U), Branch Mgr.,
Amcric.in Hlmvcr Corp., 1011 Majestic Bldg.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
ELLIS, Frederick B. (\( 10U3), Sales Mgr. (for
main, ImiK'riul Iron Corp., Ltd., 30 Jefferson
Avo., Toronto, and 0 Princeton Kd., Kingsway
P. ().„ Toronto 8, Ont., Canada.
ELLIS, Frederick R. (,W 11)13), Sales Kngr.,
KtK'rkcI & Co., Inc., 1K-24 Union Park vSt.,
Boston, and (for mail), 131 Beacon St., Hyde
Park, Boston, Mass.
ELLIS, (ferfthom P. (Af MJfO. Chief Kngr. (for
mail), Hoard of Public Kducatinn, 841 Bellfidd
Ave., and rt(H)I Dal/ell Place, Pittsburgh, Pa.
ELLIS, Harry W. (Life Mfmbtr; M 1023; A 1UOM,
PrcH.-(F«'n. MRr., Jnhnttfm Service Co., 507
K. Miohi«an St., Milwaukee, Wtp.
ELWOOI>, WiHiR II. (M 1WJO), Branch Mgr..
Holland Kurnare Co., UOO King St., Ithaca, N. Y.
EMERSON, Ralph R. (A/ 1022), Prcu, Kmcrson
Swan CtiKKlyer Co., 107 Arlington St., Boston,
and (for mult), 44 Whitney Kd,, Newtonville,
EMERY, (Gordon W. (/I 1««5>, Service Knur.,
II. H. Van Saun, 1m-., 100 Moore St., Hacken-
tuck, ami (for mail). «Ki Birk St., Rochelle Park,
KMWfERT, Luther l>. (Af lt»ll)). Rt-pr. (for mail),
Buffalo Kome Co., Room 1UIW, 20 N. Wacker
I>riv«v Chicano, and 1701 Ilinman Ave., Evans-
KMsWlLKK, John K.* (M 1»17), Prof, of Mech,
Knttrg. (for mail), f JniverHtty of Michigan, 221
W. Kn«r«. lildg., stiul 130.'* Granger Ave. Ann
Arhor, Mi«'h.
KN<;LKk Alfrwl (,l Xl>2»), Swy. (for mail) Jenkins
Hriw., W) White St., Nt*w Yorkf and 1 Kcl«ewood
Rrl,, S%irwlat(*. N, Y.
KN<;L!SII, H«rrold (A/ 1««;>; A llWO), Pre«. (for
main, Hiwtifth & I.auer, Inc., 107« S. Los An«ele»
St.. nwl M.'» S. Norton. Los Anwlw, ( ulif.
KNSKrN, WI1H» A, {.U liar>)» Vicc-Pre», and
Chid" Kn«r,, frontier I-'uel (^11 Corp,, t>KO Kllicott
Stiuarr HM«., Buffalo, and (for mail). Revere
Drive, Derby, N. Y.
KPPLK, Arni*t ft. (/ 1»80, 201 Benjamin Ave.,
S.K,, (vrnncl Kiumi*, Mich.
KRKJKSON. K, Vinconc (M 1IKM), M«r.. New
York K\i»ort <>ir»c<* <for iuuil),C'urrii"r Corp., 405
l.c*xiitKt*m BAvf.. tiud W» Kant JWth St., New
I«;RU;K«O'N, Hnrry H. </I ItKiO), Sales Knur, (for
main, H«yw« Si'll!n« (*o., IW4 SnrjnK C.arden
St., itnd iil? W. TuljM'hocken St., Ptuladelphia,
l»a,
ERKJKSON, Martin R. U 1020). Suwt., Main-
tffUUKf. I*««itd of I«;<Iurati»m, and (for mail),
KM South 74th St., Wont Allis, VVJ«,
ERICSSON, Krlc B. (*U 1WHJ, Kngr., Board of
t'itiwtttiim. and (tt»r ma!U, oon West IKJth St.,
t'hicajio, 111.
KRKSMAN, ^rclvnl II.. Jr. (W I030V CUW
I*;nHr.. Watthtnitton K«*fri«mti«n Co., 17»M4th
St., W.W., and (for tnuil), a240-40th St., N.W., 2,
Washington, I). <'.
KKKATH. Kdwmrd <X (J 1030), ^Htg. and Air
I'ond, M««r» (f«r mull), Hell Co., «000 W.
Montana St., urn! 2040 North 46th St., Mil-
wnuk«*r. Wit*
IUK«IKNBA<;H, K*muei P. t; ttw?.D, «oic§ EW..
Amrrioin Hlower Corp., l»n Spring St., and 208
Dartmouth St., kodiwter, N. Y.
mo4>l G. (,t W»6), tXivdopmftnt and
Knirr. (fw n^Ur^^f Scneraj
ftrlc AjmHanw <:«., WXK) W. Taylor St., and
M Jomiuil Terras*, Chicago, 111.
ESTEP, Leslie G. (M 1936), Asst. Sales Mgr. in
charge of Residential Air Cond., Kelvinator
Div., Kelvinator-Nash Corp., 14250 Plymouth
Rd., and (for mail), 14909 Marlowe Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
ESTES, Edwin C. (A 1930), Mech. Draftsman (for
mail). Railroad Transportation, Room 820,
Northern Pacific Bldg., and 1690 Marshall Ave.,
St. Paul, Minn.
ETLINGER, Martin J. (J 1936), Pres., Con-
tempory Public Relations Co., 55 West 42nd St.,
and (for mail), 2979 Marion Ave., New York.
N. Y.
., , . , .
EVANS, Edwin C. (AT 1919), Branch Mgr., B. F.
Sturtevant Co., 504 Eckel Theatre Bldg., and
307 Montgomery St., Apt. 6, Syracuse, N. Y.
EVELETH, Charles F.* (M 1911), 2030 East
1 15th St., Cleveland, Ohio.
EVEREST, R. Harry (M 1935), Sales Enpr.,
Sheldons, Ltd., Gait, and (for mail), 235 Water-
loo St., Preston, Ont,, Canada.
EVERETTS, John, Jr.* (A 1935; / 1929), Engr.
(for mail), Air & Refrigeration Corp., 11 West
42nd St., New York, N. Y., and 55 Sound Beach
Ave., Old Greenwich, Conn.
EVLETH, Everett B. (A 1927), Vice-Pres. and
Gen. Mgr. (for mail), Brown Instrument Co.,
Wayne and Roberts, Philadelphia and Fishers
Rd., and Radnor, Bryn Mawr, Pa.
EWENS, Frank G.* (M 1937), Engr., Canadian
Air Conditioning Co., Ltd., 980 Bay St., and (for
mail), 83 Madison Ave., Toronto, Canada.
F
FABER, Dr. Oscar (M 1934), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), Romney House, Marsham St.,
Westminster, London and Hayes Court, Kenley,
Surrey, England.
FABLING, Walter D. (A 1937), Owner, 722 N.
Hroadway, and (for mail), 2121 Glendon Ave.,
W. Los Angeles, Calif.
FAGIN, Daniel J. (M 1932), Htg. Engr., Laclede
Gas Light Co., 1017 Olive St.. and (for mail),
1344 Woodruff Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
FAHNESTOGK, Maurice K.* (M 1927), Research
Asst, Prof, (for mail), University of Illinois, 214
M, K. Laboratory, and 701 W. California St.,
Urbana, 111.
FAILE, Edward II. (M 1934), Designing and
Construction Kngr, (for mail), 608 Fifth Ave.,
New York, N. Y.,and R. F. D. 1, Westport, Conn.
FAIRBANKS, Frank L. (M 1937), Prof. Agri-
cultural Engrg., Agric. Engrg. Exp. Station,
Cornell University, and (for mail), 424 E. State
St., Ithaca, N. Y.
FALK, David S. (7 1937), Sales Engr. (for mail),
The Tranc Co,, 8310 Woodward Ave., and 79 E.
Philadelphia, Detroit, Mich.
FALTENUACHER, Harry J. (M 1930), Pres.,
II. J. Faltenbachcr, Inc., 235 E. Wistcr St.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
FALVEY, John D. (M 1922), Consulting Engr.,
31 (J N. Eighth St., St. Louis, and (for mail),
tt(MJ Perahing Ave., University City. Mo.
FAMILErn, A. Robert (A 1938; J 1030), Chief
Kngrg. Draftsman, Industrial Dcpt., Navy
Yard,, and (for mail), 0735 Guyer Ave., Phila-
FARMER , ^ouis M. (J 1030), Engr., Natkin &
Co., 1800 Baltimore, and (for mail), 3714 Flora,
Kansas City, Mo.
FARLEY, W. F. (M 1930), Salesman, American
Radiator Co., 40 West 4()th St., New York, and
(for mail), 28 Elm St., New Rochelle, N. Y.
FARNHAMt, Roswell (M 1920), (Council, 1927-
1033), Dist. Mgr., Engrg. Sales (for mail),
Buffalo Forge Co,, P. (). Box 985, and 5 Claren-
don Place, Buffalo, N. Y.
St., Peorla, 111.
21
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FARRAR, Cecil W. (M 1920; A 1018), (Treas.,
1930; Council, 1930), Pres. (for mail), Excclso
Products Corp., 65 Clyde Ave., and 29 Oakland
Place, Buffalo, N. Y.
FARROW, HolHs L. (J 1037), Kngr. Air Cond.
Dept., Kelly Sales Corp., Arlington, and (for
mail), 60 Essex St., Lynn, Mass.
FATZ, Joseph L. (M 1935), Htjs.-Vtg. EHRT. (for
mail), Board of Education, 2i>8 N. LaSnlle St.,
Room f>30, and 1634 N. Mason Ave., Chicago, 111.
FAULKNER, Gordon (J 1037; S 193,r>), Junior
Engr., Standard Oil Development Co., Linden,
and (for mail), 43 Bellewood Place, Elizabeth,
N. J.
FAUST, Frank H.* (M 1036; / 1030), Air Cond.
Dept. (for mail), General Electric Co., fi Lawrence
St., Bloomfield, and 202 Vreeland Ave., Nutley,
N.J.
FAXON, Harold C. (M 1037), En«r., Appliance
Section (for mail), Borneo Co., Ltd., Mercantile
Bank Bldg., and 73 Grange Rd., Singapore, S. S.
FAY, Donald P. (S 1936), 91-38-linth St.,
Richmond Hill, L. L, N. Y,
FAY, Frank C. (M 1025), Engr. (for mail),
Raisler Heating Co., 129-31 Amsterdam Ave.,
New York, and Q217-54th Ave., Elmhurat,
L. I., N. Y.
FEBREY, Ernest J. (Life Member; M 1003), R. J.
Febrey & Co. (for mail), 616 New York Ave.,
N.W.. and 2331 Cathedral Ave., N.W., Wash-
ington, D. C.
FEEHAN, John B. (U 1023), Prw.-Treas. (for
mail), John B. Fcehan, Inc., f>8 SprinR St.,
Lynn, and 4 Long View Drive, Marblchead,
FEELY, Frank J. (M 1035; A 1020), Mgr. of
Sales, Taylor Supply Co., 700 Monroe Ave.,
Detroit, and (for mail), 9f>0 Troinblcy Rd.,
Grosse Pointe Park, Mich.
FEHLIG, John B. (Life Member; M 1018), Prea.-
Treas. (for mail), Excelsior Heating Supply Co,,
528 Delaware St., and 2927 Brooklyn Ave.,
Kansas City, Mo.
FEINBERG, Emanucl (J 1037), Diat. Sales Kngr.
(for mail), Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 415
Brainard, and 3255 Cortland Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
FEIRN, William H. (M 1037), Htg. and Vtg.
Contractor, C. A. Hooper Co., ana (for mail),
Shorewood, Madison, Wia.
FELDERMANN, William (A 1037), Mgr. Air
Cond. Div., American Gas Accumulator Co.,
Newark Ave., Elizabeth, and (for mail), 357
Irving Ave., South Orange, N. J.
FELDMAN, A. M.* (Life Member; M 1003),
Consulting Engr., 40 West 77th St., New York,
FELS, Arthur B. (M 1019), Prea. (for mail), The
Fels Co., 42 Union St., Portland and Oilman St.
Yarmouth, Maine.
FELTWELL, Robert H. (Life Member; M 1005),
Htg. Engr., II. S. Radiator Corp., 2321 Fourth
St., N.E., and (for mail), 1370 Oak St., N.W.,
Washington, D. C.
FENKER, Clement M. (M 1937), Designing
Mech. Engr. (for mail), Edward J. Shulte,
Archt., 920 E. McMillan, Cincinnati!, and 2208
Feldman Ave., Norwood, Ohio.
FENNER, Everett M. (M 103(1; A 1028), Chief
Engr. (for mail), Staples Coal Co., 02 Pleasant
St., Fall River, Mass., and 83 Colonial Ave.,
Cranston, R. I.
FENNER, N. Paul (A 1028), (for mail), John G.
Kelly, Inc., 210 East 45th St., New York, and
15 De Mott Place, Rockvillc Center, L. I., N. Y.
FENSTERMAKER, Sidney E. (M 1900), Pres.
(for mail), S. E. Fcnstermaker & Co,, 037
Architects and Builders Bldg., and 3102 Wash-
ington Blvd., Indianapolis, Ind.
FERGESTAD, Marvin L. (A 1038; J 1935).
Field Engr., Pacific Lumber Co., Bark Prod.
Div., 100 Bush St., San Francisco, Calif., and
(for mail), 3509 S. Colfax Ave., Minneapolis,
Minn.
FERGUSON, Ralph R. (.U 1034; A 1027;
J 1025), Mgr. Air Cond, Dept., American Blower
Corp., 50 West 4()th St., New York, N. Y., and
(for mail), KM) Prospect St., Kiist OraiiKC, N. J.
FERRARINI, Joseph (J UW7), TVstinu Kngr.,
Washington Gas Light Co.* 411 Tenth St., N.W.,
Washington, D. C',, and (for main, 17^S Queens
Lane, Colonial Village, Apt. 180, Arlington, Va.
FEY<»R, Harold (<U 1037). Mgr. HtK. Dent. (for
main, Wnlworth California Co., tHi,"» Sixth St.,
and H3"> Turk St., San Hnuinsn>, Calif.
FIDKLIIT8, Walter R. (.U 1MH), Sales Kngr.,
IntBgibbons Boiler Co., Inc., 101 Park Ave.,
New York, and (for main, Itt5 Aincrsfort Place,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
FIEDLER, Harry W. (M 1023). Pros, (for mail),
Air Conditioning IHilities, Inc., ,S Went 40th St.,
New York, and 77 Hillside Ave., Mt. Vernon,
N. V.
FIFE, G. Donald (M 1M7; .1 I (Ml; J It»20), Air
Court. Kngr, Architect oi the Capitol, ami (for
mail), lill Delaware Ave., Washington, I). C.
FIGGIS, Thomas CJ. (A 1M7; J IMW, Tech.
Sales Kngr., J. & K. Hall, Ltd., Dartford Iron-
works, Kent, England.
FILLO, Frank B. (A I ««•*). Hist. M«r., Minne-
apolis-Honcywell Regulator Co.* 1134 N.
Pennsylvania Ave., Indianapolis, Ind.-
FINAN, James J. (<U HI1.W, Sufjervisinjt Knur.,
Board of Kducation, 2UK N. I.a&ille St., Room
580, and (for main, 7I4i» Kuelid Ave., Chicago,
111.
FINERAN, KdwarU V. (J HW>), Asst, Kngr. of
Utilization, Washington Gas Light Co., 411
Tenth St., N.W., \VunhinKton, J). C., and (for
mail), 30f> KrlK«kw<MKl Ave.. Silver Spring, Mci.
FINNERTY, John A. (J IU,'J7), Siiles Engr..
Herman Nelson Corp., Room MO, 101 Park
Ave., New York, ami (for mail), «« K. Lincoln
Ave., Mt. \Vrnrm, N. Y.
FINNEY, Brandon (,U 1M7), Ht*:,-VtR. Kn«r.
(Inspector), City of Lo« Angela, City Hall, LOH
AngeleB, and (for mnll), 721 Viu cli* I*a Pn/,
Pacific Palisades, Calif.
FISCHER, Lfldlslav (J IM7), Kn«r, in rhar«e of
MfR.( Anemostat Cori>, of AmcrU':u 10 Kant
UOth v^t.t New York, ami (for maM, Crosby St.,
Sayvillc. L, L, N, Y.
FI8IIKR, John T. (J HM), Chief Kn«r., t'nitwl
Hauipmcnt ife Supttly Co.. 181*2 M St., N.W.,
and (for mail), 3228 Kittenhcmue St., N.W.,
Washington, I), C\
FITCIIL Howard M* (J 1$KM), Ssit*-fi Kn«r.,
American Air Filter Co., 215 Central Ave., and
(for mail), 201 Clare Ave., LmiSnvjlle, Ky.
FITTS, Chftrle* I>. (At 1«20>, Branch M«r, (for
mail), Amftritun Radiator Co., W»2 Priur Ave.,
St. Paul, and 2807 Dean Blvd., Minneapolis
Minn.
FITTS, Joaoph C. {Af Itf.'tO), Scry.. IleatinK,
Piping & Air (Conditioning C«mtmotorH National
AHaodation, 1250 Sixth Ave., Nrw Yrtrk, N. Y.,
and (for mail), 215 Kenitwurth Kd., Kidacwood,
FITZ/Joan <:handler (W 1024), M«r., Arco
Thermo Sy«te«t Div. (for mail), American
Ra<liator Co., 40 W««t -Iflth St., New York, N. Y,
FIT7XJERAUX Matthew J. (A/ 1M4), Secy.-
Treas., Standard Asbentrtt Mf«. <*o., fi2() W.
. ., .
Uke St., <rhiea«o. and (for mail), 1117 N.
Linden Ave., (tok Pftrfc, til*
FITZCKRALD, William K. (J 10,'tO; .S4 l«3f»),
Secy.-Trea«.» Fitzgerald Plumbing «r Heating
Co., Inc., 0;«>-4l Loufm'ana Ave., and (for mail),
210 Vine St.. Shreveport, La.
FITZSIMONS, J. Patrick (J 1034; .S 1M2), Mgr,.
Air Cond. Dept. (for mall). Tram* <'o. of Canada,
Ltd., 4 Mowat Ave., and 161 Uowlin« Ave.,
Toronto, Canada.
FLARSHEIM, Clarence A. (J 1(W3), Pm,r C. A,
Klarahcim. Inc., 201-7 Perching Rd., ITnion
Station Plaaa (for irwiiU, P, O. Box f*fl, and »720
Holmes St., Kansas City, Mo.
FLEISHBR, Walter L.* (Af 1014), (Council,
1937), Consulting Knar. <for mail), 11 West 42nd
St.. New York, and New City, N, Y.
22
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
FLEMING, James P. (M 1023), Engr.-Custodian
Hoard of Education, 5015 N. Kimball Ave.
ChicaKo, 111.
FLEMING, Thomas F. (/ 103«; S 1935), Safety
Knf;r., Liberty Mutual Insurance Co., 122 N.
Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo., and (for mail)
7004 KuKleston Ave., Chicago. III.
FLINK. Carl H. (M Km), Research Engr. (for
mail), American Radiator Co., 8007 Joseph
Campau Ave., and fll>.">0 Yorkshire Rd., Detroit,
Midi.
FLINN, George S, (J 193(1), Chief Engr., Mc-
Gregor's, Inc., 1071 Union Ave., and (for main
100 N. Avulon, Memphis, Tcnn.
FLINT, Coll T. (.U 11)110, Sales M«r. (for mail),
H. B. Smith Co., 0-10 Main St., Cambridge, and
fill Hrantwood Rd., Arlington, Maas.
FLYNN, Frank J. (M 1080), Secy.-Treas.,
MiMwmrt Water & Steam Supply Co., 810-20
Sixth St.. and (for mail), 920 Kidenbaugh St.,
St. Joseph, Mo.
FOG ART V, Orvilfo A. (Jl/ 1<)34), Kngr., Rivera
SiUvuKe Co., Ltd., 22-l,> St. James St., W..
Mimtreal, and (for mail). RiRaud, Uue., Canada.
POLLKTT, Thomas L. (.V 1030), 10000 Kuclid
Ave., Cleveland, and (for mail), 300 N. Main St.,
Hudson, Ohio.
FOOTK, A. <;. (.\f UK17), Dist. Kn«rM Krigidairi-
Div,, General Motors Sales Corp., Oakland, and
(for mail}, LMWi Virjiinia St., Berkeley, Calif,
POOTK, Earl B. (<U li)»0), (Jen. Supt,, Consumers
Central Heating Co., 10H Kast llth St., and (for
mail), 3412 North 28th St., Tacoma, Wash.
FORD, Edward F. (A UI37), Sales Repr. (for
mail), American Radiator Co,, 8019 Joseph
Cumjuu Ave,, Detroit, and 288 Ann St., Ply-
mouth, Mich.
FOKFAK, Donald M. (A/ 1017), Mech. Kn^r.,
Cirinncll Co., Inc., 240 Seventh Ave., S., and (for
math, 4K17 Kmernon Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
FORRESTER, Charles M. (A 1037), Air Cond.
Sales M«r. (for mail), Gurney Foundry Co.,
Ltd., 4 Junction Rd.t and 77 Collcgeview Ave.,
Toronto, Out., Canada.
FORRESTER, Norman J. (A UKJO), M«r.
Contract I>iv», Gurth Co., 7">0 Belair Ave.,
Montreal, and (for mail), 310 Westminster
Ave., N., Montreal, W., Uuo., Canada.
FORSUKRC;, WUtimm (.U 1010), Hopaon &
Clmjnn Mfc. Co.. 231 Mtute St., New London,
Conn.
POKSMfND, Oliver A. (Af 103(0, On. M«r.f
FontUind I*ump & Machinery ('o.» 1717-10 Main
St., und ttor tuail), ilOU \Veat 75th Terrace,
KiinriuH <*ity, Mo,
FO8K. Kdwlu R. (A «»»«), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), !*ower« Regulator t'o,, -107 ttonu Allen
I«d«.. and 2.*.7 Htillinn Rd., N.K., Atlanta, Gu.
HKSTKR, Chiirlcrt (A/ 1023), Consulting Kngr.
(for mail), Kouter & Wahlbertf, 31(i Medical
Aiti» Hlrlg., nnct 2831 K. Inr»t St., Duluth, Minn.
FO8TKR, Jameti M. (A/ U)30; A 1020), Owner
(f/ir muJl), 4."iart Olive St., St. Louia, and 7021
UmMl Ave., Univcraity City, Mo.
FO3TKK, PhiUp II. (/I 1037), Hunineiw M«r.,
Hudson Hay rlumbinK Co., Klin Hon, Man.,
'
S* I*. A. L, (A/ ltW», Consulting Kn«r. (for
mail), Uubbard, Rictccrd & Ulakcley, 110 State
St.. Room 709, Boston, and 72 Whitin Ave.,
Kt-vvre. Mawj.
FOWLKS, Harry H. (J 1034), Htg.-Vt«. Kngr.
(for mail), (.'urnuin-ThompHon Co., 12-14 Lincoln
St., I.ewiatwn, and 17(i Summer St., Auburn,
Maine,
FOX, Kdward L. (/ WM), Kngr., American
1'ourtdry & Kurnacts Co., Hloomington, and (for
imtil), 715 Sanford St., Peoria, 111.
FOX, Krne»t (M 1035), A»wt, to Kngn (for mail),
C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd.. Ifi23 Davenport ltd.,
and 4M Glcnholmc Ave.» Toronto, CMt., Canada.
FOX, John H. (M 1935), Sales Engr. (for mail),
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Ltd., 117
Peter bt., and 37 Macdonell Ave., Toronto,
Canada.
FRANCE, Clarence N. (A 1936), Service Mgr.,
Colonial Fuel Oil, Inc., 1709 De Sales St., N.W.,
Washington, D. C.
FRANCIS, Paul E. (M 1937), Asst. Mgr. of Sales,
Northwestern Fuel Co., E-1203 First National
Bank Bldg., St. Paul, and (for mail), 5115 S.
Colfax Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
FRANK, John M. (Af 1918; A 1912), Pres. (for
mail), Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 2850 N.
Crawford Ave., Chicago, and 1152 Chatfield Rd.,
Hubbard Woods, 111.
FRANK, Olive E.* (M 1919), Pres. (for mail),
Frank Engineering Co., 11 Park Place, and 610
West 110th St., New York, N. Y.
FRANKEL, Gilbert S. (M 1926), Mgr., Federal
and Marine Dept. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co.,
SJO-24 Woodward Bldg., and 2749 Macorab St.,
N.W., Washington. D. C.
FRANKLIN, Ralph S. (M 1919), Pres.-Treas. (for
mail), Albert B. Franklin, Inc., 38 Chauncy St.,
Boston, and 320 Grove St., Melrose, Mass.
FRASER, Jamas J. (A 1936), Director (for mail),
Honeywell-Brown, Ltd., 70 St. Thomas St.,
London, S.E. 1, and 60, The Grove, St. Mar-
garet's, Twickenham, Middx., England.
FRAZIER, J. Earl (A 1930), Secy.-Treas. (for
mail), Fra/ier-Simplex, Inc., Washington Trust
Bldg., und 417 E. Beau St., Washington, Pa,
FREAS, Royal B. (A4 1928), Vice-Pres., Freaa
Thermo Electric Co., 1750 N. Springfield Ave.,
Chicago, 111., and (for mail), Schodack Landing,
FREDERICK, Holmes W. (M 1937), Asst. Supt.,
Engrg. Div., Harvard University, Lehman Hall,
Cambridge, and (for mail), 09 Kingswood Rd.,
Auburndale, Mass.
FREDERICK, Walter L. (A 1937), Pres. (for
mail), Bryant Air Conditioning Corp., 1340
Connecticut Ave., and 3010 Tilden St., Wash-
FRE8EMAN', Edwin M. (A 1937), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Canadian Asbestos Co., Ltd., 310 Youville
Square, and 37 Sunset Ave., Montreal, Que.,
Canada.
FREEMAN, John C. (J 1930), Assoc. Mech.
Engr., Div. of Architecture, Sacramento, Calif.
FREITAG, Frederic G. (M 1932), Chief Engr.,
Sylvester Oil Co:, Inc., 703 S. Columbus Ave.,
and (for mail), 9 Harrison St., Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
FRENCH, Donald (M 1920), Vice-Pres. (for mail),
Carrier Corp., 302 S. Geddes St., Syracuse, N. Y.,
and 114 Hobart Ave., Summit, N. J.
FRENTZEL, Herman C. (M 1930), Chief Engr.,
Htg. and Water Systems Divs., The Hell Co.,
3000 W. Montana St., and (for mail), 4363 N.
Wildwood Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
FRIED* Harold V. (A 1935), Air Cond. Specialist
(for mail), Birmingham Electric Co., 2100 N,
First Ave., and 1585 Druid Hill Drive, Birming-
ham, Ala.
FRIEDLINE, James M. (/ 1937), Sales Engr.,
General Air Conditioning Corp., Room 304
Paramount Bldg., and (for mail), 1811 Fifth
Ave., S.E., Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
FRIEDMAN, Arthur (A 1930), Pres. (for mail),
Cleveland Heater Co., 1933 West 114th St.,
Cleveland, and 15700 S. Moreland Blvd., Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
FRIEDMAN, D. Harry, Jr. (Ad 1930), Engr, (for
1 mail), Peoples Water & Gas Co., 15th and Wash-
ington Ave., and 330 58th St., Miami Beach, Fla.
FRIEDMAN, Ferdinand J.* (M. 1921), Consult-
ing Engr. (for mail), McDougall & Friedman,
1221 Osborne St., Montreal, Que., Canada, and
31 Union Square, New York, N. Y.
FRIEDMAN, Milton (/ 1935; 3 1933), 470 West
End Ave., New York, N. Y.
FRIMET, Maurice (J 1930), Pres.-Owner, Ace
Refrigerating Co., 02 Sherman Ave., Tompkins-
ville,and (for mail), 120 Osgood Ave., Stapleton,
S. I., N. Y.
23
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
FRISSE, John L. (J 1937; 5 1935), 5538 Forbes
St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
FRITZ, Charles V. (J 1936; 5 3033), Designer
and Estimator, Chas. F. Fritz (for mail), 07 W.
Merrick Rd., and 26 Cottage Court, Freeport,
FUKUI, Kunitaro (M 1926), Auditor (for mail),
Oriental Carrier Engineering Co., Ltd., Osaka
Mitsui Bldg., Nakanoshima, Osaka, Japan.
GALE, Hamilton A. (/ 1936), Sales Engr.,
Hudson Air Conditioning Corp., 1727 Pennsyl-
vania Ave., Washington, D. C., and (for mail),
Murray Hill, Annapolis, Md.
GALLAGHER, Paul (J 1937; S 1935), 1209 Sixth
St., Peru, 111.
GALLIC AN, Andrew B. (M. 1921), 716 South
51st St., Philadelphia, Pa.
GALLOWAY, James F. (A 1938; 5 1934),
General Electric Co., 570 Lexington Ave., New
York, and (for mail), 117-01 Park Lane, S.,
Kew Gardens, L. I., N. Y.
GAMBLE, Gary B. (A 1935), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), Leo S, Weil & Walter B. Moses, 427
S. Peters St., and 732 St. Peter St., New Orleans,
La.
GAMBLE, Claude L. (M 1937), 12 Riverside,
Fort Leavenworth, Kans.
GAMMILL, Oscar E., Jr. (A 1937; J 1930), Sales
Engr. (for mail), Carrier Corp., 1413 Hibernia
Bank Bldg., and 2133 Calhoun St., New Orleans,
La.
GANGE, Frank B. (M 1937), Managing Director,
Gordon & Co., Ltd., 185 Yuen Ming Yuen Rd.,
Shanghai, China.
GANT, H. P.* (M m$), (Presidential Member),
(Pres., 1923; 1st Vice-Pres., 1922; 2nd Vice-
Pres., 1921; Council, 1918-1924), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Carrier Corp., 12 South 12th St., Phila-
delphia, and R. D. 1, Glen Moore, Pa.
GARDNER, Clifton R. (A 1937), Vice-Prcs. (for
mail), Martyn Bros., Inc., 911 Camp St., and
5506 Mercedes, Dallas, Texas.
GARDNER, S. Franklin (M 1911), Pres. (for
mail). Standard Engineering Co., 2129 Eye St.,
N.W., and 4901 Hillbrook Lane, Washington,
D. C.
GARDNER, William (A 1921), Vice-Pres. (for
mail). Garden City Fan Co., 1842 McCormick
Bldg., and 7836 Loomis Blvd., Chicago, HI.
GARNEAU, Leo (A 1938; / 1930), Sales Engr.,
C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., Room 931 Dominion
Square Bldg., and (for mail), 2541 Maplewood
Ave., Apt. 2, Montreal, P. £>., Canada.
GARNETT, Ralph E. (A 1930), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Standard Asbestos Mfg. & Insulating Co.,
10 N. Olive St., and 3114 Benton Blvd., Kansas
City, Mo.
GATES, Robert A. (M 1930), Sole Owner, Gates
Engineering Co., 510-77 Sheet St., and (for mail),
248 Bay 38th St.. Brooklyn, N. Y.
GAULEV, Ernest R. (A 1935), Salesman (for
mail), Age Publications, Ltd., 31 Wlllocka St..
and 110 Lee Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
GAULT, Georie W. (J 1937; 5 1934), Standard
Steel Works Co., and (for mail), C. C. C. Co.
2340, Camp No. 5-118, Clearfield, Pa.
CAUSE, H. Chester (M 1937), Power Sales Engr.
(for mail), Alabama Power Co., 000 North 18th
St., .and 905 South 38th St., Birmingham, Ala.
GAUSEWITZ, William H. (A 1937), Owner and
Mgr., Conditionedaire, Inc., 513 Third Ave.,
N.K., and (for mail), 1321 W. Minnehaha Park-
way, Minneapolis, Minn.
GAUSMAN, Carl E. (M 1923), Consulting Engr.,
Gausman £ Moore, 1520 First National Bank
Bldg., E., and (for mail), 2300 Chilcombc Ave.,
St. Paul, Minn.
GAWTHROP, Fred. II. (M 1919), Pres., Gaw-
throp & Bro. Co., 705 Orange St., and (for mail),
^ 2211 Shallcross Ave., Wilmington, Del.
GAYLOR, William S, (M 1919), 0 .West Ave.,
Larchmont, N. Y.
24
GAYLORD, Frank H. (J/ 1921), Western Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
130 N. Wells St., Chicago, and 30U N. York St.,
Elmhurst, 111.
GAYNER, James (M 1H37), Mech. Kngr., G. M.
Simonson, Cons. knj;r., 74 New Montgomery St.,
San Francisco, and (for mail), 239 Park View
Ave., Piedmont, Calif.
GEIGER, Irvin II. (If 1<J1<>), Registered Prof.
Kngr. and Mfrs. Repr. (for mail), 311) Telegraph
Bldg. (P. O. B. 83), and 240 JMachiy St., Hanis-
bur«, Pa.
GEISSBUIILER, John O. (/ li>3(i; £ 1031),
Student Engr., General Electric Co.. Glass
Machine, 1133 Knst l.">L'nd St., and (for mail),
9820 Ziiumcr Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
GELTZ, Ralph W. (J 193<J), Air Cond. Kngr.,
York Ice Machinery Corp., 2700 Washington
Ave., N.W., Cleveland, and (for mail), 1400
Lakefront Ave., E. Cleveland, Ohio.
GENDRON, Henri (A 1937), Chemical Kngr
Canadian General Electric Co., Ltd., 1001) Beaver
Hall Hill, and (for mail), 2049 Maplewood, Apt.
G, Montreal, L>ue.f Canada.
GERHARD, David H. (A 1937), Power Sales
Kngr. (for mail), Consumers Power Co., 21iJ W.
Michigan Ave., and 121 S. Higby St., Jackson,
Mich.
GERMAIN, Oscar (M 1935), Foreman, Germain
WiTOt Lfd" s2''*7 St' Antonie St., and (for mail),
1343 Blvd. St. Louis, Three Rivers, P. O.
Canada. w
GERRiSII, Grenville B. (A HWfl; J 1030), Mgr.
(for mail), KiUgibbons Boiler Co., Inc., 31 Muin
J»t.. Cambridge, and 89 Warwick Rd., Melrose
Highlands, MUSH.
GKRRISH, Harry E. (M 1910), (Council. 1919),
Partner (for mail), Morgun-Gerrfoh Co., 84 S.
I with St., 307 iisaex Bldg., and 4534 Fremont S.,
Minneapolis, Minn.
GJEf S,VIJt9,w» Roy M- <** mol' *>res> cfor waii),
Plullips-Getschow Co., 32 W. Hubbard St,
/iu «ic?8ft ,un! lssa Woodstock, Kennilworth, 111.
GHILAHDl, Fcrnand (M 1U37), Chief Kngr.,
Mmnenpohs-HoncywclI Regulator Co., 34 Rue
Govot cle Muuroy, and (for muil), 20 Rue de la
Pepmicrc, Paria, France.
CIANNIM, Mario C. U/ 1035). Aaat. Prof, of
Mech. fcmrrg., New York University, University
Heights, New York, and (for mail;, 31 French
Ridge, New Rochelle, N. Y.
GIBBONS* Michael J. (M 1914), Owner, M. J.
Gibbons Supply Co., 001-31 K, Monument Ave.,
and Jfor inail), iJii Oxford Ave., Dayton, Ohio.
Smith'-Gibba Co. (for mail), U01 S.' Muin bib., and
W j^wident Ave., Providence, H. 1.
GIBBS, trank G. (M 1981), Gen. Supt. (for mail)
National Regulator Div.-Minncttpon»-lloneyweIl
Regulator Co., 2301 N. Knox Ave.. ChicuiEo and
638 N. Cuyler Ave., Oak Park, 111,
GIESECKE, Frederick E.* (JUT 1W13), (Council*
1932-1937), Director, TCXUB Engrg. iixjwrinicnt
fetation, Agricultural and Mechanical College,
^College Station, Texas.
CIFFORD, (Jiarence A. (A W34), Salcamttn
American Radiator Co., 374 Delaware Ave.. an<i
(for mail), 758 Parkaide Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
GIFFORI), Robert L. (Life Mtmbfr; M «W8),
Prea., Illinois Engineering Co., 21st St. and
Kaane Ave., Chicago, ill., and (for mail), 1231
S. El Mohno Ave., Pasadena, Calif.
GIFFORD William R. (M 1938; J 1030), Sales
Lngr., American liadiator Co.t Fourth and
Charming fits.. N.E., Waahington, D. C , and
(for mail), Box 295, College Park, Md.
GIGUERE, Geprfce H. (M 1920;, Consulting
„&?*" 17205 KairP°rt AV«M Detroit, Mich.
GILBERT. Leslie S. (M 1937), Owner (for mail),
Gilbert Engineering Co., 1314 Liberty Hank
Bldg., and 2719 N. Haskell, Dallas, Texas
H' pcdt£; ly*k J
wood Blvd., Pittsburgh, Pa,
1LESt J. C.(J 1938; 6' 1935), 546 South Blvd.,
Norman, Okla.
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
GILFRIN, Georfte F, (Jlf 10321, Climas Arti-
ficiales, S. A. (for mail), Kdificio "La National"
608, and Esplanada No. 715 Lomas de Chapul-
tepcc, Mexico, D. F.
GILL, Eric F. (Af 1930), Chief Draftsman,
Drayton Regulator & Instrument Co., Ltd., and
(for mail), HO Warwick Rd., West Drayton,
Middlesex, England.
GILLE, I Fadar B. (if 1030), Consulting Engr. (for
mail), Hugo Theorells Ingeniorsbyra, Skoldun-
ftagntnn 4, Stockholm, and SvanhildsvSgen 19,
Noekeby, Sweden.
GILLETT, M. C. (M Ifllfi), Engr,, Hoffman
Specialty Co., T>00 Fifth Ave.r New York, N. Y.t
and (for mail), (WOO Rising Sun Ave., Phila-
(Mphiu, Pa.
Ave., Kansas City, Mo,
OILMAN, Franklin W. (A/ 1035), Plant Engr.
(for mail), Atwater Kent Mfg. Co., 4700 Wis-
anhickon Ave., and 614 W. Coulter St., Phila-
delphia, Pu.
GILMORK, Louis A. (J 1035; S 1030), Vice-
Pn*s, (for mail), John Gilmore & Co., 13 N.
Tenth St., and 0180 Westminster Place, St. Louia,
Mo.
GINI, Aldo (A/ 1033), via Correggio 18, Milano,
Italy,
GINN, Tony M. (A/ 1035), Gen. Mgr., Tony M.
Ginn Co., l>14-2t Fifth St., S., Great Kails, Mont.
GITTERMAN, Henry (A 1M7), Dist. Repr. (for
mail). Independent Air Filter Co., Inc., 55 West
42nd St., New York and Baptist Church Rd.,
Yorktown. N. Y.
GITTLESON, Harold (A 1030), Sales Mgr.,
Lariviere, Inc., 3715 St. Lawrence Blvd., and (for
mail), 1125 Lajoie Ave., Montreal, Que.» Canada.
GIVIN, Albert W. (A 1025), Vice-Prcs. (Stove
Kale«)» Gurwsy Foundry Co., Ltd. (for mail),
4 Junction Rd., Toronto, Ont., Canada,
GLASS, William (Af 1034), Mgr. (for mail),
PartrMKfc-HalHday, Ltd., 144 Ixwnbard St.,
Winnipeg, and 100 liraemar Ave,, Norwood,
Manitoba, Canada.
GLEASON. Gilbert H. (U 1023), Partner (for
mail), Gilbert Howe Gleason & Co., 28 St.
Botolph St., Boston, and 10 EdKclull Road,
Winchester, Maes.
GLORtt, Kvina F. (A 1010), 044 Riverside Drive,
New York, N. Y.
GODDARD, William F. (A 1030), Gov't. Repr.,
Amerienn Radiator Co., Fourth and Channing
Sts,* N.K., and (for mail). Apt. 34. 8150-lOth St.,
N.W.. Washington, D. C.
C;OKL£, Arnold H. (Asf 1031), Pren.-Treas. (for
maill, Kroeechell Engineering Co., 215 W.
( >ntarir> St., Chicago, and 827 Green-wood Ave.,
WJJmette, 111.
GOKNACA* Rofttr O. (M 1031), Tech. Director,
Ate.Ifertt Ventil (for mail), 100 Coura Gambetta,
I, yon. and U3 Avenue VtiUoud-Stc-Foy-lcs-Lyon,
Rhone, !«*rance.
GOKK<;f Bcrnhard (M 1028), Director Inst.
Thermal Research (for mail), American Radiator
(*<>„ fl7f> Bronx River Rd., Yonkew, and Eton
LodKe, Stsir«dale, N. Y.
GOLDBERG, Mo»e« (A 10,'H), Pres., Electric
Motorn (*orp,, 108 Centre St., New York, and
(for mail), 885 K. Eighth St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
<;OU>SttHMEn>T, Otto B. (M 1015), Consulting
Knur, (for mail), 22 ICaHt 4()th St., New York,
N, Y.r and Green* Farms, Conn,
GOLDSMITH, F. WHHua (M 1036), Pres. (for
mull). W. Cla»mann Co., 324 K. Wisconsin Ave.,
and fl2tt K. Day Ave., Milwaukee, Wi«.
COLL, WIUArd A. (A 1M7), Sales Kngr., Standard
Furnace Supply Co., 407 ft Tenth, and (for mail),
4 IH North 38th Ave», Omaha, Ncbr.
COMBERS, Henry B» (Life Member; A 1001),
Secy. Kmoritut, IIeatln«, Piping and Air Con-
ditioning Contractors National Association, 12/30
Sixth Ave., New York, N. Y., and (for mail),
IflO Halutcd St., East Orange, N. J.
GONZALEZ, Rafael A. (M 1936), Mgr., Applica-
tion Engrg. (for mail), Airtemp, Inc., and 434
Delaware St., Dayton, Ohio.
GOODMAN, Daniel J. (7 1937; S 1935), 2704
Filbury St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
GOODRAM, William E. (A 1936), Partner,
Goodram Bros., 88 King St., W., Hamilton, and
(for mail), R. R. 2, Freeman, Ont., Canada.
3ODRIGH, Charles F. (M 1919), Andrews &
Goodrich, Inc., Boston, and (for mail), 336
Adams St., Dorchester, Mass.
GOODWIN, Eugene W. (M 1936), Sr. Mech.
Engr., U. S. Treasury Dept., Procurement
Bids., Washington, D. C., and (for mail), 7024
Hampden Lane, Bethesda, Md.
GOODWIN, Samuel L. (U 1924), Consulting
Engr-, John Eberson, 1560 Broadway, New
York, and (for mail), 247 Madison Ave., Has-
brouck Heights, N. J.
GORDON, Edward B., Jr. (M 1908), Pres,,
Pillsbury Engineering Co., 1200 Second Ave., S.,
and (for mail). 2450 West 24th St., Minneapolis,
Minn.
GORDON, Peter B. (A 1938; J 1935), Engr. (for
mail), Wolff & Munier, Inc., 222 East 41st St.,
New York, N. Y., and 35 Park Ave., Bloomfield,
N.J.
GORDON, William D. (A 1935), Air Cond. and
Sales Engr., Hart & Cooley Mfg. Co. of Canada,
Ltd., Fort Erie, N., and (for mail), 71 Chilton
Rd., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
GORNSTON, Michael H. (A 1923), Stationery
Engr. (for mail), Thomas Jefferson High School,
402 Pennsylvania Ave., Brooklyn, and 90-11-
149th St., Jamaica, N. Y.
GOSSETT, Earl J. (M 1923), Pres. (for mail),
Bell & Gossett Co., 3000 Wallace St., Chicago,
and 314 Woodland Ave., Winnetka, III.
GOTHARD, William W. (A 1936), Editorial
Director (for mail), Domestic Engineering, 1900
Prairie Ave., Chicago, and 1027 Arlington Ave.,
LaGrange, 111.
GOTSCHAIX, Harry C. (M 1935), Air Cond.
Instructor, Lane Technical High School, 2501
Addison St., and (for mail), 2953 Eastwood Ave..
Chicago, 111.
GOTTWALD, C. (A 1916), Pres. (for mail),
Ric-wiL Co., Union Trust Bldg., Cleveland, and
2225 Stillman Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio,
GOUEDY, Kenneth E. (-4 1935), Member of
Firm and Engr. (for mail), Modern Building
Insulating Co., 411 Bona Allen Bldg., Atlanta,
and 218 Columbia Drive, Decatur, Ga.
GOULD, Henry E. (/ 1936), Secy, (for mail),
Natkin & Co., 1800 Baltimore, and 6528 Summit,
Kansas City, Mo.
GOULDING, William (A 1933), Air Cond. Engr.,
World Broadcasting Co., 711 Fifth Ave., New
York, and (for mail), 782 Westminster Rd.,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
GRABENSTEDER, Louis (A 1937; J 1935),
320ft Linnet Rd., Louisville, Ky.
GRABER, Ernst (J 1936), Engr.. Minneapolis-
Honeywell Regulator Co., 801 Second Ave., New
York, and (for mall), 42-12 Ditmars Blvd.,
Astoria, L. L, N. Y,
GRAFF, William F* (A 1937), Salesman-Engr.,
Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., and (for mail), 940
Jefferson, S.E., Grand Rapids, Mich.
GRAHAM, Charles H. (M 1934), Sales Repr.,
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 400 N. Midler Ave.,
Syracuse, and (for mail) 377 Highland Ave.,
Hamburg, N. Y.
GRAHAM, Earl W. (/ 1935), Student Engr. (for
mail), Carrier Corp., Merchandise Mart Bldg.,
Chicago, 111., and Bristow, Ky.
GRAHAM, John M. (A 1937; / 1936), Sales
Engr. (for mail), B. F. Sturtevant Co., 528
Kentucky Home Life Bldg., and Puritan Apts.,
Louisville, Ky.
GRAHAM, William D. <M 1929; A 1925; J 1923),
Sales Dept., Carrier Corp., and (for mail), 129
Circle Rd., Syracuse, N. Y.
25
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CRANSTON, Ray O. (J 1935; 5 1930}. Engr. (for
mail), University Plumbing & Heating Co., 3939
University Way, and 4014 Brooklyn Ave.,
Seattle, Wash.
GRANT, Walter A. (A 1933; J 1929), Dist. Chief
Engr., Carrier Corp., and (for mail), 236 Shotwell
Park, Syracuse, N. Y.
GRAVES, Willard B. (Life Member; M 1906),
Pres.. W. B. Graves Heating Co., 162 N. Dea-
plaines St., Chicago, III.
GRAY, Earle W. (A 1934), In charge of Air
Cond., Commercial Dept. (for mail), Oklahoma
Gas & Electric Co., Third and Harvey Sts., and
2125 Northwest 18th St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
GRAY, Everett W. (M 1930), Mgr. (for mail). The
Trane Co., 1900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, and
17545 Madison Ave., Lakewood, Ohio.
GRAY, George A. (M 1924), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., 404 Plaza Bldg.,
and 114 Belmont Ave., Ottawa, Ont.. Canada.
GRAY, William E. (M 1922), Air Cond. Engr.,
Ross Engineering Corp., 350 Madison Ave., New
York, N. Y., and 718 W. Farris Ave., and (for
mail), Box 264, High Point, N. C.
GREBEN, David (M 1936), Mech. Engr., 29 W.
71st St., New York, N. Y.
GREEN, Arthur W. (A 1935), 37-60-8Sth St.,
Jackson Heights, L. I., N. Y.
GREEN, William C. (Life Member; M 1906), Dist
Mgr. (for mail), Warren Webster & Co.. 704
Race St., Room 602-5, and 244 Erkenbrecher
Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
GREENBERG, Irving (S 1937), Estimating and
Drafting, S. Greenberg, 80 West 102nd St., and
(for mail), 1565 Grand Concourse, New York,
GREENBURG, Dr. Leonard* (M 1932), Exec.
Director, Div. of Industrial Hygiene (for mail),
New York State Department of Labor, 80 Centre
St., and 241 West 97th St., New York, N. Y.
GREENLAND, Sidney F. (M 1034), Engr., Gee,
Walker & Slater, Ltd., Fitzmaurice Flare,
Berkeley Square, London W.I, and (for mail),
8, Averley Court, Avcrley Park, London, S.E
20. England.
GREENLEAF, Robert P. (M 1937), Consulting
and Designing Engr., 2804 East 132nd St.,
Cleveland, Ohio.
GREEK, Willis R. (J 1934), Air Cond. Engr.,
Arkansas Power & Light Co., and (for mail),
1401 Linden St., Pine Bluff, Ark.
GREGG, Scran ton H. (A 1930), Pres., Shellen-
berger-Gregg Co., 2203 N. Prospect Ave., and
(for mail), 5134N. WoodburnSt., Milwaukce.Wis.
GREGG, Stephen L. (J 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Potomac Electric Power Co., Tenth and
E Sts., N.W., and 3614 Connecticut Ave., N.W.,
Washington, D. C.
GREINER, George E.t Jr. (J 1938; 3 1935),
Engr., Wayne Crouse, Inc., 4047 Centre Ave.,
and (for mail), 5515 Claybourne St., Pittsburgh,
GRIESS, Philip G. (M 1937), Mech. Engr.,
Voorheea, Graclin & Walker, 301 Park Ave.,
New York, N. Y., and (for mail), 189 Walnut
Ave., Bogota, N, J.
GRIESSER, Charles E. (A 1936). Owner, Electric
Contractor Dealer, Bryan, Texas.
GRIEST, Kermit (/ 1936). Sheet Metal Worker
and Sales, Frank-Limbach & Co., 1722 E. Ohio
St., and (for mail), 134 Groveland St., Pitts-
burgh Pa
GRIEVES, Thomas R. (A 1930), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), U. S. Radiator Corp., 303 Crosby
BldgM Buffalo, NT. Y.
GRIMES, Fenner M. (J 1935), Junior Engr.,
T. H. Urdahl, Consulting Enjyr., 726 Jackson
Place, N.W., and (for mail), 7705 Alaska Ave.,
N.W., Washington, D. C.
GROOT, Harry W. (M 1937), Engr., Home Com-
fortable, Inc., 230 W. Walnut St., and (for mail),
3728 Western Parkway, Louisville, Ky.
GROSS, Lyman C. (M 1931), Sales Engr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 2727
Fourth Ave.t S., and (for mail), 5324 Oaklawn
Ave., Linden Hills Sta;, Minneapolis, Minn.
GROSSMAN, Franklin A. (.9 1937), Experi-
mental Engr., Servel, Inc., Engrg. Dept., 119 N.
Morton Ave., and (for mail), 1161 E. Illinois St.,
Evansville, Ind.
GROSSMAN, Harry E. (A 1933; J 1927), Sales
Repr., Haynes Selling Co., Inc., Ridge and
Spring Garden Sts., Philadelphia, and (for mail),
218 Parham Rd., Springfield, Pa.
GROSSMANN, Harry A. (M 1931), Owner, H. A.
Grossmann Co., 3138 Cass Ave., and (for mail),
3122 Geyer Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
GROVES, Samuel A. (J 1035), Salesman,
American Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St., New
York, and (for mail), 21 CaasUis Ave., Bronxville,
GULER, Georfte D. (A 1937), Modutrol Mgr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Wayne
and Roberts St., Philadelphia, Pa.
GUMAER, P. Wllcox (A/ 1937), Consulting Engr.,
Toxic Vapors & Dusts, -40 Rector St., New York,
N. Y., and (for mail), 25 Garden St., West
Englewood, N. J.
GUNNELL, George T. (M 1037), Chief Htg.
Engr. (for mail), Sunbeam Heating & Air Con-
ditioning Co., 340 Peachtree St., N.E., and 505
Ashby. S.W., Atlanta, Ga.
GURNEY, E. Holt (M 1929), (lat Vice-Pres.,
1937; 2nd Vice-Pros., 1938; Council, 1931-1037),
Prcs. (for mail), Gurney Foundry Co., Ltd., 4
Junction Rd., and 347 Walmcr Rd., Toronto,
Ont., Canada,
GURNEY, Edward R. (J 1937), Asst. Kngr..
Gurney Foundry Co., Ltd., 4 Junction Rd., and
(for mail), 50 Eastbourne Ave., Toronto, Canada.
H
HAAS, Emil, Jr. (A 1036; J 1929), Trea«. (for
mail), Natkin & Co., 1800 Baltimore, and 5525
Crestwood Drive, Kansas City, Mo.
HAAS, Richard B, (/ 1037; S liW). Htg. Kngr..
c/o L. C. Pemberton, 400 S. Washington Ave.,
Lansing, Mich.
HAAS, Samuel L. (Af lf)2»), Pres.-Treas, (for
mail). Advance Heating & Air Conditioning Co.
117-19 N, Desplainca St., and 15KJ Fargo Ave..
Chicago, 111.
HACKETT, H. Berkeley (M Mil). Consulting
Kngr., 901 Architects frlclg., 17th and tfansom
Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.
HADDOCK, Isaac T. (A 102m , New England Gas
& Electric Association, 71!) Momuchuaettf Ave.,
( ambridge, Masa.
HADEN, G. Nelson (A/ 1034; A 1928; J 1022),
Managing Director (for mull), G. N. flatten &
Sons, Ltd., Of) KlnKsway, London, W.C.2, and
30 Wildwood Rd., Hamjwteatl ftauth, I-omlon,
N.W. 11, England.
HADEN, William N. (Lift Mtmher; .\t Iil02), l,ate
Chairman, G. N. Hsulcn £ Sons, Ltd., St.
Georges Works, and (for mail), Arnolds Hill,
Trowbrirtge, Wilt, England,
HAPJISKY, Joseph N, (A/ 1(W», (taumltina
Kngr., 744 Hates St.. Birmingham. Mich.
HAGAN, William V. (A Km; J 102«), Secy.,
V. J. Hagan PlumbinR iff. Heating Co., 800 Pearl
St., and (for mail), 1811 Jonwj St., Sioux City,
Iowa.
HAGEDON, Charfwi II. (Af 101(1), $ecy,-Trea«.
(for mall), S. B. Kenstcrmakfcr & Co., \YA7
Architects and Builders Mdg.. and 4150 lirond-
way, Indianapolis, Ind.
HAHN, Roy F. (J 1UJW), Air Cond. Kn«r. (for
mail). Advance Refrigeration, Inc., JWO Peach-
tree St., and 1211 Kairview Rd., Atlanta, Ga*
HAINES, John J. (M 1015), Pr«. (for mail).
The Hftinea Co., 1033 W. Lake St., Chicago, and
623-17th Ave.f Maywood, III*
HAJEK, William J. (M 10S2), Branch Mgr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 420 S,
San Pedro St., Los An^cle*. Calif.
HAKES, Leon M. (M 1032; J 1920), Dint. Repr.
(for mall). Warren Webater & Co., 410 Reynolds
Aroide Bldg., and 327 Lone Oak Aven Rochester,
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
HALE, Fred J. (A/ 1930), Mgr. (for mail). Empire
Sheet Metal Works, Ltd., 1006 W. First Ave.,
and 300tt Point Grey Rd., Vancouver, B. C.f
Canada.
HALE, John F. (Life Member; M 1902). (Presi-
dential Member), (Pres., 1013: 1st Vice-Pres.,
11)12; Board of Governors, 1908-1010, 1912-
1013), Dist. Mgr. (for mail), Aerofin Corp.,
Room 704, 111 W. Washington St., Chicago, and
400 S. LaGrango Rd., LaGrange, 111.
HALEY, Harry S.* (At 1014), Consulting Engr.,
Partner (for mail), Leland & Haley, 58 Sutter
St., and 735>21st Ave., .San Francisco, Calif.
HALL, George (A 11)37), Secy.-Treas. and Mgr.
(for mail), Hyltmd, Hall & Co., 115 E. Doty St.,
and 2(53:3 Chamberlain Ave., Madison, Wis.
HALL, John R, (M 1937; J 1982), Mech. Ensr..
U. S. Air Conditioning Corp., 2101 N.E. Kennedy
St., and (for mail), 1410 Lakeview Ave., Minne-
apolis. Minn.
HALL, Mora S. {A/ 1934), Development Engr. (for
mtul), Anthracite Industries, Inc., Primes, Pa.,
and R. R I). 8. Westminster, Md.
H ALLAH, Edgar V. (A 1937), Mgr. (for mail),
Cotfli/er Insulation Co., 207 Reliance Bldg., and
AmbuHBudor Hotel, Kansas City, Mo.
HALLECK, Leon P. (A 1937), Vice-Pros, and
Salea M«n (for mail), Allen Corp., 9761 Erwin
Ave.. and I1MM9 Roaelawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
HALLEK, Arthur L. (A/ 1920), Pres.-Treas. (for
mail), Halter Appliance Sales Co., Inc., 3321
Washington Hlvd., St. Louis, and 124 W. Cedar
Aw., Webster Groves, Mo.
HAMAKKR, Ambrose C. (A 1937), Sales Engr.
(for mull), Mayflower- Lewis Corp., (53 W.
Milwaukee Ave., and 18024 JSanta Rosa Drive,
Detroit, Mich.
HAMKNT, Louis (A 1933), Gen. Mgr. (for mail),
Aquatic (,'hemicul Luborutorics, Inc., 118 East
SKth St., and KJf>2 Franklin Ave., New York,
N. Y.
UAMKKSKI, Francis I). (J 11)34), Sheffield Ian,
IiulianupoliH, I ml.
HAMU;, Loula L. (/ 1935), Engr., Controlled
Air Corp., 3319 Olive St., and (for mail), 3514
rtah .St., St. Louis, Mo.
HAMILTON, James E. (A 1933), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), IF. S. Radiator Corp., 4004 Duncan
Av*M tit. Louis, and 7701 Shirley Drive, Clayton,
Mo.
HAMJK, Milton C. (J 1030), En«rM Syaka &
HenncHHy, CtniHuIttng Kngrs., 420 Lexington
Ave., New York, and (for mail), 198 Hancock
St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
HAMLET, FrancJw A. (A 1930), Branch Mgr. (for
mail). <!. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., Room 081,
Dominion Square UUlg., 10 10 St. Catherine St.,
W,, uncl 3f»,r>0 Shuter St., Montreal, Lvue., Canada.
IIAML1N, Jam<M» B., Jr. (A 1937), Ht«. Kngr.,
Crane Co.* 14 W. Hroad St., and (for mall),
1207 ttatit 37th St.* Savannah, Ga.
HANCK, W. Wayne (A 1935), Draftsman, E. I.
DuPont <1« Nmnour* Co., Wilmington, Del., and
(for muil). M17 Baynton St., Cermantown,
Philadelphia, Pa.
HANLKIN. Joseph H. (Af 1937), Secy.-Treas. (for
mail}, Wilbmlinic Co., Inc., 808 -17th St., N.W.,
Room 13, find 6420 Connecticut Ave., Wash-
ington, I). C,
HANLftY. Edward V. (A 1033), Preii. (for mail),
S. V. HaruVy Co., lttfi» N. Harwell Ave.f Mil-
waukt*. and HK K. Birch Ave., Whiteftsh Hay,
Win.
HANLKY, Thomaft F., Jr. (Af 1933). Pres. (for
nmil), Hunlry & Co., 1503 S. Michigan Ave., and
41MO Knitt Kntl Ave., c:hica«o. 111.
HAN8LKR, John B. (&( 1937), Zone Service Mgr.,
Automatic Hoat and Air Conditioning, Dclco*
Krigltlttin-, and (for mail), 203 Hadley Ave.,
Dayton, Ohio.
HANSON, Lcalto P. (M 1037; A 1036; J 1935;
.V Ul.**3), Kn«r., U. S. Air Conditioning Corp.,
2101 Konm-dy, N.K., and (for mail), 4336-4Gth
Avf.. S.f MinnmtpolU, Minn.
HARBAUGH, Jacob W. (M 1937), Supt of
Erection, Kupferle-Hicks Heating Co,, 3974
Delmar Blvd., St. Louis, and (for mail), 607
Lilac St., Webster Groves, Mo.
HARBORDT, Otto E. (A 1936), Sales Mgr. (for
mail), U. S. Supply Co., 1315 West 12th St., and
303 Brush Creek Blvd., Kansas City, Mo.
HARDING, Edward R. (M 1936), State Sales
Mgr. and Engr. (for mail), Kewanee Boiler
Corp., P. O. Box 536, 704 Jefferson Bldg., and
2603 Sherwood St., Greensboro, N. C.
HARDING, Louis A.* (M 1911), (Presidential
Member), (Pres., 1930; 1st Vice-Pres., 1929; 2nd
Vice-Pres., 1928; Council, 1922-1931), (for mail),
L. A. Harding Construction Corp., Prudential
Bldg., and 85 Cleveland Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
HARDY, Frank L. (J 1937), Sales Engr. (for mail),
York Ice Machinery Corp., P. O. Box 182, and
2312 Highland Ave., Apt. 3, Birmingham, Ala.
HARE, W. Almon (M 1930), Consulting Engr.,
2002 National Bank Bldg., and (for mail), 1237
Chilver Rd., Windsor, Ont., Canada.
HARMONAY, William L. (A 1935), Mgr. (for
mail), M. J. Harmonay, Inc., 124 Elm St., and
34 Alida St., Yonkers, N. Y.
HARRIGAN, Edward M. (M 1915), Gen. Mgr.
(for mail), Harrigan & Reid Co., 1365 Bagley
Ave., and 7450 LaSalle Blvd., Detroit, Mich.
HARRINGTON, Charles (M 1923), 43 Indian
Grove. Toronto, Ont., Canada.
HARRINGTON, Elliott* (M 1932; A 1930),
Mgr., Commercial Engrg. Div., Air Cond. Dept.
(for mail), General Electric Co., 5 Lawrence St.,
Bloomfield, and 5 Wilson Terrace, Caldwell, N. J.
HARRIS, Jesse B. (M 1918), Co-Partner (for
mail), Rose & Harris Engineers, Inc., 416 Essex
Bldg., and 3620 Colfax Ave., S., Minneapolis,
Minn.
HARRIS, John G. (M 1936), Dist. Repr. (for
mail), Prigidaire Div, General Motors Sales
Corp., Terminal Tower Bldg., Cleveland, and
14432 Delaware Ave., Lakewood, Ohio.
HARRISON, George G. (M 1937). Chief Engr.,
S. T. Johnson Co., 940 Arlington Ave., Oakland,
and (for mail). 10 El Toyonal, Orinda, Calif.
HARROWER, William C. (A 1937), Draftsman,
Gar Wood Industries, 409 Connecticut Ave., and
(for mail), 112561 Third Ave., Apt. 411, Highland
Park, Mich.
HART- BAKER, Henry W. (M 1918), Hart
Engineering Co., 451 Kiangse Rd., Shanghai,
China.
HARSCH, Richard J. (M 1936), Assoc. Naval
Archt., U. S. Government, and 142 Avenue 0,
Brooklyn, NT. Y,
HART, F. Donald (J 1937), Junior Htg., Vtg. and
Air Cond. Engr. (for mail), Rayon Dcpt., E. J.
Du Pont deNemours & Co., Station B, Buffalo,
and 254 Tremaine Ave., Kenmore, N. Y.
HART, Harry M.* (M 1912), (Presidential
Member), (Pres., 1916; 1st Vice-Pres., 1915;
Council, 1914-1917), Pres. (for mail), L. H.
Prentice Co., 1018 Van Buren St., and 3730
Lakeshore Drive, Chicago, 111.
HARTIN, William R., Jr. (J 1935), Htg. Engr..
Vice-Pres.-Secy., W. R. Hartin & Son, Inc.,
2123 Green St., and (for mail), 212 S. Saluda
Ave., Columbia, S. C.
HARTUNE, William R. (A 1936), Vice-Pres. and
Treas, (for mail), Coznbustioneer Stoker Corp.,
409 Tenth St, S.W., and 3112 Mt. Pleasant St.,
N.W., Washington, D. C.
HARTMAN, JohnM. (M 1927), Engr. (for mail),
Kewanee Boiler Corp., and 719 Henry St.,
Kewanee, 111.
HARTON, A. J. (A 1935), Sales Engr., St. Joseph
Railway, Light, Heat & Power Co., Sixth and
Francis, and (for mail), 730 E. Hyde Park Ave,,
St. Joseph, Mo.
HARTWEIN, Charles E. (M. 1933), Supervisor,
Houae Htg. Dept., St. Louis County Gas Co.,
231 W. Lockwood, Webster Groves, and (for
mail), 135 Peeke Ave., Kirkwood, Mo.
HART WELL, Joseph C. (M 1922), Pres. (for
mail), Hartwell Co,, Inc., 87 Weyboaset St., and
10 Freeman Parkway, Providence, R. I.
27
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HARVEY, Alexander D. (A 1928; / 1925), Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Nash Engineering Co., Wilson
Rd., South Norwalk. and West St., New Canaan,
HARVEY, Lyle C. (M 1928), Vice-Pres. (for mail),
Bryant Heater Co., 17825 St. Clair Ave., and
3388 Glencarin Rd., Cleveland, Ohio.
HARVEY, Robert A. (J 1937; S 1936), 3200
Braemar Rd., Shaker Heights, Ohio.
HASHAGEN, John B. (M 1930), Plant Engr.,
General Seafoods Corp., 1-15 Fish Pier, Boston,
HATEAU, William M. (/ 1934), Draftsman and
Designer, J. O. Ross Engineering Corp., 350
Madison Ave., and (for mail), 1530 Sheridan
Ave., New York, N. Y.
HATTIS, Robert E. (M 1926), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), 820 N. Michigan Ave., and M,r>4 W.
Fargo Ave., Chicago, 111.
HAUAN, Merlin J. (M 1933), Consulting Kn«r ,
3412-16th, S.t Seattle, Wash.
HATJER, Fred (A 1937), Pres. (for mail), Fred
Hauer & Co., Ill N. Water St., and 315 Het-
tinger Place, Peoria, 111.
HAUCK, Eldcn L. (J 1936), Sales Mgr, and Engr.
(for mail), Hauck Brothers, 232 S. Center St.,
Springfield, and 54 S. June St., Dayton, Ohio,
HAUS, Irvln J. (A 1937; / 1935), Engr., Everett
Smith Automatic Temperatures, Inc., 789 N.
Water, Milwaukee, and (for mail). 025 Division
St., Green Bay, Wis.
HAUSMAN, Louis M. (Af 1935), Pres,, L. M.
Hausman & Co.. 440 Dasmarinas, and (for mail),
P. O. Box 1729, Manila, P. I.
HAUSS, Charles F.* (Charter Member; Life
Member}, via Gesfi, No. 8, Milan, Italy,
HAWK, Joseph K. (J 1930), Engr. (for main,
General Air Conditioning Co., Inc., 3090 Main
St., and 111 Florence, Buffalo, N. Y,
HAWKINSON, C. F. (J 1936), Mcch. Engr,, TJ. S.
Air Conditioning Corp., 2101 N. K. Kennedy St.,
and (for mail), 4805 Columbus Avc.? Minneapolis,
Minn.
HAYDEN, Carl F. (A 1930), Dist. Rcpn (for
mail), Askania Regulator Co., 1G03 S. Michigan
Ave., Chicago, and 1100 Seward St., Kvanaton, 111.
HAYES, James J. (Af 1920), Sales Kngr. (for
mail), Stannard Power Equipment Co., Room
925-53 W. Jackson Blvd., and 7443 Jcffery Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
HAYES, Joseph G. (Life Member; M 1908), Prea.
and Eugr. (for mail), Hayes Bros., Inc., 230 W.
Vermont St., and 2849 N. Capitol Ave., India-
napolis, Ind.
HAYMAN, A. Eugene, Jr. (J 1935; ,V 1030),
Engn, 2500 Washington vSt., Wilmington, Del.
HAYNES, Charles V. (M 11)17), (Presidential
Member), (Pres., 1934; 1st Vice-Prea,, 1033; 2nd
Vice-Pres., 1932; Council, 1026-1920; 11)32-
1935), Vice-Pres., Hoffman Specialty Co., 500
Fifth Ave., Room 3324, New York, N. Y.f and •
(for mail), 115 Llanfair Kd., Ardmore, Mont.
Co., Pa.
HAYS, Charles A. (A 1037), Mfors. Agent,
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co. (for mail), 828 N. Broad-
way, and 4808 N, Woodburn St., Milwaukee, Wis.
HAYTER, Bruce (M 1934), Chief ICngr., Institute
of Thermal Research (for mail) , American Radi-
ator Co,, 675 Bronx River Rd., Yonkcrs, and
114 Birchall Drive, Scarsdalc, N. Y.
HEARD, John A. E. (A 1938; J 1930), Asst. Mgr.
(for mail), Carrier Corp.. Ltd., Cormaught Place,
New Delhi, India, and 28, Leighcliff Rd., Leigh
on Sea, Essex, England.
HEARD, Roderick G. (A 1033), Oil Burner Sales
Dept. (for mail). Imperial Oil, Ltd., 50 Church
St., and 81 Braemar Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
HEATH, William R. (M 1931), Asst Chief Kngr.,
Buffalo Forge Co., 400 Broadway, and (for mail),
110 Wingate Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
HEBERLING, C. W. (A 1934), Box 115, Way/ftta,
Minn.
HEBLEY, Henry F. (M 1934), Advisory Kn«r.,
Commercial Testing & Engineering Co., 307 N.
Michigan Ave., and (for mail), 630 Wright wood
Ave., Chicago, 111.
HECHLER, Samuel (7 11)37), Knj?r. (for mail)
Westchester Square Plumbing Supply Co., Inc. ,
4017 White Plains Ave., and 3040 Cnigcr Ave.,
New York N. Y.
IIRCIIT, Frank H. (M 10«0>, Sales Engr. (for
mail), B. K. Sturtevsint Co., liiKVi Koppers Bld}^.,
and 14U7 Barnesdalc SI,, IMttsbnrxh, Pa.
HFvCKEL, E. P. (M 1W1K), Vice-Pro*. (for mail),
Carrier Corp., Merchandise Mart Hldj?., Chicago,
and 314 Cuttriss Place, Park RitiRe, 111.
HEDDEN, Willard M. (,-l 1W7), Treaa. (for main,
Hedden Co., 17-ii"> S. Warren St., and 7 Reservoir
Ave., Dover, N. J.
HEDGES, H. Berkley (M W!», Mtfr. of In-
dustrial Sales (for mail\ J. J. NesWtt, Inc.,
tf, Philadelphia, and 311 Jericho Rd.,
Abingtoa. Pa.
1IKDLKY, Park S. (M lltt.'tt, Park S. Hedley Co.,
;i(>l Delaware Ave., Buffalo. N. Y.
HKDLUND, Richard A. (J IIKJ8; 6' 1037 >,
Hartsdttle, N. Y.
HKBBNKR, Walter M. (A/ Itttii). Sales Knur.,
Warren Webster & Co., l)«> Madison Ave,, New
York, N. Y., and (for mail), li8U HiKtvwond Ave.,
Teancck, NT. J.
HRIBBL, Walter K. (if lt)17V Diat. Mgr. (for
mail), Aemlin Corp., 11 West 42nd St., Now
York, N. Y., and CHU Greenwich. Conn.
HKILMAN, Ruascll H.* (At Iwitf), Senior In-
dustrial Fellow (for mail), Mellon Institute <»f
Industrial Research, 4400 Fifth Ave., and SM7
Wilkina Ave.. Pitt«bur«h, Pa,
I1B1STBRKAMP, Herbert W. (J ll»37), Kn«r.,
Hryant Heater Co., 17WW St. Clalr Ave., und (for
mail), 10801 St. Mark St., Cleveland, Ohio.
HBLBURN, I. B. (A/ IttiJft; / H>27>, Junior Ansoc.
(for mail), Wynum Engineering, UWW Ctmmber
of Commerce I^Idg., and 38IA Winding Way,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
HELLMKRS, Charle« C.f Jr. (J liK'i7), Sales and
Installation Knjjr., Afrtemp Oiv,. Si<U<»« C*<K, 4Uf>
Stuart Bltlg., and (f<»r mail), JSfiW Woodsdale
Blvd., Lincoln, Nebr*
HEttSTROM, John (A lUiiO), Vice4*rtt«. (for
mail), American Air Kilter Co., Inc.. 2ir> Central
Ave., and W)l.r> Hrownsboro Rti., LouiHville, Ky,
IIELMRICII, <;. Bcrnmrd (.U «»»«). IMmit
Kdison Co,, 2(KK) Second Ave., Room 7:>(),
Detroit, and (for mail), ««««) Dundee Kd,,
Thmtington Woods, Koyiil C)ttkf Mich,
HICLSTROM, Herman <J. (.If l«i!K>. Ittuler and
Stoker Ulv. (for mail), Wm, Brt»«. Boiler «: Mfg.
Co., Nicollrt I«lAn<l, and 4008 Arden Ave., S,,
Minneapolis, Minn,
HKNDRICKSON, Hftrold M. (.Vf I'.Hi.'i), Krtftr,
(for mail;, Yt>rk Ice Machinery Corp,, 8051
Santa Fe Ave., Lan AnKCles, and 3!KU Liberty
Blvd., South Gute, CuHf.
HENION, Hudnon D. (A WM), Saleu M«r. (for
mail), C. A. Uunharn Co,. Ltd., 1523 Davenport
Rd., and 45 Rid«c Drive, Toronto, Ont.. Cuniida.
HENNESSY, WilHam J. (M Ul,'i7), Dwl*n Knur.,
Green Foundry & Furnace Work*, nnd (tt«r muu),
182« South 23rd St., Lincc»ln, N<-br.
HENRY. Alexander SM Jr. (,U «««)), «<KJ Central
Park West, New York, N. V,
HENSZEY, WUIlam l>. (/ l»:ir»;, |»rw4. W. I'.
Henaxey Co., l^emont, I^a.
IIKRJNG, Alfred (Af liKW), TrftH,, Herinn Heating
Co.f Inc., 304 ICaut 87th St., New York, N. Y.
HERKIMER, Herbert (A/ liKM), Uirwtor (for
mail), Hcrkimer Institute, 1810 I4roudw;ty» and
2f> Centra! Park West, New York, N. Y.
IlERUHY, Jeremiah J. (Life A/umfcw; Af lttM>,
3751 Kddy St., Chicago, 111.
HERMAN, Net! B. (J 1W7; *V 1MW, Uiwt. R«pr.
(for mail), Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator
Co., 71» Maritime Kldu., New ( >rli*uni, Uu,itnd
4217 Garficld Ave.t SM Mf«neai>oli», Minn,
HERRING, Edfiar (M 11)15)), Clhulrnmn and
Governinja; Director (for mail), J. Jeffreys K: (t<>.»
Ltd., Burron* Place, Waterbx) Rd,, London, S.K.,
and aKenla,'* Keawick Rd,, Putney, London,
SW.f England,
28
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
IIERSH, Franklin C. (A 1033; J 1030), Air
Cond. B"n«r., Pennsylvania Power & Light Co.,
001 Hamilton St., and (for mail), 47 S. St. Cloud
St., Allentown, Pa.
HERSKE, Arthur R. (A/ 102G), Vice-Pres.-Gen.
M«r. Kales (for maiH, American Radiator Co.,
40 West 40th St., New York, and 101 Brookfield
Rd., Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
HERTY, Frank B. (Jl/ 1033), Retail Sales Super-
visor (for mail), Brooklyn Union Gas Co., 176
Rem«en St., Brooklyn, and 106 Pinehurst Ave.,
New York, N. Y.
IIERT7XER, John R.* (Af 1930; J 1928), Gen.
Repr. (for mail), York Ice Machinery Corp,,
Roosevelt Avc., and H(iM S. George St., York, Pa.
HESS, Arthur J. U/ 1937), Engr., English &
Lrttior, Inc., 300 West 12th St., and (for mail),
2(iU> West 7()th St., Los Angeles, Calif.
HESS, David K. (J 1930; 6' 11)32), f,8i>4 Harper
Ave., ChicuKo, 111.
HRSSELSCHWERDT, Auftust L., Jr. (J 1937),
Instructor-Mc'di. Kngrg,, Wayne University,
('nan Ave., and (for mail), 15722 Kentucky Ave.,
Detroit. Mich.
HKSSLKK, lister W. (A/ 1936), Branch Mgr.,
Tmne Co., 12,"> K, Wella St., and (for mail), 0034
N. BayridgCN Milwaukee, Wia.
HESTER, Thomas J. (Af 1010), Vice-Pres.-Treas.
(for mail), Ht'ater Bradley Co., 2835 Washington
Blvd., St. Lotiia, and 07 Aberdeen Place, Clayton,
Mo.
HEWKTT, John B. <A/ 1937; /I 1935), Engr. (for
mail), Oiiiiiby Air Conditioning Corp,, (J18 E.
Main St., and ttOft Meiga St., Rochester, N. Y.
HEXAMKR, Hurry I). (,U 1««1), Salca Engr. (for
mail), Kxcelso Products Corp., 05 Clyde Ave.,
and I0;j K. Delavan Ave., Buffalo, N, Y.
21KYDON, Chariot G. (A 19U3), Mgr. Sales of
Western I>iv,, Wright- Austin Co., »16 W. Wood-
brlilKO St., and (for mail), «1 Nebraska,
Detroit, Mich.
HIBttS, Frank (J. (M 1017), Salesman, H. B.
Smith r«.f iiiiOU Chestnut St., and (for mail), 840
North (15th St., Philadelphia, Pa.
HICKEY, Daniel W. (A 11)31), Prea., D. W.
Htfkcy £ Co.. Inc. (for mail), 1081 Univermty
Avc., ami 1H74 Highland Parkway, St. Paul,
Minn.
HICKS* IK Klmble (J 1JW; .3 103f>). Sales Engr.,
American Radiator Co., 2212 Walnut St.,
Philadelphia, and (for mail), 33 Windcmcre
AV<J., Umadownc, Pa.
1UERK, Chatrlc* R. (A/ l(»2fl; J 1027), Sales
Knur., MinwaimliR-Honeywril Regulator Co.,
801 Second Aw.f New York, and (for mail),
10 \Vcfltminntcr R<l.i Great Neck, N. Y.
HKiDON, Hurry S. (A 10»7), Sales (for mail),
AnrJlrcivH Hi'tttcr Co,, $m Market, and 231
Ityxbw. &m Kmncinco, Calif.
IIIU>KR, Kr«dwlck L. (JkT 1037), Chief Kngr.,
M«n;tri<r ^urntuw-Mun, Inc., 7KO-7H8 Knst 13«th
St., NVw York, N. YM and (for mail), 102
Ti rntun Avc,, Clifton, N, J.
I!U4>RKTII, Kftbert S, (/I 1030), Air Cond.
Fuwr, (for until), !ndi:inax>oli8 Power & Light Co.,
17 N. Meridian St., and 6741 K. New York St.,
Imliunuixili*, Ind.
!UU>KKTHV I*nn« W. (M W35). Secy, (for mail),
Anthracite In«Utwt<% 1» Rector St., New York,
N. YM nml 2111 Whwarfwuf Lune, Abington, Pa.
HILL, Cttiftrle* F. </ ii>:»»)» (Carrier Kepr., United
». Ltd,, River Valley Rd., Singapore,
.
HIU,, l>r. K. Wrnon* (A/ 1014; /I 1012), (Prtsi-
ticntmt A/fwfrrt-'h (Prcf,. 1 «!<!(); 1st Vice-Proa.,
W« 2ml Virc.Pr(%f 1I»1H; Toundl, lUl^lUUl).
«j 2ml Virc.Pr(%f 1I»1H; Toundl, Ul^U.
(fr»r rualil. 17U W. Wa»hin«toa St., and
rwHIl Av<»,t <:hlai«o, 111.
t, Fred M. C^ loaO), U25 Kast Avc. 30, Los
, .
HIM*. Harold II. (A/ It>«f))t Hrnnch Mgr. (for
irmilt, 1211 ('(irnmt-rchil National Hank BIdg.,
u«d 17«:> K. ttcrtil«v«rd, Charlotte, N. C.
HILLT Jared A. (M 1937) , Gas Htg. and Air Cond.
Engr. (for mall), Pacific Gas & Electric Co., 245
Market St., San Francisco, and 717 Laurel Ave.,
Burlingame, Calif.
BILLIARD, Charles E. (M 1932; J 1927),
Htg.-Vtg. Engr. (for mail), E, C. Hilliard Co.,
27 B St., South Boston, and 341 Hunnewell St.,
Needham Heights, Mass.
HILLS, Arthur H. (M 1924), Mgr., Sarco Canada,
Ltd., 725-6 Federal BIdg., 85 Richmond St., W.,
Toronto, Ont., Canada.
HINCKLEY, Harlan B. (A 1934), EnRr.-Custo-
dian, Chicago Board of Education, 8510 S. Green
St,, and (for mall), 6933 Princeton Ave., Chicago,
HINES, Guy M. (A 1937), Chief Engr., Texas-
Agricultural & Mechanical College Power Dept.,
College Station, Texas.
HINES, John C. (M 1937), Vice-Pres., Treas. and
Air Cond. Engr. (for mail), R. B. Hayward Co.,
1714 Sheffield Ave., and 6629 Ramona Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
HINKLE, Edwin C. (Life Member; M 1911), 170
N, Franklin St., Hempstead, N. Y.
HINRICHSEN, Arthur F. (M 1928), Pres.-Treas,
(for mail), A. F. Hinrichsen, Inc., 50 Church St.,
New York, N. Y., and Mountain Lakes, N. J.
HINTZ, Harvey P. (J \ 1936; S 1935), 211 E.
Armory Ave., Champaign, 111.
HIRSCHMAN, William F. (M 1929), Pres. and
Chief Engr,, W. F. Hirschman Co., Inc., 220
Delaware Ave., and (for mail), 165 Le Brun
Circle, Buffalo, N. Y.
HITCHCOCK, Paul C. (M 1931), Vice-Pres.-
Treas., Burlingame, Hitchcock & Estabrook,
IncM 521 Sexton BIdg., and 5130 Harriet Ave., S..
Minneapolis, Minn.
HITT, John C. (A 1936), Branch Mgr. (for mail).
Holland Furnace Co., 34-17th St.. and 301
Valley View Ave., Wheeling, W. Va.
HOBBIE, Edward H. (A 1937), Mgr. Sales
Promotion and Research (for mail), Mississippi
Glass Co., 220 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y., and
Ridgedale Ave., Florham Park, N. J.
HOBBS, J. Clarence (Af 1920), Gen. Mgr., and
Mfg. Operations (for mail), Diamond Alkali Co.,
and 00 Wood St., Painesville, Ohio.
HOBBS, William S. (A 1936), Owner and Mgr.
(Cor mail), P. O. Box 269, and 327 Park Ave.,
Swarthmorc, Pa.
HOCKENSMITH, Francis E. (M 1936), Chief
Engr. (for mail), Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., 400-
N, Midler Ave., and 124 Ludington St., Syracuse,
N Y.
HODEAUX, Walter L. (M 1931), Owner (for
mail), W. L. Hodeaux Plumbing & Heating Co.,
215-17 N. Flagler Drive, and 310 Tenth St.,
West Palm Beach, Fla.
HODGDON, Harry A. (K 1919), Pres., Stone-
Underhill Co., 78 Woodbine St., and (for mail),
122 Sherman St., Woilaston, Mass,
HODGE, William B. (M 1934), Vice-Pres., Parks-
Craraer Co., and (for mail), P. 0. Box 1234,
Charlotte, N. C.
HOEHt, Edward R. (/ 1935), Engr. (for mail),
Carrier Corp., 405 Lexington Ave., New York,
N. Y., and 645 Jefferson St., West New York,
N. J.
HOFFMAN, Charles S. (M 1924), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Baker, Smith & Co., Inc., 576 Greenwich
St/aidlOS East 38th St., New York, N. Y.
HOFFMAN, James D.* (Life Member; M 1903),
(Presidential Member), (Pres., 1910; ; 1st Vice-
Pros,, 1908; Board of Governors, 1911-1912),
Prof, of Practical Mechanics, Head of Dept.,
Director of Practical Mech. Lab., (for mail),
Purdue University, and 323 University St.,
West Lafayette, Ind.
HOG AN, Edward L.* (M 1911), Consulting Engr.
(for mail)r American Blower Corp., 6000 Russell
St., and 700 Seward Ave.. Detroit, Mich.
HOGUE, William M. (A 1935), Sales Engr. (for
mail), U. S. Electrical Motors, Inc., 200 E.
Slauson Avc., and 4839 Keniston Ave., Los
Angeles, Calif.
29
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
HOLBROOK, Frank M.* (M 1923), Engr., Apt.
J-l-5, 10 Lexington St., Newark, N. J.
HOLLAND, Robert B. (M 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), York Ice Machinery Corp., 1275 Folsom
St., and 3820 Scott St., San Francisco, Calif.
HOLUSTER, E. Wallace (M 1936; J 1931),
Owner (for mail), Hollister's, 31 Ridge St., and
69 Staple St., Glens Falls ,N. Y.
HOLLISTER, Norman A.* (M 1933), 7101
Colonial Rd., Brooklyn, N. Y.
HOLMES, Arthur D. (M 1935), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Plumbers Supply Co., 323 W. First, and
1848 East 18th St., Tulsa, Okla.
HOLMES, Paul B. (A 1936), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), National Radiator Corp., 600 W St., N.E.,
and 4525 Fessenden St., N.W., Washington, D.C.
HOLMES, Richard E. (A 1938; J 1934), Air
Cond. Design Engr., Westinghouse Electric &
Mfg. Co., 653 Page Blvd., and (for mail), 11
Bushwick St., Springfield, Mass.
HOLT, James (M 1933), Assoc. Prof, of Mech.
Engrg. (for mail), Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Charles River Rd., Cambridge, and
1062 Massachusetts Ave., Lexington, Mass.
HOLYFIELD, Earl F. (A 1937), Air Cond. Engr.,
Oklahoma Electrical Supply Co., and (for mail),
121 E. Park, Oklahoma City, Okla.
HONERKAMP, Fritz (M 1937), Chief Engr. (for
mail), Anemostat Corp. of America, 10 East
39th St., and 362 Riverside Drive, New York,
N. Y.
HOOK, Frank W. (M 1937), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Johnson Service Co., 814 Rialto Bldg.,
and 2363 Larkin St., San Francisco, Calif.
HOPP, Herbert K. (S 1935), 530 McLean Ave.,
Yonkers, N. Y,
HOPPE, Albert A. (M 1935), Design and Applica-
tion Engr., Carrier Corp., 213 N.W. First St.,
and (for mail), 1941 Northwest 17th St., Okla-
homa City, Okla.
HOPPER, Garnet H. (M 1923), Engr., Taylor
Forbes, Ltd.. 1088 King St., W., and (for mail),
19 Brummell Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
HOPSON, William T. (Life Member; M 1915),
The Hops'on & Chapin Mfg. Co., New London,
Conn.
HORNER, Samuel D. (J 1937), Engr., Carrier
Corp., Merchandise Mart, and (for mail), 5054
Winthrop Ave., Chicago, 111.
HORNUNG, John C. (M 1914) ,Engr.( Retired,
854 Bluff St., Glencoe, 111.
HORTON, Homer F. (M 1925), Sales Repr.,
1301 Judson Ave., Evanston, 111.
HOSHALL, Robert H. (M 1930), Associate (for
mail), Thos. H. Allen, Consulting Engr., 05
McCall Place, and 1844 Cowden Ave., Memphis,
Tenn.
HOSKING, Homer L. (M 1930), Sales Mgr. (for
mail). Pacific Steel Boiler Corp., 101 Park Ave..
New York, and 5 Church Lane, Scarsdalc, N. Y.
HOSTERMAN, Charles O. (M 1924), Supt.,
McMurrer Co., 303 Congress St., Boston, and
(for mail), 25 Bateswell Rd., Dorchester, Mass.
HOTCHKISS, Charles H. B. (M 1927), Editor,
Heating and Ventilating, 118 Lafayette St.,
New York, N. Y.
HOUGHTEN, Ferry C.* (M 1921), Director (for
mail), Research Lab., A.S.H.V.E., U, S. Bureau
of Mines, 4800 Forbes St., and 1130 Murray
Hill Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
HOULIS, Louis D. (M 1935), Chief Engr., Master
Baker Ovens, and (for mail), 655 Pedrctti Kd.,
West Price Hill, Cincinnati, Ohio.
HOULISTON, G. BailUe (A 1928), Secy, (for
mail), W. C. Green Co., 704 Race St., Cincinnati,
Ohio, and 33 Tremont Ave., Ft. Thomas, Ky.
HOUSKA, Arthur D. (J 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Clowe & Cowan, Inc., and 1417 Harrison
St., Amarillo, Texas.
HOWARD, Fenton L. (M 1937), Chief-Engrg.
Staff (for mail), Refrigeration & Air Con-
ditioning Institute, 2130 Lawrence Ave.. and
2417 W. Greenleaf Ave., Chicago, 111.
HO WATT, John* (M 1915), (Presidential Member)
(Pres., 1935; 1st Vice-Pres., 1934; 2nd Vice-
Pres., 1933; Council, 1927-1936), Chief Engr. (for
mail). Board of Education, 228 N. LaSalle St.,
and 4940 East End Ave., Chicago, 111.
HOWE, Willis W. (M 1936; A 1917), Div. Sales
Engr., Pacific Gas £ Electric Co., and (for mail),
108 Central Ave., Sausalito, Calif.
HOWLETT, Ira G. (M 1935; S 1934), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), I. G. Hewlett Co., 120 E. Main
St., and 2132 N. Fonshill Ave., Oklahoma City,
Okla.
HO WELL, Lloyd (M 1915), En«r., Industrial
Dept., Peoples Gas Light & Coke Co., 122 S.
Michigan Ave., and (for mail), 7605 Yates Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
HOYT, Charles W. (A 1931), Pres.-Treas. (for
mail), Wolverine Heating & Ventilating Equip-
ment Co., 31 Main St., Cambridge, and 45
Thaxter Rd., Newton ville. Mass.
HOYT, Leroy W. (M 1930), N. Stamford Ave.,
Stamford, Conn.
HUBBARD, Georfie W.* (M 1911), Chief Mech.
Engr. (for mail), Graham, Anderson, Probst &
White, 1417 Railway Exchange, Chicago, and
710 Bonne Brae, River Forest, 111.
HUBBARD, Nelson D. (M 1910), Engr.-Partner,
Hubbard £ Wagschal, 243 W. Congress St., and
(for mail), 2985 Blame Ave., Detroit, Mich.
HUGH, A. J. (M 1919), Secy.-Treas. (for mail).
Central Supply Co., 312 S. Third St., and 4037
Harriet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
HUCKER, Joseph H. (M 1921), Partner, Hucker-
Pryibil Co., 1700 Walnut St., Philadelphia, and
(for mail), 715 StanUridge St., Norriatown, Pa.
HUDEPOHL, Louis F. (M 1936), Pres. (fur mail),
T. J. Conner, Inc., 3290 Spring Grove Ave.,
and 4395 Haight Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
HUDSON, Robert A. (M 1934), Partner (for
mail). Hunter & Hudson, Room 710, 41 Sutter
St., and Route 2, Box 51, Cordilleras Rd.,
Redwood City, San Francisco, Calif.
HUETTNER, Henry F. (J 1038; S 1934), Engr.
(for mail), National Radiator Corp., Central
Ave., Johnstown, Pa., and 124 Jerusalem Ave.,
Hickesville, L. I,, N. Y.
HUFF, James M. (Af 1030), Mgr. Air Cond. Dept.
(for mail), Silkensen £ Co., Inc., 401-23rd St.,
and 1705-35th St., Apt. C., Galveaton, Texas.
HUGHES, Lewis K. (J 1930), Gen. M«r., Howard
Furnace Co., 881 Yonge St., iind (for mail), 43
Rivercourt Blvd., Toronto, Canada.
HUGHES, William U. (Af 1030), Vice-Pres,-
Managing Dir. (for mail), Lewis- Brown Co.,
Ltd., 1400 Crescent St., and 1010 SUerbrooke
St., W., Montreal, P. U., Canada.
HUGHE Y, Thomas M. (A 103")), Sales Kngr. (for
mail), Westerlin & Campbell Co., IKXJ N. Fourth
St., and 2351) North A8th St., Milwaukee, Wte.
HUGHSON, Harry H. (Af 11)37), Sates Kn«r, (for
mail), Coon-DeViwaer Co.. 20f>I W. Lafayette
Blvd., and 68 Florence Ave., Detroit, Mich.
HUGONIOT, Victor B. (Af 1935), Zone Kngrg.
Mgr. (for mail), Airtemp Sales Corp., 3717
Washington Ave.» and 1347 Kingshmd Ave.,
St. Louis, Mo.
HULL, Harry B. (M 1931), Mgr. Research Kngr.
(for mail), Frijjidutre, Div. of General Motor*
Corp., and 1430 Glcndale Ave., Dayton, Ohio.
HUMMEL, George W. (M 1037), Field Kngr. and
Sales (for mail), Trane Co., Room 211, Industrial
Bldg., and 327 B. McDowell Rd., Phoenix, Aru.
HUMPHREY, Dwifcht E,* (M 1021), Htg.-Vtg.
Engr., Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co,, 1144 K.
Market St., Akron, and (for mail), 2400 Sixth
St., Cuyahoga Fall*, Ohio.
HUMPHREYS, Clark M. (Af 1031). (Council,
1037), Asat. Prof, of Mech. Kngrg. (for mail),
Carnegie Institute of Technology, Schenley
Park, and 1034 Remington Drive, Pittsburgh,
HUNGER, Robert F. (Af 1027). Aasoc. Diet. Mgr.
(for mail), Buffalo Forge Co., 220 South lt)th St.,
and 4618 Chester Ave., Philadelphia. Pa.
30
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
HUNGERFORO, LC-O U/ 1030), Mgr. Air Cond.
Dept. <for mail>, I )i»Ieo-FriKidaire Corp., 1057
N. Le Ki»*a Ave,, L«w AAKclca, and 28tU) Laurel
Canyon Blvd., Hollywood, Calif.
HUNT. MacDonald (.-1 193«), Mfrs. Agent (for
mail). McDonnell Miller Co., 12 W. Madison St.,
and Windsor Court Apta., Baltimore, Md.
HUNT, Nod P. (Af 1M4), Managing Dir. (for
mail). Carrier Australasia, Ltd., 41-40 Forbes
St.. ami f»J! Lang Rd., Centennial Park, Sydney,
N.S.W., Australia.
HUNTKR, Louis N. (A/ 1030), Mgr. of Research
(for mail). National Radiator Corn., 221 Central
AVI*., and 4t)!i Wayne St., Johnstown, Pa.
HUNKIKKR, Chester K. (.4 1U34), Branch Mgr.
U'or mail), American Blower Corp., 331 State
St., Schcnwtsidy, and 422 Reynolds St., Scotia,
N. V.
HUSKY, S. T. (J 11)311; .S 11)34), Engr., Zenith Gas
System, Box !W7, Alvu, Oklu.
Ul'ST, Carl E. (M 11W2). Supv. II tg Engr. (for
mail), Cincinnati <»a« & Klectric Co., Fourth and
Main Sts., and Hint-rest Apt*., 15 Mason St.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
mkSTOKL, Arnold M. (.4 1030), 2414 N. Kedzie
Blvd., Chicago, III.
mmJHlNOS, Robert L. (J 1037), Hughes
Heating K* Air Conditioning Co., 125 N. Jefferson
St., Dayton, Ohio,
HUTCIUNK, William H. (Af 1U3-I), Chief Kngr.,
Pekro Appliance Piv,, (»eneml Motors Corp.,
and tfor main, KH Mugw St., Rochester, N. Y.
IHTOFJU Hufto P. <Af IttlM, Air Cond, Applica-
titmn U«*pt., Kdvinator Corp., and (for mail),
iMW.1 Wowtotook Urivc, Detroit, Mich.
HVOSLKK, Pr«>dorick W. (A/ 1031; A 1021), Htg.,
RpMMrrh Kn«r. (for mail), Kohler Co., and 623
Aiuiutxm Rd,. Knhler, Wis.
HYI>K. Klm«r II* (-1 1037), Twh. Rcpr., Koppers
Co., Tar ami Him. Div., JiOl Klannery Bldg.,
umt (for mail), H'« StiHiravc Rd,, Chatham
Villas. Pittshurgh, PA.
HYIHt. Eric F. (A/ 1U37), Consulting Engr., 512
!'><><• !*«*«« BldK., Detroit, and (for mail), 708
(toklawl Avc., Htrminftham, Mich.
II Y1>K, Lmwr«nce I,. (.-I ID37; J 11)30, O<jn, M«r.,
M. J. O'NHJ. and (for mail), 51 S. Cretin St.,
SL Pa tit, Minn*
HYMAN, WttHmi-e M. (Af It»20). Prcs. (for mail),
K<«h 8t t)'l)tmt»van, Inc., 12 West Ulat 4>t, and
u:i Wrnt 7»r<I St., New York, N. Y.
HYNKS, 1*<M P.* <<U J»l»), Prw. and Chief Kn«r
(for mail), Hyriwt KUrtric l^ating Co,. 2t<
Cherry St., rhiluitclpliht, Pa., and 127 W«at I',nd
d. N. J.
I
ICKKRINCHUU JfoJ*« <*- C - "
St»rntt*r Hnitcr Co., 2020 N. Broad St., and (for
mall), 477 Flaminwi St., Rox., Philadelphia, Pa.
IU>U;, Walter R. (A/ IWHij /I 1027), Ownor,
1 CtiHhirtK St., and (for mail), 212 Blossom fat.,
KUt'IiburK* Matw.
IN<iALUS, Fr«Hlerkfc D. B. (A/ IflOrt). Conaultlng
Kwtr., 1 Hopkins St., Rwiding. Ma*w.
IN<iKI^. Mftr<l*r«t* (A/ lfn»; J 101«). Moch.
Kngf. (f*»r mjiit), Carrier C'orp., and (KX) Jamtta
St., Syra<ui«c, N. Y.
IRWIN, Robert R. (J ««t7), , Air Cond. Enfir. (for
mstii), York Ic<» Machinery C!(»rp;, 117 South llth
St.. ami 7:> < WfHtKati* Ave., St. Louis, Mo,
JACKES, Herman D. (M 1915), Mgr.-Sales (for
mail), Aerofin Corp., 410 S. Geddes St., Syracuse,
N. YM and 1 Clinton Rd., Glen Ridge, N. J.
JACKSON, Charles H. (M 1923), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Blower Application Co., 918 N. Fourth
St., and 2706 N. Farwell Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
JACKSON, Marshall S. (M 1919), Repr. (for
mail), Powers Regulator Co., 250 Delaware Ave.,
and 10S Larchmont Rd., Buffalo, N. Y.
JACOBUS, Dr. David S. (Life Member: U 1916),
Advisory Engr. (For mail), The Babcock &
Wilcox Co., 85 Liberty St., New York, N. Y.,
and 93 Harrison Ave., Montclair, N. J.
JALONACK, Irwin G. (A 1933; 5 1930), Engrg.
Mgr. (for mail), c/o A. L. Hart, 82 Railroad
Ave., Patchogue, and Beaver Dam Rd., Brook-
haven, N. Y.
JAMES, Hamilton R. (M 1931), Service Equip.
En«r., United Engineers & Constructors, Inc.,
1401 Arch St., Philadelphia, and (for mail),
r>5 W. Drexel Ave., Lansdowne, Pa.
JAMES, John W.* (M 1937; J 1933), Tech. Asst.,
American Society of Heating & Ventilating
Engineers, 51 Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
JAMES, Richard E. (M 1936), Mgr. Htg. Dept.,
Harry Cooper Supply Co., and (for mail), 597 E.
Elm St., Springfield, Mo.
JANET, Harry L. (M 1920), Mech. Engr., Buensod-
Stacey Air Conditioning, Inc., 60 East 42nd St.,
New York, and (for mail), 688 Decatur St.,
Brooklyn, N. Y.
JARCHO, Martin D. (J 1936), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), Jarcho Bros., 215 East 37th St., New York,
and 941 Washington Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
JAROINE, DouftUw C. (M 1929; A 1926), Pres.
(for mail), Jardine & Knight Plumbing & Heating
Co., 516 S. Tcjon St., and 1512 E. Platte Ave.,
Colorado Springs, Colo.
JEFFREY, Thomas G. (4 1935), Mgr., Ruud
Mftf. Co., 474 Bathurst St., and (for mail),
478 Windemere Ave,, Toronto, Canada.
JRHLB, Ferdinand (A 1937), Dir. of Labora-
toriea (for mail), Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
f>75 Pacific St., Stamford, and New Canaan,
JEUNEK, Frank R. (7 1937), Sales Engr.,
(for mail), Johnson Service Co., 2505 Commerce
St., and 605 N. Ervay St., Dallas, Texas.
JENNEY, Hufth B. (A 1933), Gen. Sales Mgr. (for
mail), Dominion Radiator & Boiler Co., Ltd.,
Royce and Lansdowne Aves,, and 90 Dawlisli
Avc., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
JENNINGS, Hal K. (M 1937) Sales Engr.,
: 1111
JEN^N^,rvina '(M 1924), Pres. (for mail),
Nash Engineering Co., and 138 Flax Hill Rd.,
A. (A 1937), Chief Bn«r.
(for mail), R. 1C. O. Keith Memorial Theatre,
539 Washington St., and 695 Atlantic Ave.,
Iy A. (M 1935). Chief Drafts-
man, Tranc Co. of Canada, Ltd., 439 King St.,
W., and (for mail), 80 Glen Manor Drive,
. . .
,-t 10J2I, ConHiiltini? Hnwr., 31 Park Terrace, W.,
Apt, A-H, New York, N. Y,
ISBTT. WUlimm M. (A X03J). Prcs, (for mail,
C, », I«ett £ Son, Inc., 30»fi-87 N. Rockwell
, , , ., .
St., and 42«0 N, Drake Avc., CJhlcaffo, IIU
IVBRSON* Henry R. (A/ 10M; >l 1936), gal«
BnSr (for maili; Tranc Co, 734 Jackson Place
N.W,, and 1601 Argonnc Place, N.W., Wash-
ington. D. C.
I*™. Resident Vice-
Prcs. (for mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regu-
lator Co., 797 Beacon St., Boston, and Long-
wood Towers, Brook-line. Mass.
JENNINGS,' Henry H. (W* Member; M 1901),
15 Grange View, Chapeltown Rd., Leeds,
JENSON? Jean S. (M 1012), Consulting :Engr. (for
mail), 431 S. Dearborn St., and 1634 West 106th
JEP^RTINGER"' Richard c. <A 1934), secy.
(for mail), Syncromatic Air Conditioning Corp.,
3373 N. Holton St., and 1628 W. Vienna St.,
JESSUP? BlnjTmin H. (M 1937), Pres. (for mail),
Richards & Jessup Co., Inc., 615 Main St.,
Stamford, and 48 Field St., Glenbrook, Conn.
31
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
JEX, John, Jr. (A 1936), Sales Engr. (for mail),
Mercoid Corp., 1035 Cathedral St., Baltimore,
and Earleville, Cecil County, Md.
JIMENEZ, Joaquin G. (M 1935), Engr. Director
(for mail), Ave. Edwardo Dato, 34, Madrid,
Spain.
JOHN, Victor P. (M 1931), Mgr., Buffalo Branch,
American Blower Corp., 822 White Bldg.,
Buffalo, and (for mail), 136 Berry-man Drive,
Snyder, N. Y.
JOHNS, Harold Byron* (M 1928; J 1927), (for
mail), Peoples Gas Light & Coke Co., 122 S.
Michigan Ave., Chicago, and 543 N. Elmwood
Ave., Oak Park, 111.
JOHNSON, Allen J.* (M 1935), Director Anthra-
cite Industries Laboratory, Primes, Del. Co., Pa.
JOHNSON, Carl W. (M 1912), Pres. (for mail),
C. W. Johnson, Inc., 211 N. Desplaines St., and
1809 Morse Ave., Chicago, 111.
JOHNSON, Clarence W. (M 1933; J 1931), Dist.
Mgr. (for mail), Canadian Sirocco Co., Ltd., 630
Dorchester St., W., and 333 Dresden Ave.,
Mt, Royal, Montreal, Que., Canada.
JOHNSON, Edward B. (M 1919), Sales Engr.,
Staten Island Supply Co., and (for mail), 154
Wardwell Ave., West New Brighton, S. I., N. Y.
JOHNSON, Helfte S. (A 1933; / 1927), Dist.
Mgr. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co. (112 State
St.), 611 Standard Bldg., and 20 Fleetwood Ave.,
Albany, N. Y.
JOHNSON, Leslie O. (A 1938: J 1930), Sales
Engr., H. Y. Keeler Co., 910 Hines Bldg., and
(for mail), 3015 Staunton Rd., Huntingdon,
W. Va.
JOHNSON, Louis H. (M 1931), 918 LaSalle
Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
JOHNSON, Oliver W. (M 1937), Chemical Engr.,
Standard Oil Co. of California, San Francisco,
and (for mail), 1831 Waverly St., Palo Alto,
JOHNSON, Walter A. (J 193C; S 1035), Asst.
Instructor in Mech. Engrg. (for mail), Columbia
University, Mech. Engrg. Dept, and 1138 John
Jay Hall, New York, N. Y.
JOHTNSON, Wayne G. (7 1937; 5 1936), Research
Dept., Herman Nelson Corp., 1824 Third Ave.,
and (for mail), 810-20th Ave., Moline, 111.
JOHNSTON, Hugo D. (4 1934), Engr. and
Contr., Box 282, Wellington, Ont., Canada.
JOHNSTON, J. Ambler (M 1912), Partner,
Caracal, Johnston & Wright, 809 Electric
Bldg., and 2616 Hanover Ave., Richmond, Va.
JOHNSTON, Robert E. (M 1929; A. 1926),
Managing Dir. (for mail), R. E, Johnston Co.,
Ltd., 1070 Homer St., and 3342 West 33rd Ave.,
Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
Blacksburg, Va.
JOHNSTON, William H. (M 1924), 306 East 26th
St., New York, N. Y.
JONES, Alfred (M 1928), Chief Consulting Engr.
(for mail), Armstrong Cork Co,, P. O. Box 540,
and 402 President Ave., Lancaster, Pa.
JONES, Alfred t. (M 1926), Plbg. and Htg.
Contr. (for mail), 431 Greenwich Ave., Green-
wich, and Breezemont Ave., Riverside, Conn.
JONES, Allan T. (M 1937; J 1935), Mech, Engr.
(for mail), S. A. Armstrong, Ltd., 720 Bathurst St.,
and 325 Kingswood Rd., Toronto, Ont.. Canada.
JONES, Andrew P. (J 1936: 5 1935), Elec. and
Mech. Engr., 504 E. Fifth, Hereford, Texas.
JONES, Bernard G. hf 1928), Mgr. (for mail),
Acme Fan & Blower Co., Ltd., 808 Arlington St.,
T and 542 Raglan Rd., Winnipeg, Man., Canada.
JONES, Charles R. (A 1928), Pres., Jones Supply
Co., Siloam Springs, Ark.
JONES, David J. (M 1936), Control Engr., Vapor
Car Heating Co., Inc., Railway Exchange Bldg.,
Chicago, and (for mail), 391 Poplar Ave., Elm-
hurst, 111.
JONES, Edwin (M 1933; / 1924), Engr, and
Estimator (for mail), Watt Plumbing, Heating &
Supply Co., 608 S. Cincinnati, and 1436 East 17th
Place, Tulsa, Okla.
JONES, Edwin A. (JW 1919), Chief Ensr. (for
mail), L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 2005 W.
Oklahoma, and 4381 N. Alpine Ave., Milwaukee,
Wis.
JONES, Edwin F. (M 1923), Utilities Engr., City
of St. Paul, 216 Courthouse, and (for mail), 220
Montrose Place, St, Paul, Minn.
JONES, Harold L. (M 1920), Supt. (for mail),
W. W. Farrier Co., 44 Montgomery St., Jersey
City, and 11 Cambridge Rd.. Glen Ridge, N. J.
JONES, John P. (A/ 1937), Pres. (for mail), John
Paul Jones, Gary and Millar, 448 Terminal
Tower, Cleveland, and 3161 Scarborough Rd.,
Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
JONES, Norman R. (A 1935), Sales Mgr., Orr &
Sembower, Inc., Reading, and (for mail), 10U
Rutledse Ave., Rutledge, Pa.
JONES, William T. (M 1915), (Presidential
Member), (Pres., 1933; 1st Vice-Pres., 1932; 2nd
Vice-Pres., 1931; Council, 1925-1933), Treas.,
Barnes & Jones, 128 Brookside Ave., Jamaica
Plain, and (for mail), 16 Harvard St., Newton-
ville, Mass.
JOPSON, John M, (M 1936), Engr.. W. M.
Anderson Co., 600 Schuylkill Ave., Philadelphia,
and (for mail), 3455 W. Perm St., East Falls,
Philadelphia, Pa.
JORDAN, Richard C.* (/ 1935; 5 1933), In-
structor, University of Tulsa, and (for mail),
1004 S. College, Tulsa, Okla.
JORDAN, W. D. (AT 1935), Mgr., Air Cond. Div.
(for mail), Savage Arms Corp., 100 Kast 42nd
St., New York, and 132 Overlook Rd., New
Rochelle, N. Y.
JOSEPHSON, Simon (/ 1936), Kngr. (for mail),
Astor Plumbing & Heating Corp., 1134 Bedford
Ave., and 525 Linden Blvd., Brooklyn, N. Y.
JOYCE, Harry B. (M 1922), Consulting Knrcr. (for
mail), 610 Commerce Bldg,, and 501 Liberty St.,
Erie, Pa.
JUNG, John S. (M 1930; A 1923), Ht«., Piping
and Air Cond. Contr. (for mail), 2400 W, Green-
field Ave., and 1516 S. Layton Blvd., Milwaukee,
Wis.
JUNKER, WUHam H. (M 1935), Chief Mech,
Engr., Thos. Emery's Sons. Inc., 2109 Carew
Tower, and (for mail), 6008 Dryden Ave.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
K
KACZENSKI, Chester (7 1933), P. 0, Box 155,
Bridgehampton, L. L. N. Y.
KAERCHER, C. M. H. (M 1937), Managing Dir.
(for mail). Central Bureau for Heating and Air
Conditioning, 3030 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, and
2560 Ashurst Rd., University Heights. Ohio.
KAGEY, I. B.* (A 1937; J 1929), Sales Rngr, (for
mail), Carrier Corp., 404 Bona Allen Bldg., and
Atlanta Athletic Club, Atlanta, Ga.
KAIN, Edward M. (/ 1937; S 1930), Draftsman,
Babcock & WJlcox Co., Stirling Ave., Barberton,
and (for mail), 3656 East 140th St., Cleveland,
Ohio.
KAISER, Fred (M 1035), Branch Mgr. (for mail),
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.. 45 Alien
St., and 481 Starin Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
KAJUK, Andrew E. (M 1930), Engr., Austin Co.,
10112 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, and (for mall),
6907 Theota Ave., Parma, Ohio
KALINSKY, Alex G. (J 1036; X 1034), Htg. Kn«r..
Fox Furnace Co., and Y. M. C A.f Klyria, und
(for mail), ill 14 Fuller Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
KAMMAN, Arnold R. (A 1925; J 1921), Arnold
R. Kamman Co. (for mail), 493 Kranklin St,,
Buffalo, and R. F. D, No. 3, Hamburg, N. Y.
KAMPISH, Nick S. (J 193f>; A' 1034), Air Cond.
Engr., Air Temp. New York Sales Corp., Chrysler
Bldg,, New York. N. Y,, and (for mail), 214 K.
Lincoln Ave., Roselle Park, N. j.
KAPPEL, George W. A. (M 1021), Pres. and
Treaa. (for mail), Camden Heating Co., Wilson
Blvd. and Waldorf Ave., Camden. and 347 W,
Kings Highway, Haddonfield, N. J.
32
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
KARAKASH, Todorl (J lO.'jO), Kngr. (for mail),
G. it A. Kaltw, Ltd., Carrier Div., Prevuayans
Han, Tuhtukitlo, ami Kngin Apt., Ferus-Aga,
Galatunaray, Istanbul, Turkey.
KARCHMRR, Jacob H. (.1 1930). Mgr. (for
mail), Karchm<ir Co,, (UJO-M N, Jefferson Ave.,
and 13KI Roanoke Avc., Springfield. Mo.
KARGKS, Albert (A 1935), Viee-Pres. and
ManaftiriK Dir., James Stewart Mfjaj. Co., Ltd.,
Ttctimseh St.. and (for mail), 37 Perry St.,
Woodstock, Ont.. Canada.
KARLSON, Alfred F, (.A/ 1018), Chief Kngr, (for
mail), Parkn-Cram«'r Co., 1)70 Main St., Fitch-
bur«, and 18(» Prospect St., North Leominster,
KARLKTEKN, Guwtav H. (.U 1935), Plant Kn«r..
Punlnp Tiro £ Rubber Corp., Buffalo, and (for
mail |, Box 5.r>, Route 1, Tnnawandn, N. Y.
KARTORHC, V. T. (J 1U35; .S 1933), Kngr, (for
mail), York Ice Machinery Corp., Air Cond.
Div., and 1513 Third Avc., Klmwood, York, Pa.
KASTNKR, Gtorfte C. (J 1035; .V 11)33), 054 East
UlWth St., New York, N. Y.
KAUFMAN, Charles W. (/ 1935), Kn«r. (for
mail), Carrier Corp., Hibernia Bank Hldg,, and
5532 S. Liberty St.* N«w Orleans, La.
KAUFMAN, Hirum J. (.U 11)37), Htg.-Vtg. Kngr.,
Commonwealth K: Southern Corp,, Consumers
Power BldK., Juckntm, Mich,, and (far mail),
13215 RoHelawn Avc., Detroit, Mich,
KAiri\ Kdftar O. (A/ 1037), Kn«rM Air Cond. Div,,
W. R. Ames Co,, 150 Hooper, San Franciaco, and
(for muil). HVM» Curtis, Albany, Calif.
KAWASK, Sumio W 1U30), Chief Htg. Kngr,,
Ki/.en Juhin Kyoku- -Manchoukuo, and (for
maih, flH Suohikodo, Hainking. Manehoukuo.
KRATINC;. Arthur J. (Af 1037), Air Cond. Engr.
(for mail), Cooling & Air Conditioning Corp.,
Room -lot, WriKley Mdg., and 4429 W. Congress
St., Chicago, 111.
KKKPK, Edmund T, (Af 1931), Pre«. (for mail),
I'mkntmund Steum (Construction Co., 75 Pitts
St., Boston, uncl 185 Commonwealth Avc\,
Newton, MUHH.
KKKNKY, Fr«nk P. (.-I 1015), Pros, (for muil),
K<»«*m«v PubH«htnK Co., (\ N. Micliljom Avc,, and
70,™ South Sliore I)riv«, Chicago, III.
RKHM» Horace S. (Af 1928), Proa,, Kehm Bros.
Co, & Stev«nH-Root (*o. (for mail), 51 K. Grand
Av«., and 3WKI Shcri<hm Rd., Chicago, 111.
KKLBLK, Frank R. (Af 1U28), Vicc-Pr^. and
M«r, <f»>r mail), Huffman-Wolfe Co. of Phila-
delphia, -Kino North 18th St., Philadelphia, and
305 Pleasant Av<»., Glemude Gard«m, Pa.
KKLtKY, Jnmc« J. (A 1024), Vice-Pros, and
Gen. Mnr. (for uuiil), Arthur H. Hallard, Inc.,
535 Commonwealth Ave., UoKton, and 142
CJovr-rnorM Ave., Motlford. Maas.
KRLLKY, Hobcrt I). (Af 1037), Prc». (for mail),
Sunbttun Hating & Air Conditioninw CIo., 340
Pen^htr^ St., N.K., and Ot)H Klmwood Drive,
N.K., AtlanU, CJu.
KKLLNER, Day C. (J 1JI37; A' 1033), Cuba City,
Win,
KKUXXX;, Alfr^ (Life Member; Af 1910),
(Council, 1020-1021; 1923-11)24), Conaultins
Kn«r. (for mail), 585 Boylnton St., Boston, and
0 Hawthorne St., Uclmont, Mttas.
KELLY, Charles J. (Af 1031), Treau. (for mail),
Kelly & K«nncy, Inc., fi5I Mfth Avc,. New York,
N. Y.f and 06 Duncan Ave., Jersey City, N. J.
KELLY, John G. (A !»«»), 374 Park Ave.t
Yankrra. N. Y.
KELLY, Wilbur C. (Af 1035), I«'ield Kngr. (for
mail), Iron Klremnn Mfa. Co, of Canada, Ltd.,
im King St., W., and 58 Elmathorpe Ave.,
Toronto, Ont,, Canada.
KKNDALL, Edwin IL (Af 1030), Engr,, English
Ik Lauer, Inc., 1078 S. Ixas Angeles St., Los
Angles, Calif.
KKNNKDY, Maron </l 1930; J 1030), Sales Engr.,
York Ice Machinery Corp,, 5051 Santa Fe Ave.,
, Calif.
KENNEDY, Owen A .(J 1938; 5 1933), Vent.
Engr. (for mail), H. H. Robertson Co., 5134
Margaret Morrison St., Pittsburgh, Pa., and
112 Dixie Highway, South Fort Mitchell, Ky.
KENNEDY, Paul V. (J 1930; 5 1034), 105 Avon
St., New Haven, Conn., and (for mail), 4015
Forbes St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
KENNEY, Thomas W. (M 1937), Pres. (for mail),
Kelly & Kenney, Inc,, 551 Fifth Ave., New York,
and 10 Point Circle, Malba, Whitestonc, N. Y.
KENT, J. King (A 1038; J 1928), Pres. (for mail),
J. King Kent Co., Inc., 0477 Manchester, St.
Louis, and 2012 Urban Drive, Brentwood, Mo.
KENT, Laurence F. (A 1927; J 1924), Pres. (for
mail), Moncrief Furnace Co., P. O. Box 1673,
Atlanta, and R. F. D. No. 2, Smyrna, Ga.
KENT, Richard L. (M 193G), Dist. MRT. (for
mail), Trane Co. of Canada, Ltd., 138 Portage
Ave., and 8,'iO Wolseley Ave., Winnipeg, Man.,
Canada.
KEPLER, Donald A. (J 1936; S 1934), Vent.
Knsr., New York Stock Exchange Bldg. Co., 20
Broad vSt., New York, N. Y., and (for mail),
30 Maplewood Ave., Maplewood, N. J.
KEPLINGER, William L. (U 1929), Com-
busti oncer Corp., 409 Tenth St., S.W., and 1437
Rhode Island Ave., N.W., Washington, D. C.
KERN, Joseph F., Jr. (A 1937), Asat. Editor,
Heating & Ventilating, 148 Lafayette St., New
York, and (for mail), 42-15-79th St., Elmhurst,
KERN, Raymond T. (M 1927), Chief Engr.,
Jennison Co., 17 Putnam St., Fitchburg, and
(for mail), 51 Claflin St., Leominster, Mass.
KERR, William E. (M 1937), Sales Repr., Barnes
& Jones, Inc. (of Boston, Mass,)i College Place,
Columbia, S. C.
KERSHAW, Melville G. (M 1932; A 1926;
J 1021), Vtg. and Air Cond. Engr. (for mail),
E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington,
Del., and 7313 North 21st St., Philadelphia, Pa.
KESSLER, Jacob (M 1930), Pres. (for mail),
Jacler Heating Co., Inc., 3810 Third Ave., and
2115 Ryer Ave., New York, N. Y.
KESSLER, Maurice E. (Af 1937), Mgr., Pioneer
Heating-Cooling Co., 1304 Niagara St. (for mail),
P. 0. Box 004, and 696 Orchard Parkway,
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
KETTER, Jack W. (J 1037), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Badger Refrigeration & Eng. Co., 706 W.
Wisconsin Ave., and 3042 N. Second St., Mil-
waukec, Wia.
KEYES, Robert E. (Af 1913), Chief Engr., B, F.
Sturtevant Co., Hyde Park, Boston, Mass.
KEYSER, Herman M. (A 1937), Sales Engr.,
Murray W, Sales & Co., and (for mail), 3007
Whitney Ave., Detroit, Mich.
KICZALES, Maurice D. (M 1935), Mech. Engr.,
U. S. Army Motion Picture Service, 720 Jackson
Place, N.W., and (for mail), 3000 Connecticut
Ave*, Washington, D, C.
KIEFKR, Carl J. (Af 1022), Vice-Pres, (for mail),
Schenley Products Co., C07 Schmidt Bldj?., and
984 Lennox Place, Avondalc, Cincinnati, Ohio.
KIEPER, E. J., Jr. (A 1032; J 1928), Treas. and
Gen. Mgr., H. C. Archibald Co., 400 Main St.,
and (for mail), 108 N. Sixth St., Stroudsburg, Pa.
KIESLING, Justin A. (U 1930), Pres. (for mail),
Robischung Kiesling, Inc., 48 18 Main St., P. O.
Box 1205, and 1602 Stuart St., Houston, Texas.
KILLIAN, Thomaa J. (A 1037), Htg. Contractor
(for mail), 118 Belvidere St., Waukegan, 111.
KILLIAN, Vic. J. (A 1937), V. J. Killian Co. (for
mail), 007 Linden Ave., and 1348 Edgewood
Lane, Winnetka, 111.
KILNER, John S. (Af 1929), Mfrs. Agent (for
mail), Kilner Co., 7310 Woodward Ave., and
1001 Seminole Ave., Detroit, Mich.
KILPATRICK, W. S. (M 1923), W. S. Kilpatrick
& Co. (for mail), 1082 W. Washington Blvd., and
943 S. Cochran St., Los Angeles, Calif.
33
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
KIMBALL, Charles W, (M 1915), Treas. (for
mail), Richard D. Kimball Co., 6 Beacon St.,
Boston, and 65 Prescott St., West Medford,
Mass.
KIMBALL, Dwight D.* (M 1908), (Presidential
Member). (Pres., 1915; 2nd Vice-Pres., 1914;
Board of Governors, 1912-1916), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), Room 1728 Grand Central
Terminal Bldg., and 145 West 58th St., New
York, N. Y.
KIMMEL, Walter G. (J 1937), Commercial
Field Engr., York Ice Machinery Corp., 117
South llth St., St. Louis, Mo.
KIMMELL, Philip M. (J 1936), Dist. Engr.,
L. R. Krumm Co., (Delco-Frigidaire Cond.
Corp.), 121 E. Gay St., Columbus, Ohio.
KINCAIDE, Merrill C. (A 1937; J 1936), Air
Cond. Engr. (for mail), Timkcn Silent Automatic
Division, 100-400 Clark Ave., and 1160 Seward
Ave., Detroit, Mich.
KDSfDORF, Harry L. (U 1937), Chief Engr. (for
mail), Edward B. Ward & Co., 270 Fremont St.,
and 46 Oakwood St., San Francisco, Calif.
KING* Arthur C. (M 1930), Consulting Engr. (for
mail), 35 S. Dearborn St., and 2018 Lane Court,
Chicago, 111.
KING, Harry K. (A 1037), Dist. Mgr., Tube-
Turns, Inc., 224 E. Broadway, Louisville, Ky.,
and (for mail), 10356 Morrow Circle, S., Dear-
born, Mich.
KING, Lon D. (A 1937), Air Cond. and Ht*. (for
mail), Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., 425 Stuart
Bldg., and 2325 R St., Lincoln, Nebr.
KING, Roy L. (J 1936; 5 1933), Engr., Lewis Air
Conditioners, Inc., 1600 Broadway, N.E., and
(for mail), 2538 Clinton Ave., S., Minneapolis,
Minn.
KINGSLAND, George D. (M 1935), Vice-Pres.
(for mail), Minneapolis- Honeywell Regulator
Co., 2753 Fourth Aye,, S., and 2036 Queen Ave.,
S,, Minneapolis, Minn.
KINGSWELL, William E. (M 1935), Pres. (for
mail), W. E. Kingswell, Inc., 3707 Georgia Ave.,
N.W., and 2739 Macomb St., N.W., Washin«ton,
D. C,
KINNEY, Aldon M. (M 1936), Pres.-Trcas. (for
mail), A. M. Kinney, Inc., 1820 Carew Tower,
Cincinnati, and 3812 Beech St., Mariemont,
Ohio.
KIPE, J. Morgan (M 1919), Director of Educa-
tion, Anthracite Merchandising School, Primos,
and (for mail), 801 Homestead Ave., Becchwood,
Del. Co., Pa.
KIPP, Theodore (M 1937), Pres., Kipp-Kelly,
Ltd,, 68 Htegins Ave., and (for mail), 1030
Wellington Crescent, Winnipeg, Man., Canada.
KIRKPATRICK, Arthur H. (M 1035; J 1931),
Salesman, Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 415
Brainard, and (for mail), Hotel Webster Hall,
Detroit, Mich.
KISTLER, Milton L. (A 1930), Owner-Engr.,
Kistler's Sheet Metal Works, Route 2, Box
167-A, Mobile, Ala.
KITAURA, ShJfteyuM (M 1918), 191 Gotanda
6 Chrome, Shanagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
KITCHEN, Francis A. (A 1927; J 1923), Pres.
(for mail), American Warming & Ventilating Co.,
1514 Prospect Ave., and 2077 Campus Rd.,
South Euclid, Cleveland, Ohio.
KITCHEN, John H. (life Member; M 1906),
Owner and Mgr. (for mail), John H. Kitchen Co.,
1016 Baltimore Ave., and 5015 Westwood Ter-
race, Kansas City, Mo.
KLEIN, Albert R. (M 1920), Managing Dir. (for
mail), Lufttechnische Gesellschaft m.b.H.,
Stuttgart W., Konigstrasse 84, and Stuttgart N.,
Panoramstr. 23, Germany,
KLEIN, Edward W. (M 1917), Dist Repr. (for
mail), Warren Webster & Co., 152 Nassau St.,
N.W., and 456 Peachtree Battle Ave., Atlanta,
Ga.
KLEINKAUF, Henry (J 1937), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Natkin & Co., 1726 St. Mary's Ave., and
6312 Florence Blvd., Omaha, Nebr.
KLIE, Walter (M 1915), Pres. (for mail), The
Smith & Oby Co., 6107 Carnegie Ave., Cleveland,
and 18411 S. Woodland Ave., Shaker Heights,
Ohio.
KNAB, Edward A. (M 1930; A 1027), Prop., E. A.
Knab, Heating Contractor. 4823 N. Bartlett
Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
KNAPP, Andrew E. (M 1937), Engr. (for mail),
Nash-Kelvinator, 14250 Plymouth Rd., and
8059 Sorrento, Detroit, Mich.
KNAPP, Donald S. (A 1936). Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Cliamberlin Metal Weather Strip Co.,
Inc., 2400 Ilennepin Ave., and 4007 Wooddale
Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
KNAPP, Joseph II. (M 1<)30), Designing, Htg.
and Vtg. Equip., Utica Products Corp., and (for
mail), 111 Lowell Ave., Utica, N. Y. f
KNIBB, Alfred E. (.U 1930), Htg. Kn«r. (for mail),
L. L. McConachie Co., 1003 Maryland Ave., and
9333 E. Jefferson Ave., Detroit, M ich.
KNOPF, Charles (A TOO; J 1935; 5 1933), 1201
Liberty Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
KNOWLES, Elwin L. (A 1937), Prop., Marsliall
Heating Co., 1047 Hennepin Ave., and (for mail),
30 Oliver Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
KNOWLES, Frank R. (A 1937). Din Commercial
Engrg. Dept. (for mail), Pennsylvania Electric
Co., 835 Vine St.t and 719 Linden Ave., Johns-
KNOWLES, Mahlon G, (M 1935), Instructor in
Applied Science, Wentworth Institute, 550
HuntinKton Ave., Boston, and (for mail), 255
•Hurrill St., Swnmpscott, Mass.
KNOX, James R. (A/ 1080). Consulting ICngr.,
2<J Commercial St., Dundee, Angus, Scotland.
KNUDSEN, William R. (M 1087), M«r., Krigi-
dnire Div., General Motors, 2081 Calumet, and
(for mail), 7834 Rid«etond Ave,, Chicago, 111.
KOCH, Richard G. (A 1985), Ht«. and Air Cond.
Engr., Milwaukee Gas Light Co., f&tt 1C. Wis-
consin Ave., and (for mail), 734 North 34th St.,
Milwaukee, Wis.
KOKHLKR, C. Stewart (A 11)30), Sales Kn«r. (for
mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.,
801 Second Ave.t and 4374 Richardson Ave.,
New York, N. V.
KOFOED, V. Bockwith (A 1037), Diat. MKT. (for
mail), Fox Furnace Co,, 0005 Kuclul Ave.,
Cleveland, and R. K. D. No. 8. Chagrin Falls,
Ohio.
KOHLER, Walter J., Jr. (A l»m Secy, (for
mail), KTohler Co.. and "Windwuy," Kohler, Wis.
KONZO, Seichi* (M 1037; A 19: tfi; J 1932).
Special Research Asst. Prof., University of
Illinois, 102 Mech. Knitrtf. Lab., and (for mail).
1108 W. StouKhton St., Hrbana, III.
KOOISTRA, John F. (M 1<)33), Sales MART, (for
mail), Carrier Corp,, Room 701, r>U.r> Market St.,
San Francisco, and 1215 Lauuna St., Burlin-
game, Calif.
KORN, Charles B. (M 1922), Member of Firm,
Keber-Korn Co., 817 Cumberland St , and (for
mail), 1022 S. Eighth St., AHentown, Pa.
KOTHE, Frederick II. (A 1037), Resident Kn«r.
(for mail), Carrier Engineering South Africa,
Ltd., Box 2421, and 258 Florida Rd.f Durban,
South Africa.
KOTZEBUE, Robert W. (A 1937), MKT. Air
Cond. Dept. (for mail), Straus-Frank Co., 301
S. Flores, and 118 Carolina, San Antonio, Texas.
KOZU, Tamilchiro (At 1030), Chief Kngr. (for
mail), Japan Radiator Industrial Association,
506 Marunouchi lildg., and 1701 Yonchomc
Shlmoochiai, Yodobashiku, Tokyo, Japan,
KRAMIG, Robert E., Jr. (A 1033). Vice-Pre«.,
Treas. (for mail), R. E. Kramig & Co., Inc.,
222-4 East 14th St., Cincinnati, and 115 Linden
Drive, Wyoming, Ohio.
KRAMINSKY, Victor (M 103C), Manatfntf Dir.
(for mail), Air Conditioning & Engineering, Ltd.,
4-12 Palmer St., Wcstminatcr, London, S,W. 1,
and 36 Manor Court, Aylmer Rd., Highgatc,
London, England.
KRATZ, Alonzo P.* (Jtf 1925), Research Prof, (for
mail), Dept. of Mech. Engrg., University of
Illinois, and 1003 Douglas Ave., Urbana. HI.
34
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
KRAYKNHOF, Harold G. (A 1937), Mgr. Htg.
and Air Cond. Div. (for mail), Home-Wilson,
Inc., 103 Peters St., S.W., and 756 Sherwood
Rd.. N.E , Atlanta, Ga.
KRKNfc, Alfred S. (,U 1<)37: .4 1935), Pres. (for
mail). Kirns: it Co., f>114 W. Center St., Mil-
waukee, and 17M North 74th St., Wauwatosa,
Wfc.
KRKX, Leonard. (.4 1035), Secy, (for mail), Paul
T. Knv, Co., 444 N, LaSalle St., and 471G N.
Paulina St., Chica«o, 111.
KRIBvS. Charles L., Jr. (Af 1935), Pres., Kribs &
Landauer, 200 Houseman Hldg., and (for mail),
41201) Shenandoah Ave.. Dallas, Texas.
KKlttBKL, Arthur K. (.V 1UUO), Sides Rngr. <for
mail), HayncH Selling Co., Inc., Ridj;e Ave. and
Sprinn Garden St., Philadelphia, and Warren
Avo., lU'rwyn. Pa.
KRINT/.MAN, Harry (.S llMi), Air Cond. Engr.
<for mail), Duhin & Co., 182 Ann St., Hartford,
Conn., anil 10 S. Lenox St., Worcester, Mass.
KROKKKR, J. Donald (A/ 11)30), Consulting
Knur. (lor mail), Columbia Kiininc'cring Co., 019
V'Mlinn BldK., and 0831 N.K. Siskiyou St.,
Port1.mil, Ore.
KKl<'KC;KK, Jame« I. (M lOUl), Mfrs. fcopr.,
HhnoU Knicf rowing Co., and Whitlock Coil Pipe
Co. (tor niail), 3."»7 Ninth St., and 1020 Sacra-
mento H., San Krum-iwo, Calif.
KUBASTA, Robert W. (J 1<»3I>), Sales Knar.,
CanuT Coin,, Syracuse, N. Y., and (for mail),
108N Summit Ave., Ukewood, Ohio.
KllKCIIKNBKKG, William A. (A/ 1037), Pres.
(for mail i, K. K. I lay ward Co., 1714 Sheffield
Avr,, Chii'.tKO, and 427 Klmorc Ave., Park
tti«lw, 111.
KIWHN, Wiilttir C. (,4 1033), Kufhn Hwiting &
Ventilating !*«>-» OtA Seventh Ave,, S., JMinne-
ttiwlift, Minn.
KVKMPICL, Leon L. (.U 1030; .7 1020), Zone
I'ltw., tM«.'u-i«riKidairp Cond. Div., General
Mntoii StlcH Curj>,, and (for mail), 027 Cumber-
land Ave., l)ayton, Ohio.
KUULMANN, Rudolf (M 102H), ICngr.. 122 Kaat
4-'ml St.. New York, N. Y,
Kl?NTZ, Kdward C. U 1037). Ivngr., Hammond
*Sli«»l Mr»tiil Co., 110 CHHH Ave,., and (for mail),
•if Hi !,(m«hhonM!Kh Ave,, St. Louis, Mo.
Kl'RTIl, VrnikK JT. (M 1037), Viw-Pwi. (for mail),
Anr*m»tMUt Corp. <if Ameriea, 10 Kast 30th St.,
ami H7.'t We^t IHlnl M., New York, N. Y.
R<itu»rt W. (7 103U), Air Cond. and
ITU*., 4H1H Main St., and U01 lobelia, Houston,
TPXMN.
RWAN. I. K. (.Vr 1033), Gen. M«r.p China Kn«i-
nerrinK Co,, 30 Hienun KrI., ShanKhai, China.
KYLUKR<;t V. <I. (A 1034), Contr. ICnxr., Lan-
rawter h<>« Wtukn, 122 Kast 42nd St., New York,
N. Y., ami Mor mail), <W Maple Ave., Maple-
KYLK.'w, L (/I l!Wi), Power Sales Kn«r. (for
mail I, I'ubUc I'tility KnxinpcriiiK & Service
Cot i>, 231 S, USall»* St., und 1230 Jarvis Ave,,
Chirac*. HI.
V, Milton (/I 1037; .V 1030), Vicc-Pres. (for
rnutli, Hrnj, K, Ubov *St Son, 212 Adriatic Ave.,
awl 1 M N. r;iCU«U« Plarf, Atlantic City, N, J.
AFPOLKY, Lnurvmrc H. (W IU37; A 1935),
AtJ-it, Knur- <»* HI^IKH. (f(*r mail), (,'amuiian Pacific
Kuilwuv, Kr«,m mn, (.'. P. K. Windsor Station*
»wl 17»i W<HKllaml« Avt,, Montreal, 0«c.»
ACOlV/JNSICI, H*rry J, (A Itt27: / 1020),
SiJei l»:njtr. (for mail), UK Klcctrlc Ventilating
t <>M 1KU N, l^iSsillfi St., Chicago, and Crywtal
Kobwt D. (Af 103<i), Design Knjp.
(Air OimU, Amftfkrttn Radiator Co. (for mail),
P, <>. tlox m, N>w Kwhelle, ami 81) Yo»n«
A\^,, PHtiitm, N. Y.
LaMONTAGNE, Arthur F. (A 1936), Sales Mgr.,
Htg. Div. (for mail), Gurney Foundry Co., Ltd.,
P. O. Box 1149, Montreal, and 24 Prince Arthur
St., St. Lambert, Que., Canada.
LANDAU, Mitchel (M 1937), Mgr.. Htg. and Air
Cond. Dept., ABC Oil Burner & Engineering Co.,
2012-14 Chestnut St., and (for mail), 5965
Kemble Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
LANDAUER, Leo L. (M 1937; / 1932), Member
of Firm (for mail), Kribs & Landauer, 200
Houseman Bldg., and 5707 Velasco, Dallas,
Texas.
LANDERS, John J. (M 1930; J 1924), Mfrs.
Agent (for mail), 701 Crosby Bldg., Buffalo, and
120 Burroughs Drive, Snyder, N. Y.
LANDES, Benjamin D. (A 1937), Mgr., Engrg.
Service Dept., A. M. Byers Co., Clark Bldg.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
LANDEWIT, Gasimlr J. (J 1937), 115-95-226th
St., St. Albans, L. L, N. Y.
LANE, D. Duffy (M 1934), Mgr., Weber & Merritt,
Inc., 75-12 Roosevelt Ave., Jackson Heights, and
(for mail), 87-65-52nd Ave., Elmhurst, N. Y.
LANG, J. Clifford (J 1937), Sales Engr., York Ice
Machinery Corp., 118 Southwest Blvd., Box 17,
Kansas City, Mo.
LANGE, Fred F. (A 1934), Pres. (for mail),
Mechanical Service Co., 002 Pence Bldg., and
King Cole Hotel, Minneapolis, Minn.
LANGE, Raymond T. (M 1036), Engr., Hartzell
Propeller Fan Co., Box 909, and (for mail), 1700
N. Broadway St., Piqua, Ohio.
LANGENBERG, Everett B. (M 1914), (Council,
1920-1931), Pres. (for mail), Langenberg Heating
Co., 3800 W. Pine Blvd., St. Louis, and 338
Brentwood Blvd., Clayton, Mo.
LANNING, E. K. (A 1927), Asst. Secy, and Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Warren Webster & Co., Camden,
and Box 311, Clayton, N. J.
LANOU, J. Ernest (M 1931), Mgr. (for mail),
K. S. Lanou & Son, 90 St. Paul St., and 48
Brookes Ave., Burlington, Vt.
LARKIN, Paul (A 1937), Service and Installation
Mgr. (for mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regu-
lator Co., 378 Saunclers- Kennedy Bldg., and
4007 Pierce, Omaha, Nebr.
LaROCQUE, Paul E. (A 1937), Heating Con-
tractor, 80 D'Abraham Hill, Quebec, Canada.
LaROI, George, II, (J 1936), Engrg. Correspon-
dent and Aaat. Adv. Mgr. (for mail), McDonnell
& Miller, Room 1316, Wrigley Bldg., and 4443
N. Monitor Ave.. Chicago, 111.
LARSON, Carl W. (M 1933), Service Engr.,
Barnes & Jones, Inc., 128 Brookside Ave.,
Jamaica Plain, and (for mail), 641 Hyde Park
Ave., Roslindale, Mass.
LARSON, Clifford P. (J 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Insulite Co., 205 W. Wacker Drive, and
Chicagoan Hotel, Chicago, III.
LARSON, Gustus L.* (M 1923), (Presidential
Member), (1st Vice-Pres., 1935; 2nd Vice-Pres.,
1934; Council, 1929-1937), Prof., Steam and Gas
Kngrg., and Chairman of Dept. of Mech. Engrg.
(for mail), University of Wisconsin, Mech.
Engrg. Bldg., and 1213 Sweetbriar Rd., Shore-
wood Hills, Madison, Wis.
LaSALVIA, James J. (M 1930), Mech. Engr.,
Krigldaire Corp., and (for mail). 2250 Emerson
Ave., Dayton, Ohio.
LAUER, Harold B. (U 1930), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), English & Lauer, Inc., 1978 S. Los Angeles
St., and 1121 S. Hayworth Ave., Los Angeles,
Calif.
LAUER, Rodney F. (7 1936), Sales Engr., York
Ice Machinery Corp., 1238 North 44th St.,
Philadelphia, and (for mail), 236 Glentay Rd.,
Lansdowne, Pa.
LAUFKETTER, Fred C. (U 1936), Supt. and
Chief Engr. (for mail), Hotel Jefferson, 415
North 12th St., and 7056 West Park Ave., St.
Louis, Mo.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
LAUTERBACH, Henry, Jr. (Jl/ U)8f>), Asat.
Chief Engr. (for mail). Carrier Corp., Mer-
chandise Mart, and 0950 Merrill Avc., Chicago,
in.
LAUTZ, Fritz A. (M 1936), Dist. Engr., Nash-
Kelvinator Corp., 710 North 12th St., and (for
mail), 1005 Hi-Pointe Place, St. Louis, Mo.
LAWLOR, John J. (M 1935), M«r. Htg. Div.,
James Robertson Co., Ltd., 215 Spadina Ave,,
and (for mail), 35 Tennis Crcs., Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
LEACH, Leland S. (J 1937), Asst. Chief En«r.,
Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., and (for mail), 1130
South 14th St., Lincoln, Nebr.
LEDGETT, F. Donald (S 1936), 108 Clinton St.,
Toronto, Ont,, Canada.
LEE, James A. (A 1937), Commercial Air Cond.
Dept., Nash-Kelvinator Corp., Kelvinator Div.,
14350 Plymouth Rd., and (for mail), 17527
Indiana, Detroit, Mich.
LEE, Robert T. (J 1937; S 1930), Mech. Kngr.,
Plant Engr'e. Office, Eastman Kodak Co., 333
State St., and (for mail), 131 S. Plymouth Ave.,
Rochester, N. Y.
LEEK, Walter (Life Member; M 1903), Pros, (for
mail), Leek & Co., Ltd., 1111 Homer St., and
4769 W. Second Ave., Vancouver, B. C., Canada.
LEFEBVRE, Eugene J. (M 1937), Engr., Warden
King, Ltd., 2 Bennett Ave., Montreal, and (for
mail), 38 Third St., St. Lambert, Que., Canada.
LEGLER, Frederick W. (M 1935; A 1933), Prca.
(for mail), Waterbury Co., 2754 Hennepin Ave.,
and 2919 Johnson St., N.E., Minneapolis, Minn.
LEHMAN, M. G. (A 1937), Owner (for mail),
M. G. Lehman, 720 O St., and 2011 Worthin«ton,
Lincoln, Nebr.
LEHMANN, Matt (J 1937), Engr., Ralph K.
Phillips, Mechanical & Electrical Consultant^
603 Architects Bldg., and (for mail), 150U
Midvale Ave., W. Los Angeles, Calif.
LEICHNITZ, Robert W. , (J 1930), Estimator,
Leichnitz-Johnson Co., 14 E. A St., and (for
mail), 2506 W. Chestnut St., Yakima, Wash.
LEILICH, Robert K. (M 1937), Wewtern Mffr.
(for mail), The Marlcy Co., 1144 S, Grand Avc.,
Los Angeles, and 1024 Tiverton Ave., West
Los Angeles, Calif.
LEILICH, Roger L. (M 1922), Pres. (for mail),
Baltimore Heat Corp., 2000 W. Pratt St., and
2810 Elsinor Ave., Baltimore, Md.
LEINROTH, J. Paul (M 1929), Gen, Industrial
Fuel Uepr. (for mail), Public vService Electric &
Gas Co., 80 Park Place, Newark, and 37 The
Fairway, Montclair, N. J.
LEITCH, Arthur S. (M 1908), Pres. and Manag-
ing Director (for mail), Arthur S. Leitch Co.,
Ltd., 1123 Kay St., and 421 Russell Hill Rd.,
Toronto, Ont., Canada.
LELAND, Warren B. (M 1929), Sales Engr.,
H. B. Smith Co., Westfield (for mail), P. O,
Box 1522, and 159 Sumner Ave., Springfield,
Mass.
LELAND. William E. (M 1915), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), Leland & Haley, 58 Slitter St.,
San ^Francisco, and 704 The Alamcda, Berkeley,
LENIHAN, William O. (A 1030), Vicc-Prefi. (for
t?^1 Ljiv#3c£, *£ Haines, Inc., 718 White
Bldg., and 703 W. Ferry St., Buffalo, N. Y.
LEONARD, Lorcan C. G. (J 1937), Draftsman-
Designer, Messrs. J. Jeffreys & Co,, Ltd,,
Wai?rl2S,Rl\' London S.W.1, Kngland, and (for
mail), 265 Clontarf Rd., Dollymount, Dublin,
Ireland.
LEONHARD, Lee s W. I (M 1036), Supv., Eastman
Kodak Co., Kodak Park, and (for mail), 1075
Wmona Blvd., Rochester, N. Y.
LEOPOLD, Charles S. (M 1934). Consulting
Kngr. (for mail), 213 S. Broad St., Philadelphia,
and 7000 West Ave., Elklns Park, Pa.
LESER, Frederick A. (A 1937), Dtst, M«r. (for
*SP' D% %ctric Ventilatjnf? Co., 608 Mills
Bldg., and 4711 Chesapeake St., N.W., Wash-
ington, D. C.
LKUPOLI), George L, (,l Ii«7), Sales KHRF.,
MinneapoliH- Honeywell Rei'ulutor Co.. f><>l
Reading &d., (Cincinnati, Ohio, and (for mail),
137 Unmet RK.. Fort Thoma«, Ky.
LEOPOLD, Herbert W. (J lU'M, Knur., Prod,
Dev. Dept., Stanley Rule & Level Plant. Kim
St., and (for mail), <»1 Lincoln St., New Britain,
Conn.
LEUTHRSSKR, Fred. W., Jr. (M liW7>. Secy.,
National Metal Pioduels Corp., a I N. I.oomta
St., ChieaKO, 111.
LEVENTHAL, Bernard (J 1W7; .S' l$i,'Wf Kwti-
mntinK nnd l)esiK«inn Kn«r., Gene Meonun,
Inc., 44 Kart '23rd St., New York, and tfor mail),
81)i:M8th Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
LEVERANCE, Herbert J. (A li»3,"O, Silesmun
(for mail), J. M, O'Connor Co., 4,'tl N, Rock
Island, Wichita. Kana.
LEVY, Marion L (.1 l!J8rt; / HK*n, Pres, (for
mail), Viking Air Conditioning Corp,, Main and
Center Sts., N.W., and 1*834 Ludtow R<1,(
.
LEWIS, (torroU K. (A/ li*3p>, Om* Kn«r., Delcn-
Krigidaire C*<inditioninK; Divi*«i<»n, (Jenerut Motors
C'orp,, l»jao Wisoousin Hlvd., and (t'ur mail),
2724 Fairmont, Dayton, Ohio.
LEWIS, Clyde A. (J 1U37), Knnr.. Carrier t'orp,,
Syracuse, and (for mail), 24-40 Kindred St.,
A«toria, I,. I,, N. Y.
LEWIS, (;<M>rfte M. (M 1M7), Chief !';n«r.,
Penobscot Hldg,, Simtm J. Murphy O»,. 13(1(1
Penobwcot Bldg.. nnd (for mail), 11411 (irand-
raont KcK, Detroit. Mich.
LEWIS* H. Frederick (.-1 l(»37t, Vire.!»ret*. (for
mail), Harvey A. DwiftlttOU Ileatft Stmply<\>.,
Inc., 147 Donj^an Ave,, Alhiiny, and Sweats
C?ro8Hinj{t Nawwiu, N. Y.
LEWIS, L. Lojtan* (At WM. Vire-!'r<N.« Chief
Kngr, ffor mail), Carrier Corp., South (ieiiden
St., and 207 Sedjcewicfc Drive, Syracuse, N. Y.
LEWIS, Samuel R.* (W liH)5K WmidenM
Member), (Prea., 1U14; ami Vice-I're?.. 11UO;
Board nf Governors, KKKt-lstKUttllL1; (Nnindl,
10l4-l»ir>), (Nrnwilting Mwh, Knur, (for mail),
407 S. Dearborn St., nnd 47tt7 Kimhark AveM
C'li{ca«o, 111.
LEWIS, Thornton* (At UH!». \Pmid*Mwl
Metnbf), (l«t Vicc-Pres., Ii»if8; 2nd \fin».!>n»«i.,
1027; Council, U)2.'t»l«3()>, Pr***., Ptiln Pnwliu'U
Co., Inc.f 60 Kast 42nd St., Nfew York, N, Y.,
and (for mail). Holiday Hill Xcwttin R. D 2, Pa,
LIBBY, Ralph S* (J lt»33). Air Cond. Kn«r.,
Arthur S. Leitch Co., Ltd., 11-3 Hay St., and (for
mail), 5<} Spadim Kd., Toronto, ( )nt, (*atuultt.
LK2IITY, Charles p. (Af 102(1). I>res, (for mailJ,
C. P. Lichty KttKineerinx Co., Inr., 'tm>»a Sotith
2l8t St., and KM) Devon Drive, HirmiUKham, Ala,
LIBBRECirr, Walter J. (J I!Kt(i), SnU^ Kn«r. (for
man), American Ku<iiator C«».» Ktmtth «nd
Channime Stu., N.K., and 8«KW K«Klman St.,
N.W., WiwhinKton, D. C.
LIGHTIIART, <iharle« II. (Ar 1M5). Mfr.s.
Hales KnRr. (for mail), 254 Court St., and 10 K,
WInspear Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
LILJA, Oscar L. (.-1 1937; / H»«rt)t Mech. Kn«r.,
Toltz, King & Day, Inc., 1M Pioneer BldK-,
St. Paul, and (for mail), 5(KX> 10th Ave., S..
MinneanoIiK, Minn.
LINCOLN, Roland L. (A/ IMS), Kngr.. Hoffman
Specialty Co., 1M Grand StM Wuterbury, and
(for mail), Breakneck Hill, Middlcbury, <*onn.
UNDBRRG, Arthur P. </l IU37; J M»»r>; .V HW3),
Inspector, National Park Service, 'M Ke<iUnf
R.,- Omaha, Nebr.
10440 rs/Kfetart'Avi;'nto5;riii:" '"'"" and
UNBBAUGH, John E. <tf M37). Chief Kn«r.,
FriKidaire, Ltd , Kdjrewarc Rd., The Hyde,
Hendon, London, N.W. », and (for mail), 08
Hodford Rd., Golders Green, N,W. 11, Undon,
England.
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
LINGO, Charles K. (A 1!M>; J 103o), Air Cond.
Knur. (for mail), Florida Power & Light Co. and
1BJ24 SAV. Sixth St., Miami, Flu.
LINN, Homer R. (M 1*114), Consulting Engr.,
Brooke vS: Linn, ISO W. Matlison Ave., Chicago,
ami (i'i>r mail), .'iUl S. Ashland Ave,, LaGrange,
111.
UNSKNMKYKR, Francis J. (\t 1035), Head,
Dept. M<kch. KnKrg. (for mail), University of
Detroit, Livornois & McNichols, and 17375
Ptuim' Ave., Detroit, Mich.
LINTON, John 1». (M 1927), Mcch. Kn«r., 247
Krock Avo,, N'., Montreal, W., P. Q., Canada.
LITTLE, David, H. (J 1*187), Kn«r«. Inspector (for
mail), Huston Kclisnn (,<>., ,'f() Hoylston St.,
Boston, and -7 Ranweley St., Dorchester, Mass.
LITTI-K, Kenneth IS. (A l»»f>), Mfra. Kepr.,
Kenneth H. Little Co., 7'M Dixie Terminal,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
UTTLKFORU, Wallace, II. (A/ ISKJtt), Estimating
Knur, tfor mail), K. J. Kcbroy & Co., 010 New
York Ave,,, N.W., WashinRton, I). C., and
HyatlsviH* H. K. D. No, I, Md.
L1VAR, Allen P. (.U I'.Wft), C.hief Engr., Htg.
Uiv. (for mail), Airtemp, Inc., 1110 Leo St., and
'1-t Ivunhtie St., Dayton, Ohio,
LLOYD, Edmund II. (J 10M), Kales KURT.,
WuHhinuton <ia« Un!»t Co., 411 Tenth St., N.W..
and (for mail), 2001 C'alvert St., N.W., Wash-
inuton, 1>. C\
LLOYIK Kdward C. (M lt>27), Director of Tech.
Service (tor mail), ArniHtrong Cork Products Co.,
and K, 1). «*>, Lancaster, Pa.
UK IKK, Robert A. (A/ ITO), M«r., Steel Heating
Hoiler Institute, and (for mail), MX) N» Union St.,
Middletown, I'ii.
IXXJKHART, Harold A. (.-I l»3fl; ^ 10»f>), Chief
Kmtr., Wfll & (rniisett Co., 3(KK) Wallace St., and
(tor mailu 1174'.) Hale Ave., Chicago, 111.
LOGKHART, William R. (J 1M«), Dtst. «ales
wr. (lor tUHil)* Vorfc Ice Machinery Corn., 215
vftftiwnt HW«., and 3-i;«»-30th St., N.W.,
>. C<
LOKFFLKR, I-Vttrtk X. (A/ l'.U4), Pre«. (for mail),
Lwttller-Greene Supply Co., UKM N.W. I»'ifth
St., «IM! IHll Notthweat liith St., Oklahoma
City. Okla.
t.OKFVl.KR, L«wl«, Jr. (J iwafi; .V 11KW), 181f>
W. Ninth St., < )klah«»ma City, Okla.
LOKI'K, John A. (7 IUJW; .V HIM), Kngr., Pflugraclt
Co,, atf* W. Kilbotiin Av<*,, nnd (for mail), a 117
W. Highland Hlvd., Milwaukee, Wi».
UK; AN, Thom»« M. (J n»:t7; .v i«3r>), 113
! talaw.it? St.. I'eona, 11L
I.OII, N»n-.Sh«^ (.U IWJUJ; /I HKU; ^ 11127), Mgr.
(l*»r i»,t»J), New Shanghai Heating & Plumbing
Co., tt*H»n iitJO, Natitmul Ctommerckl Hank
tlldK.. *tW Kian^te Ktl., Shanghui, China.
X*ON<;, I)<^w«iy J, (A 1UIJ7), Siiles ICngr. (for mail),
V\ m. <;, iliwlM C«., tMHW Ilamilton Ave., Detroit,
ami -tU»l 1'e.umm Ave., I''t»rn<lale, Mich.
LON<;, Wftynt* K. (A/ HKJft). Awioc. Prof, of Mcch.
MnKr«c.« IVWIH AKi-icuttwral Ks Mechamcal Col-
!*•«*?, Colhrue Station, Texas.
LON<;<X>Y, <;r«nt I*. (A/ «K«», KJIKT., Joseph
Hrwilovt*, <'«»ni». KnKr., 1101 Hippodrome Bldg.,
flcvclumt. arul (for mallj, ItilJJ Kamoxui Ave.,
I.itkew<rtrtl, Ollid.
I,ON'<;WKLL, Junnwi <:<x>p«r (»S* ll»»7), Student
(for mail), Muwwu'himettH Institute of lech-
noloKy, 'M) Mfitwiiiiil Drive, (*an}bri(lgef Maiw.,
untl »W S<*c(*n<J Ave,, WwtirMmt» Johnatown, Pa.
LOO. Hnft Y«k (W IW«». <»«}• W«r. (for mail),
Chum Kiwlmwiiitft t*'»., 774 N. ( hung faan Krt.,
Nunkirot. »wl U71-7» Duinhurton Rd., lientsm,
China,
U*via W. (/I ITO, Supv., Com-
Klectric taul Steam Salea (for mart),
i* UKht Co,, 4»& Sixth Ave., und W6
nc Av«., Pittsburgh (21) Pa.
LOUC;HRAN, Patrick II., Jr. (J 1037), Asst.
LOVE, Clarence H. (M 1919), Mfra. Agent, Nash
Engineering Co., 317 Chamber of Commerce, and
(for mail), 289 Norwalk Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
LOVING, William H. (J 1936), Htg. Engr.,
Washington Gas Light Co., 411 Tenth St., N.W.,
and (for mail), 3901 Fulton St., N.W., Wa?h-
ton, D. C.
, . .
LOWER, Henry C. (A 1937), Sales Engr., Account
Exec., J. J. Gibbons, Ltd., 259 Bay St., Toronto
2, and ?formail), 649 Lakeshore Rd., Toronto 14,
Ont., Canada.
LOWNSBERY, Banjamin F. (M 1920), Htg.
Engr., Benjamin F. Shaw Co., Second and
Lombard Sts., and (for mail), 21 S. Sycamore
St., Wilmington, Del.
LUCK, Alexander W.* (Life Member; M 1919),
Pres. and Gen. Mgr. (for mail), Reading Heater
& Supply Co., Church and Woodward Sts.,
Reading, and Jieiffton, Pa.
LUCKE, Charles E. (M 1924), Stevens Prof, of
Mech. Engrg., Columbia University, and Con-
sulting Engr., Babcock & Wilcox Co. (for mail),
Pupin Laboratories Bldg., Columbia University,
and 186 Riverside Drive, New York, N. Y.
LUDERS, Richard H. (J 1037; 5 1936), Main-
tenance Engr., Quaker Oats Co., 345 East 25th
St., and (for mail), 2410 N. Kilbourn Ave.,
Chicago, III.
LUND, Clarence E. (M 1930; J 1935; S 1933),
Research Engr., University of Minnesota, Engrg.
Exper. Sta., 108 Experimental Bldg., and (for
mail), 4817-12th Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
LUTY, Donald J. (M 1933), Asst. Gen. Mgr. (for
mail), Gar Wood Industries, Inc., 7924 Riopelle
St., and 13661 Cloverlawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
LYCAN, Larb K. (A 1937), Sales Mgr. (for mail),
Allison Insulation Co., 4801 Levenworth St., and
2712 North 64th St., Omaha, Nebr.
LYLE, Ernest T. (M 1919), P. O. Box 1550,
Orlando, Fla.
LYLE, J. I.* (M 1911), (Presidential Member),
(Pros., 1917; Council, 1917-1918), Pres., Carrier
Corp., Syracuse, N. Y.
LYMAN, Samuel E. (A 1924), Buensod, Stacey
Air Conditioning, Inc., 60 East 42nd St., New
York, N. Y., and (for mail), 820 Canton St.,
Elizabeth, N. J.
LYNCH, William L. (M 1928), Treas.-Gen. Mgr.
(for mall), Rome Turney Radiator Co., Canal St.,
and 1413 N. George St., Rome, N. Y.
LYON, P. S. (M 1929), Gen. Mgr., Cochrane
Knar- Wawhington
T«nth St., N.W,, and (for ntail), 4ol*
N,W,, Wm&ittgton, D. C.
Corp., 17th St., and Allegheny Ave., Phila-
delphia, Pa., and 42 Hawthorne Place, Summit,
LYONS, Cornelius J. (A 1932), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Nash Engineering Co., Wilson Ave., and 22
llaviland St., South Norwalk, Conn.
LYONS, Michael A. (M 1935), Htg. Contr., 238
Wcat 20th St., New York, N. Y.
M
MABLEY, Louis C. (M 1937), Salesman (for
mail), Surface Combustion Corp., 122 S. Michi-
gan Ave., and 2317 N. Commonwealth Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
MACCUBBIN, Howard A. (M 1934), Buyer,
Htg. Materials, Montgomery Ward & Co.,
Chicauo, and (for mail), 2135 Ridge Ave.,
Iwanston, 111.
MacDADE, Ambrose H. (Af 1923), Sales (for
mail), Burnham Boiler Corp., S.E. Cor. 31st and
Jefferson Sts., Philadelphia, Pa., and 225 Haddon
Ave., Westittont, N, J.
MacDONALD, Donald B. (M 1930), Sales Engr.,
Donald B. MacDonald Co., 101 E. Walnut St.,
Kingston, Pa,
MacDONALD, Doufclas J. (M 1935), Vice-Fres.
(for mail), Dominion Radiator & Boiler Co.,
Ltd., 1322 Dufferin St., and 96 Hudson Drive,
Toronto, Ont., Canada.
MacDONALD, Everett A. (A 1933), Branch Mgr.
(for mail). Spencer Heater Co., 145 Broadway,
Cambridge, and 154 Standish Rd., Watertown,
Mass.
37
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
MACHEN, James T. (A 1938; J 1934), Chicago
Branch Mgr. (for mail), The Ric-wiL Co., Ill
W. Monroe St., and 420 Diversey Parkway,
Chicago, 111.
MACHIN, Donald W. (J 1935), Fuel Engr.,
Pittsburg & Midway Coal Mining Co., 810
D wight Bldg., Kansas City, Mo., and (for mail),
2029 Vermont St., Lawrence, Kans.
MACK, Ludwig (M 1935), Dist. Mgr.t Cooling &
Air Conditioning Corp., Cresmont and Haddon
Aves., Camden, N. J., .and (for mail), 240 W.
Upsal St., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
MacLEOD, Kenneth F. (A 1933), Mgr. Htg.
Dept., Crane Co., 419 Second Ave., S., and (for
mail), 7703 First Ave., N.E., Seattle, Wash.
MacMILLAN, Alexander R. (M 1936), Mgr.,
Educational Dept., Delco-Frigidaire Condition-
ing Div., General Motors Sales Corp., and (for
mail), 130 Beverly Place, Dayton, Ohio.
MACRAE, Robert B. (J 1935), Air Cond. Engr.,
E. J. Nell Co., Manila, P. I.
MACRO W, Lawrence (J 1930), 27 Arborough
Road, Boston, Mass.
MADDEN, John J. (A 1937), Owner (for mail),
Madden Co., 339 Warren St., Roxbury, and 1C
Brown Ave., Roslindale, Mass.
MADDUX, Oliver L. (M 1935; A 1933), Owner,
53 Park Place, Newark, and (for mail), Ofl
Washington St., East Orange, N. J.
MADELY, Frederick J. (A 1930), Asst. Contract
Engr., Eastern Steel Products, Ltd., 1335
Delorimier Ave., and (for mail), 6408 Louis-
Hemon St., Montreal, Que., Canada.
MADISON, Richard D. (M 1028), Research
Engr. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co., 490 Broad-
way, Buffalo, and 218 Brantwood Rd., Snydcr,
MAEHLING, Leon S. (Jfef 1932), Service Dir.,
Equitable Gas Co., 427 Liberty Ave., and (for
mail), 448 Sulgrave Rd., Pittsburgh, Pa.
MAGINN, Peter F. (Life Member; M 1908),
Mfrs. Agent, P. F. Maginn & Co., 207 Fulton
Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa.
MaGIRL, WUHs J. (M 1934; A 1931; J 1027),
Chief Engr. (for mail), P. H. MaGirl Foundry &
Furnace Works, 401-13 E. Oakland Ave., and
108 Warner Ave., Bloomington, 111.
MAKER, Thomas F., Jr. (A 1937), Salesman,
Kewanee Boiler Corp., 37 West 39th St., New
York, and (for mail), 110-48-218th St., St.
Albans, L. I., N. Y.
MAHON, B. B. (M 1935), Principal, School of Air
Cond. (for mail). International Correspondence
Schools, Ash St. and Wyoming Ave., and 433
Fig St., Scranton, Pa.
MAHON, Frank B. (M 1937), Air Cond. Spec.,
Duquesne Light Co., 435 Sixth Ave., and (for
mail), 1241 Illinois Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
MAHONEY, David J. (M 1930^ 1U2C), Branch
Mgr. (for mail), Johnson Service Co., 503
Franklin St., and 140 Linwood Ave., Buffalo,
MAIER, Albert H. (A 1936), Chief Engr. (for
mail). Board of Education, Baltimore and Girard
Ave., and 1021 Kuntz Ave., Middletown, Ohio.
MAIER, George M. (M 1921), Aast. to Vice-
Pres. and Gen. Mgr. of Mfg. (for mail), American
Radiator Co., 8007 Jos Campau, Detroit, Mich.
MAILLARD, Albert L. (M 1934), Consulting
Engr., Head of Air Cond. Div. (for mall), Kansas
City Power & Light Co., 1330 Baltimore Ave.,
P. O. Box 679, and 3740 Washington St., Kansas
City, Mo.
MALCOLM, Bernard L. (J 1937), Sales Engr.,
Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., 502 South 10th, and
gor mail), 4960 Military Ave., Apt. 7, Omaha,
MALLIS, William (M 1914), Owner (for mail),
nd 723 FedCral ' Se
MALONE, Dayle G. (M 1929; A 1925), Branch
Mgr., Petroleum Heat & Power Co., 1725 S.
Michigan Ave., and 7337 Merrill Ave., Chicago,
MALONE, James S. (/i 1930), Dial Sides Repr.
(for mail), Hoffman wSpecialty Co., 411 N. Tenth
St., and 7124 Waterman Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
MALVIN, Hay O. (A/ 1021M, Prea. (for mail),
Malvin & May, Inc., iM27 JS. Michigan Ave.,
and 8220 Dante Ave., Chicago, 111,
MAN DELL, Thomas P. (A 1037), Salesman,
Carrier Corp., 1201 Statler Office Bids.. Boston,
and (for mail), South Hamilton, Mass.
MANN, Arthur R. (A/ UWO). Owner, Mann & Co.,
Archt.-l£nRrs., OOli Wiley Wcltf., ami 1±2 West
15th St., Hutehinson. Kans.
MANNING, Charles E. (/ 11)37), Air Cond, Sales
Knur, (for mail), von Hamm Young Co., Ltd.,
and -1087 Black Point Rd., Honolulu. Hawaii.
MANNING, Walter M. (At 1030), lit* Knur.,
Crane Co., 115 Ifi. Front St., Grand iHlniul, and
(for mail), P. O. Box 112, Harka, Nt-br.
MANNY, J. Harvey (A 1UIW), Vice-Prea.. Secy.
(for mail), Robinson Furnace Co., 21,'i w.
Ilubbard St., and f»9f>() Midway Park, Chicago,
111.
MARCONETT, Vcrnon V. (A ISKWH, ttn«r..
Factory Supt., Karnuhar Furnace Co., und (for
mail), Wilmington, Ohio.
MAR IN, Axel* (A/ HWfi), Afuoc. Prof., Mech.
Kn«rg. (for mail), University of Michigan, U41
West Kn«rn. Bld«;., and l\ O. Box 17f>. Ann
Arbor, Mich.
MARKS, Alexander A. (A 1030), Chief Kn«rM
Richmond Radiator Co., and (tor mail), 818
Faycttc Title and Trust Bldg., ttniontown, Pa.
MARKUSH, Emery U. GU I«8l). Conmmfng
Enftr. (for mail), 223 Kast UUt St., New York,
and 8442 -85th Ud., Woodhaven, L. U N. Y.
MAROTTA, John A. (A' IM<>). U1KJ Tuscora
Ave., C'levcland, Ohio.
MAHRINER, John M, S* (A/ 1034), Vice-Pres.,
Tuylor Kngineerinu & Construction <,?o,, Ltd.,
80 Richmond St., W., and (for mall), UU£
Bulwun Ave., Toronto, Ont,, Canada.
MARSC:HALL. peter J. ht nwo; J 1027), Kn«r.,
Krocschdl Knginccring Co., 21f> W. < >ntiirio St,,
and (for mail), 043-1 N. Seeley Ave., (^ICAKO, III.
MARSHALL, Albert W. (A/ ltf«7), Asst, JStipt ,
Chief Kn«r., Soho Public Haths, 2408 Fifth
Ave., and (for mail), 2410 Fifth Ave,, Pitta-
bur«h, Pa.
MARSHALL, Alexander G. (/I l"a<M, SiiloH
Engr. (for nuiil), Trane C*o. of (*una<!u, l*td,, tMJt)
vSt. Catherine St., W., and U3f>3 Wellington St.,
Montrezil, Que,, Cunudu.
MARSHALL, Orvillo D. (A ISWO. Mfr«. A«ent
ffor mail), r>14 Anderson »ld«:., und ia."X) Calvin
Ave,, S.K,, CJrand Rapids, Mich.
MARSHALL, Thomaa A. (J «>»7J, Wsilea Enar.
(for mtiil), York Ice Machinery Corp», 1275
Fol«om St., and 15,r) Hyde »St., Sim Francisco,
Culif.
MARSHALL, wiiiiam i>. at ioas>, Branch
M«r. (for mail), Nolaml Co., Inc., 282,'t N.
ArlinRton Ridge Rd., and 1307 N, Wakefield St.,
Arlington, Va,
MARSTON, Anaon I).* (A 1OT), Industrial
Kngr. (for mail), Kansas City Power A Light
Co., 1330 Baltimore, Itox «7y, and 4iMit Central,
Kansas City, Mo.
MARTEL, Charles L., Jr. (J 1037), Pres., Mattel
Heatinic Co., 1^34 Cedargrove Ave.» Detroit,
Mich.
MARTKNS, Edward D. (M 1037), Mcch. Kngr.
(for mail), Thompson Sturrett Co,. Inc., 444
Madison Ave,, New York, and 80 Kldridge Ave.,
Hempfltead, L. I., N. Y.
MARTIN, Albert B. (Jl/ 1017), Branch M«r. (for
mail), Kewanee Boiler Corp., 18,08 S. Weatern
Ave., Chicago, and 077 Vine St., Winnetka, W.
MARTIN. Georfte W.* (jkf 1011), Superviaing
Kngr. (for mall), U. S, Realty & fmyrovement
Co., Ill Broadway, New York, N, Y;, and #40
Proapect vSt., Ridgewood, N. J.
MARTIN, Leonard (J U>3tt), Sales Kn«r. (for
mail), H. L. Peiler & Co., Ltd., 450 New Birk*
Bldg., and 3777 Oecarle Blvd., Montreal, Que.,
Canada.
38
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
MARTIN, Raymond (.1 HIH7). Sales Engr., Heal
Dci>t, tfor »»«»!*» Vai>ur Car Heating Co. of
Canada, Ltd.. ti."> Dulhnusic St., Montreal, and
8U5 Mntfut Ave., Verdun, I1, $>•• Canada.
MARTINKft, Jimn J. 07 lOiiU), Research and
RiiU* Kni;r., Mexican Light & Power Co., Ltd.,
G.intt1 l!0. and if«»r mail). Pasco dc la Reforma
18H, Mexico City, Mexico.
MARTINKA, Paul I>. (J 10»7; S lUIti), 13703
ChantuiKiua Avc., Cleveland, Ohio.
MARTOCKUX), Joseph A, (Af 1<WK Pros., Jos.
A. MartiMTllo & Co., 22U North 13th St., Phila-
delphia* I*«i.
MARTY, Kdjiar <>„ (.U IHIM, Pros, and Gen.
Mjtr,* Indian Head Anthracite, Inc. Thompson
HldK.. and (for mail), 177,1 Howard Ave.,
Pot twills Pa.
MAKTYN, Henry J. (A 1037), Pres. (for mail),
Martyn Hnw.. Inc., «ll Camp St., and 5306
Kidufdalc St., Dallas, Tcxaft.
MAR7.OLK, Frank X. (A 1037), Sales Engr.,
MiniuMpnlin-Hnnrywrll Rc«ulator Co., 415
Hrainard St., and (for mail), 13040 Mettetal,
Detroit, Mich.
MASON, (Ml CI. (A 11W7), Air Cond. Engr. {for
mam. Williamson Stater Co,, ,W W, Fifth St.,
ami Hotel Smtim, Cincinnati, Ohio.
MATCHP/rr, Jameti <), (A/ Itf2tt), Vice-Prea. (for
maitt, UUtmtH KnjtEnwrtaft Co., Racine Ave. at
2Irt., ;iful 1MW S. Winchester Ave., Chicago, 111.
MATHER, Harry H. (,-t IttBW), Industrial Promo-
tion (for m;itn, I*hi!adtli>hfa ICIectne Co., 1000
nwfttnnt St,. Philadelphia, and 373 Lakeview
Avc,, l>rwl Hill, Pa.
MATHKWSON, Marvin R. (M lt>«7), Secy, (for
mail), A, M. Kinney, Inc., 1820 Carew Tower,
uiul 1&V» Crycr Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
MATHIS. Kuftont* (,W 1U2U), (for mail), New
York Hliwvr Co.. ,'Wnd St. and Shields Ave.,
Annum P, U Station, and tnr>l S. Hoyne Ave.,
niiwK", in.
MATHIS, Hvnry (,U ll»2U, New York Blower
Co,, IWn»l and Shields Ave., and (for mail),
I(i;$:7 tukky Ave., ChiatKo, IU.
MATIIUS, Jfullen W. {,-1 mi), New York Blower
Co., Ittnd St, and Shields Ave., Chicago, 111.
MAY, Edward M. (M 1931), Engr., Steel Products
Engineering Co., 1601 S, Michigan Ave., and (for
mail), 848 N. Ridgeland Ave., Chicago, 111.
MAY, George E. (M 1933), Utilization Engr. (for
mail), New Orleans Public Service, Inc., 317
Baronne St., and 2031 .Short St., New Orleans,
MAY, James W. (A 1938; J 1935), Asst. Prof.,
H. V. & A. C. (for mail), College of Engrg.,
University of Kentucky, and 261 Lyndhurst St.,
Lexington, Ky.
MAY, Maxwell F. (M 1929), Secy.-Treas. (for
mail), Malvin & May, Inc., 332 S. Michigan
Ave., Chicago, and Palos Park, 111.
MAYER, Robert W. (A 1937), Dist. Mgr. (for
mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.,
501 Reading Rd., and 3980 Rosehill Drive,
Avondale, Cincinnati, Ohio.
MA YES, Curtis (/ 1937; 5 1936), National
Supply Co., Toledo, Ohio.
MAYETTE, Charles E. (M 1926), Principal
Mech. Engr., U. S. Housing Authority, North
Interior Bldg., and (for mail), 701-19th St.,
N.W., Washington, D. C.
MAYNARD, Herbert R. (J 1936; 5 1935), Hotel
Northern, Rochester, Minn.
MAYNARD, J. Earle (M 1931), Chief Htg. Engr.,
Fox Furnace Co., Woodford St., and (for mail),
324 Fifth St., Elyria, Ohio.
MAYNE, Walter L, (M 1937), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), U. S. Radiator Corp., Cor. Wayne and
C. L. & N. R. R., and 1239 Delta Ave., Cincin-
nati Ohio.
McCAFFERTY, Joseph E. (A 1937), Engr.,
Petroleum Heat & Power Co., 419 Boytston St.,
Boston, and (for mail), 196 Manthorne Rd.t
West Roxbury, Mass.
, A. <;. (A/ IW37), Air Cond, Kngr.,
Y«»rk tt-c NUdiinery Corp,, 117 South Ilth bt.»
and (for insiil), IWH Locust St., St. UUIH, Mo.
MATnUWS. John E. (Af 1034; A 11}»4), Dirt.
M«r,, H. K Sttirtevnnt Co., 1100 Commerce
Wffju uwl (for m;iit), fi«Wa I*ydia St., Kansas
<,'ity. M»».
MA'nmWS, Wi^Iey M, (J 1U»7), Sftlcs En«r.,
SiiU*^ «**»,» Airtemp Uiv,, 'iU.') Stuart Wd«.. and
Uor injiill. KW» S«*nth :Wth, Lincoln, Kcbr.
MATCKN, Hurry ». (M 1019), York Ice Ma-
ciiiiifiy (Vrt», 42nd St, and Second Ave.,
Hrti**klyn, and (for mail), 10 Addigon Place,
Km-kvitlr < entre, L, I., N. Y.
MAURKH» Fri^rlckJf. M Itt:«7}tMiir, Ind. Sales
th-pl. «itf ttuili, Crane Co.. OSW Carnegie Aye.,
nevehtmK umi 141179 Kldcrwood 'Ave., tort.
C.lrvelund, Ohlit. , .
AiritKill, Kotxtrt M 1«1!8), Kngr,, Managnj?
l»ii. «t»r tnalh. Comtntgnie Beige De; lueins
se, 4»7 Avenue Louise, Brua«el8r
Peachtree St., Atlanta, Ga.
MCCARTHY, John J. (A Man, Chief Eogr. (for
mail), Providence Public School Dept.. 20
Summer St., and 318 Academy Ave., Providence,
R I.
McCAULEY, James H. (U 1921), Pres. (for mail),
J. H. McCauley, Inc., 5558 West 65th St.,
Chicago, and 707 William St., River Forest, 111.
McCLAIN, Clifford H. (U 1937), Htg. Engr.,
Upper Darby Plumbing & Heating: Co., Inc.,
7127 Marshall Rd., and (for mail), 1600 Darby
Rd.. W. Brookline, Upper Darby, Pa.
Golf Kd.,
Nt;ivi»Ul.»n C<$ C*> »
St,, l'iiHutl«th»Iiia. and (for mail;,
{.nntflown*, *'»• . „
MAXWKU,, <;^ftc W. (M 1«J5; 5 «m . Kng
KeniMly «t Maxwell,, Main **« and <for mal
i». n. Itnx 41'2, Harwich Port, Mana.
MAXWKU,, RolMWt S. (Af MJ»7),
Hennelt * Wright. Ltd,, . W Oue -
(tor maUj. ftlK) WrUtr Hill Ave,, Toronto,
'tnuwii.
MAY <il*f4ince W. (if 1H33), CoiwulUnjr Engr.
tfw iwSnTaSth Tower, and m W, Hultaday,
Highland Park, 111.
McCLINTOCK, Alexander, Jr. (M 1928: J 1920},
Heatina Contractor (for mail), A, McClmtocks
S 1037 Se Ave., and 121 Rochelle Ave.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
McCLINTOCKt William (M 1935). Supervising
Engr.? Design Unit, Administrative Staff,
U S W. P. A?, 70 Columbua Ave., and (for mail),
643 East 232nd St., New York, N. Y,
McCLOUGHAN, Charles (A 1936; S 1934),
H Cottage St.', E., Norwalk, Conn., and (for
mail), 279 Ryerson St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
McCONACHIE, Lome L. (A 1928), Htg. and
Pibg., 1003 Maryland Ave., and (for mall),
1370 Maryland Ave., Detroit, Mich.
McCONNER, Charles R. (A 1925; / 1922), Gen.
Sales Mgr. (for mail), Clarage Fan Co., and 1904
Waite Ave., Kalamazoo, Mich.
McCORMACK, Denis (U 1933), Mgr., Air Cond.
Instruments and Controls Dept, (for mail),
S«rd&RS'nIfe40 •
McCOYf'c. E. (M 1936), Partner (for mail),
Turned-McCoy, 210 W. Second St., and 3922
S. Lookout Ave., Little Rock, Ark.
McCOY, T. F. (M 1924), Mgr. (for mail), Powers
Regulator Co,, 125 St. Botolph St., Boston, and
Glen Rd., Wellcsley Farms, Mass.
39
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
McCRAE, George W. (A 1936), Mcch. and Htg.
Engr., John McCrae Machine & Foundry Co..
and (for mail), 51 Bond St., Lindsay, Ont.(
McCREA, Joseph B. (M 1937), Owner, Heating
& Ventilating, 3039 Coplin Ave., Detroit, Mich.
McCREERY, Hugh J. (M 1922), Owner (for
mail), 335 Burrard St., and 1617-49th Ave., W.,
Vancouver, B, C.
McCRIMMON, A. Murray (A 1935), Asst. Secy,
and Controller (for mail), Hydro-Electric Power
Commission, C20 University Ave., Toronto i2,
Ont., and 83 Glen Rd.t Toronto, Ont., Canada.
McCULLOUGH, Henry G. (M 1930), Mgr.,
Commercial Dept., S. S. Fretz, Jr., Inc., 1902
Chestnut St., Philadelphia, and (for mail), 328
Glen Echo Rd., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
McCUNE, Byron V. Of 11)28), 2310 W. Yakima
Ave., and (for mail), 101 W. Yakima Ave.,
Yakima, Wash.
McDONALD, Anthony K. (A 1030), Sales Ensr.,
Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey, 201 Constitu-
tion Ave., N.W., and (for mail), 3035 Rodman
St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
McDONALD, Thomas (A 1931). M«r. (for mail),
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Ltd.,
117 Peter St., and 56 Kingsway, Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
McDONNELL, Everett N, (M 1923), Prcs. (for
mail), McDonnell & Miller, Wrigley Hldg., and
Drake Hotel, Chicago, 111.
McDONNELL, JohnE. (A 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), McDonnell & Miller, 400 N. Michigan
Ave,, Chicago, and 2421 Central Park, Evanston,
McDOWELL, Bert W. (J 1035), Scobcll &
Winston, 2027 State St., Erie, Pa.
McELGIN, John W.* (A 1937; / 1931), Limekiln
and Butler Pikes, Ambler, Pa.
McELHANEY, Gerald W. (J 1930), Air Cond,
Engr. (for mail), Ohio ICdison Co., Akron, and
1724 Tenth St,, Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio.
McEWAN, Eudene E. (M 1930), Sales Mgr., Air
Cond. Div. (for mail), Frigidnire Div., General
Motors Sales Corp., 224 West 57th St., New
York, and Seawane Club, Hewlett Harbor, L. I.,
N. Y.
McGAUGHEY, Harold M. (M 1937), Sales Mgr.,
Nash Kelvinator Corp., Plymouth Rd., and (for
mail), 300 Whitmorc Rd., Detroit, Mich.
McGAUGHEY, John E., Jr. (J 1935), Air Cond.
Engr. (for mail), Carrier Corp., 408 Chrysler
Bldg., New York, N. Y., and Hotel Wintield
Scott, Elizabeth, N, J.
McGEORGE, Richard H. (Af 1927), Mgr. Htg.
and Air Cond. Dept., McCord Radiator & Mfg.
Co., 2587 E. Grand Blvd., and (for mail), 14505
Glastonbury Rd.r Detroit, Mich.
McGONAGLE, Arthur (M 11)32), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), 1013 Fulton Bld«., Pittsburgh,
and 6815 Prospect Ave., Ben Avon, Pa.
McGRAIL, Thomas E. (M 1920), Local Rcpr.
(for mail), Canadian Slower & Forge Co.,
P. O. Box 555 Sta. B., Ottawa. Ont., and 3405
Belmore Ave., Montreal, P. Q., Canada.
McGUIGAN, L. A. (A 1919), Salesman, National
Radiator Corp., and (for mail), 724 Hastings
St., Pittsburgh, Pa,
McILVAINE, John H.* (M 1929), Vicc-Pres. and
Treas., Landwehr Heating Corp., Sixth and
Cuyuga Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.
McINTIRE, James F. (M 1915; A 1914), (2nd
Vice-Pres., 1937; Council, 1920-1928; 1932-1937),
Vice-Pres. (for mail), U. S. Radiator Corp.,
1056-44 Cadillac Square, P. C). Box 080, and 3201
Sherbourne Rd., Detroit. Mich.
McINTOSH, Fabian C. (M 1921; J 1917),
( Council, 1929-1931; 1933-1935), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), Johnson Service Co., 1238 Brighton
Rd., and 302 Marshall Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
McKEEMAN, Clyde A.* (M 193(1), Asst, Prof, of
Mech. Engrg. (for mail), Case School of Applied
Science, Cleveland, and 1359 Lynn Park Drive,
Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
McKIEVER, William It.* (Life Mfmber; M 1897;
J 1890). Pres. (fur mail), William H. McKicvcr,
Inc., 247 West 13th St., New York, and 479
Eighth St., Brooklyn, N. Y.
McKINLEY, Carroll B. (J IJKtf.; .V 1M4), Sales
Mgr. (for mail), General Refrigeration Corp., and
131)9 Kmcrson. Beloit, Wia.
McKINNBY, Carl A. (J 1937), Kngr,, United Gas
Corp., 1018 Rusk Bldi?., Houston, Texas.
McKlNNEY, William J. (.1 l»:tn, M«r.. Atlanta
Dist., American Blower Corp., 71(5-101 Marietta
St. Bldg,, Atlanta, Ga.
McKITRlCK, Walter D. (A/ IMt'.J. Httf.-Vts,
ICngr. (for mail), Mills, Rhinos, Hellnun &
Nordhoff, Inc., ">1H Jefferson Ave., uml HOBS
Gunckd Blvd., Toledo, Oliio.
McKlTTRlCK, Percy A. (A KW), TrraH.-Gon,
Msr. (for mail), Piirks-Ciamor Co., 970 Main
St., and 219 Blossom St., FitrUburK. Masa,
McLARKN, Fred S. (J IMf»), Air Cond. Sales
Kngr., KriKidoint Div., General Motors $alew
Corp., -W»« Toulouse St.. and (for mail), 905
Kern St., New Orleans, La.
McLARNKY, Harry W. (<U H»,'W), Air Coml.
Knur, (for mail), Union Kltctric Co. of Mitwouri,
,'ttf> North 12th Blvd., ami ;U)38 Bancroft Ave.,
St. LOIU'H, Mo.
MCLAUGHLIN, Joseph i>. (/i iww>; J 11*28),
Owner (for mail), Hraley & McUuKhlin, KM
Aborn St., and 4."> Roalyii Ave., Providence, K. I.
McLEAN, Dermia (M I»17)f Member of Firm
(for mail), Snydt* & McLean, SlttW Prm>b«cot
BU1«., and 12051 BirwtKxl Ave., Detroit, Mich.
McLKAN, James E. (M H»,W), f»a» Utahum Rd.F
PittBbiirgh. Pa.
McLKISH, William S. (A HKttS; J lt»SH), Dist.
Kn«r. (for mail), Ric-wiL Co., 1<H Park Ave.,
New York, and -UUMTth Ave., Lon« Island
City, N. Y.
McLENECJAN, David W.* (A/ IttlW). Ami. Kn«r.,
Air Cond. Dept. (for mail), General Klertrtc C'o.,
5 Lawrence St., ltl(x>mfukl(l» ami 7;t Arlington
Ave., c:nldwcll, N. j.
McLOUTII, Bruce F, (Al UW»; J ItKJJ), C^hicf
Kngr., Heater Div. (for mail), Dail Steel Products
Co,, 1C. Main St., Landing, and l.'l.r> Gum»m,
EuBt Lannin^, Mich.
McMAHON, Thoman W. (M 1«2H), Di»t. Mgr,
(for mail), American Blower C*oru.. 171 J Ruilway
Kxclmn«c Hldg., and «17» Waterman Blvd.,
St. Louto, Mo.
McMURRKR, Louis J. (At 1028; J Utttt), Prcjj.,
McMurrer Co., ;{();{ Congress St., Honttm, und
(for mail), 11)0 Harvard Circle, N«wtonviliet
.
McNAMARA, William (A 1U»0), M«r. (for mail),
Trune Co., 2004 University Ave., and UWfi Como
Ave., W., St. Paul, Minn,
McNEVIN, Joseph K. (At 1087), Vice-Pro*, (for
mail), Otforxe P. Braid, inc., 4)W) Cherokei? St.,
and 225 1£. Dukotu Ave.. Denver, Colo.
McPHERSON, William A. (M lOStt», Chief, IltR.
and Vt«. Div., Deijt. of School Hld««., 2«i Nrtrnuin
St., Boston, and (for mail), 8rt Dwintwll Ht,(
Wc«t Roxhury, Maw.
McQUAU), Daniel J, (M 1084 ), Owner (f«r mail),
D. J. McQuaid Kn«inf!erlng .Service* ai4 Cooper
Hldg., and 15fl5 Milwaukee St., Denver, Colo.
MEAD, Edward A* (M mu), As«t Sales Mgr.
(for mail). NTunh Engineering Co,, and 3 Tliamcs
St., Norwalk, Conn.
MEAKIN, John B, (/ 108$), Sale* Kngr,, Koxboro
Co., Koxboro, MUHS.
MEARS, I^JOn A. (A IWW; J IIKW), 71ii Alicr St.,
and (for mail), 000 Paramount Rd., Oakland,
Calif.
MKDOW, Jwlw (J 19117) . Dealgnlng Kn«r. (for
mail), Ilg Electric Vcntflutinn Co., 2fin() N.
Crawford Ave., and 147 S, Sprinitftcid Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
MEHL, Oacar H. (/ I0»3)» Kngr, (for mail),
Carrier Corp., 2022 Bryan St., and flOOU Colum-
bia Ave., DalluB, Texas.
MEHNE, <^rl A» (AX 1920), P. C). Box A, Bedford
HiUs, N, Y.
40
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
MKINHOLTK. Herbert W. (M 1030), Branch
M>ir. (for mail), York Ice Machinery Corn.,
<i(M.JS \V. Main St., and 114-th Northwest 2Gth
St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
MEINKK, Howard X;. (Af li>33). Div. Engr. (for
mail), Consolidated Kdison Co. of New York,
Inc., •{ Irviun I'laoo, New York, and 41 Harte St.,
Baldwin, L. I., X. Y.
MELLON, James T. J. (If 1011), Owner (for
maill, MHIon Co., 441.VJ1 Lucllow St., and 431
North tKtnl St., Philadelphia, Pa.
MKLONKY, Kdward J. (M 11)37), Vice-Prcs. and
SfS*y, (for maiU, UIIVMTH Broa. Co., 2015 Sansom
St., Philadelphia, and 100 E. Stewart Ave.,
I.»imd«»wnt\ Pa,
MKNDKN, Potw J. (Af UKW), vSecy., Thomas
ItaitinK <'*». l»u\, Witt Hcrtirk Avc., and (for
mail), l.TO Arthur Avti., Racine, Wis.
MKS.SINC;, Frederick O. (Af ItfcJO), (Treaa.,
I'.KlMlKttt), ComwUinK Kn«r.» Mousing & Co..
UH'tr* Kiankt'ort! Ave.. Philadelphia, Pa.
MRRCKK. (;h«rU»« F. (A/ UW7), Prof. Physics
(tor mail), l-mvwwty of South Carolina, Dept.
ot Phyj'icH, and UlU W. Wuocamuw, Columbia,
S. C.
MKRUC, Ant!r€ (A/ 11134), !>«*., Andr* Merle
A»MiH'iat<% hu\, Kngrg., Conn., 3752- 85th St.,
tarksmi HriKht*. L, 1., N. Y.
MKKR1U*, <fcrl* J. (A/ HUM, Troas, (for mail),
C. J. MrmlU Inc., M vSt, John St., and 15 Long-
fdluw St., Portland, Maim*.
MKRRILU Frank A. (A/ P.KM), Consulting Knur.
»•«• nuiti, (Win* of HolIiH French, 210 South St.,
Huston, and IU Auhurtulale Kd,, Marblehead,
M;m.
MKRT/., W. A,. i,U HUM, Secy, (for mail), Kchm
Kins. Co.. :»I K. (trand Ave., and »?r»U N. Kcclcr
Avr,, ChitMKo, 111.
MKRWIN* <ak» K. (\( lll'-Jl; J 10U3), Sccy.-Trcas.,
K«K-kiord Plumbmx Supply C'«M 7(H) S, Main St.,
and i lot mail), IT»3(i Myott Avc., ftockfnrd, UK
MKSSKNCiBR* Theodore L (A !«»«), Power
Kn«r. (tor muill, Kuifalo Niagara ifc Kaatern
P«»wt»r <'«>rp., H«7 Kh-ctric Bld«M and 203
Ihuhlatul Avi»., nuiiato, N. Y.
MKT<»M.FK, CUtrtin (A 11M7), Kn«r., Uousc Ht«.
I)<*l»t., I>r*tif»it City C»a« t*o.f and (for mail),
K.i7."» Uttmtwrtfm Rd., Uctrtnt. Midi,
MKT/(;F,R, u. J. <.i i«:*7), Supt, (for main,
WhrH^i-IUawy Co., and 700 Lcicunt St., Kala-
ma/on. Mil1 h,
Ml-.YKK. Chftrh-rt L. (A/ ttt»0)f Moch. and Sales
hn«r.. L, J, Wln« Mf«. (*<>., IM West 14 th St..
NVw Vork, *ind (tor mail), 8<W Palo Alto Ave,,
''
. , -.,
l«'uin;u>«*> <'o., and (for mail), 0 Cole
MKYKR. iTSiry (i, Jr.* ( Uft Member ;M 1H08),
ground!, P.M.Vltan;, PrM. (for mail), Meyer,
Mnmtf M; J.uw, Inc., lt)i Park Ave, New York,
K, \ ., and sr» IHKhland Avc*., Montclair, N. J.
MKYKR, Jowph, Jr. U 1037), Knur., Atinow-
S»hftic CftntrMl Co., 71U Mur<iuott« Hldg,, and
(f«*t mail), H17 Atkiimnn St., Detroit, Mich.
MKYKKS, John t ,W U»37), liruuch M«r. (for mail),
Jolitnon NTVM'P Ci>,, H«*nd Kldtf., 14th and New
V«»rk Av«., NAV.,mu! 821 Maryland Av«., N.K.,
), Kn«r«. Salon Dcpt,
tl»»r nuiili, Criims t.td., tK* Lombard St.. and
4«2 Wurhiw Avt»,t \Vinnir»f«, Man., Canada.
MWM,KTON. Diivid K. U W80). Bmnch M«.,
Jt»ttiKM»n Sotvt<c Co,, ami (for msdl), 1100 North-
,
*t ;txth St., okluJjomii city, Okla.
MU>I)I*KTON, Howard A, (A 1035). Sales Kn«r.
UM tnutli, hfiRUUire Uiv., (Jcnoral Motorn Sales
Corp,, 2»JU Mcciw St., and 400 K. Armour
Blvd., Kfinwts (%lty, Mo. t *,., ,
MIUKKK, J«M0h M, (A IttOT), Sulefc Midcke
Stmt»lv ('«•• lw» K. Wain, and (for mail), 2003
Northwst 13th St., Oklahoma City. Okla.
M!t£NKR, Kufteno IX CAT IWW.Sccy,,, Industrial
^ia« Section (for mail), Anwjrican Oa» Aaaocia-
Uon, 420 LexinKton Ave., Suitc/»f>«). New York,
and «7HI-83rd St., Jackwon Hw»htH, N. Y.
MILES, Clarence N. (A 1937), Foreman, Kohlen-
berger Engineering Corp., 805 S. Spadra Rd.,
and (for mail), Rte. 1, Box 174A, Fullerton, Calif.
MILLARD, Junius W. (M 1929), Dial Mgr. (for
mail), Carrier Corp., Statler Bldg., Boston, and
7 Tappan Rd., Wellesley, Mass.
MILLER, Bruce R. (M 1935; A 1930), Mech.
Engr., 1533 Northwest 25th St., Oklahoma City,
Okla.
MILLER, Charles A. (-4 1917), Salesman (for
mail), H. B. Smith Co., 10 East 41st St., and
2870 Marion Ave., New York, N. Y.
MILLER, Charles W. (M 1919; J 1908), Pres. (for
mail), Rado Co., 338 S. Second St., Milwaukee,
and R-l, Box 42, Menomonee Falls, Wis.
MILLER, Edgar R. (A 1935), Chief Engr. (for
mail), Winnipeg Cold Storage, Cor. Jarvis and
Salter and Ste. O, Bexley Court, Winnipeg,
Man., Canada.
MILLER, Floyd A. (M 1911), Asst. Dist. Engr.,
U. S. Treasury Dept., Public Bldgs. Branch, and
(for mail), 377 U. S. Court House, Chicago, 111.
MILLER, George F. (M 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), 1025 K St., N.W., Washington, D. C., and
209 Connecticut Ave., Kensington, Md.
MILLER, Glen (A 1937), Htg. and Vtg. Engr.
(for mail), Southern Counties Gas Co., 810f S.
Flower St., Los Angeles, and 685 Luton Drive,
Glendale, Calif.
MILLER, Jacob (M 1936), Pres. (for mail),
Universal Heating Co., Inc., 121 St. Marks
Place, New York, and' 435 East 92nd St., Brook-
lyn, N. Y.
MILLER, Jamea E. (M 1914; J 1912), Heating
Contractor, 2210 Colfax St., Evanston. 111.
MILLER, John F. G. (Af 1916), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), B. F, Sturtevant Co., Damon St., Hyde
Park, Boston, and 20 Chapel St., Brookline,
Mass.
MILLER, Leo B. (M 1920), Mgr., Refrigeration
and Air Cond. Div. (for mail), Minneapolis-
Honeywell Regulator Co., 2753 Fourth Ave., S.,
and 2725 Park Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
MILLER, Lester L. (/ 1937; S 1935), 623-14th
Ave., Minneapolis, and (for mail), 2127 Tenth
Ave., Hibbing, Minn.
MILLER, Prof. Lorin G.* (M 1933), Head, Dept.
of Mech. Engrg. (for mail), Michigan State
College, R. E. Olds Hall, and 525 Albert St.,
East Lansing, Mich.
MILLER, Merl W. (U 1932; A 1932; J 1926),
Plant Kngr., Trane Co., and (for mail), 333
North 23rd St., LaCrosse, Wis.
MILLER. Robert A.* (M 1931), Tech. Sales
Knar, (for mail), Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.,
2200 Grant Bldg., Pittsburgh, and 1211 Carlisle
St., Tarcntum, Pa.
MILLER, Robert E. (J 1935), Sales Engr. (for
mail), American Radiator Co,, 1344 Broadway,
and 18204 Birchcrest Drive, Detroit, Mich.
MILLER, Robert T. (A 1927), Chief Engr., Sales
Dept. (for mail), Masonite Corp., Ill W.
Washington St., Chicago, and Flossmoor, 111.
MILLER, Tolbert G. (A 1929; / 1021), Supt. and
Kngr., Herre Bros., Seventh and Emeralds St.,
Harrisburg, and (for mail), UN. Second St.,
Wormleysburg, Pa.
MILLIIAM, Franklyn B. (U 1937), Installation
Mgr.. S. S. Fretz, Jr., Inc., 1902 Chestnut St.,
and (for mail), 234 W. Walnut Lane, Phila-
MIL£IKEN?*J. H.* (M 1023), Dist. Rw. (for
mail), American Air Filter Co., Inc., 20 N.
Wacker Drive, Chicago, and 1021 Ridge Court,
MILUs!°Linn W. (Life Member 1934; ; M 1918),
Secy., Security Stove & Mfg. Co., 1630 Oakland,
and (for mail), 3534 Wabash Ave., Kansas City,
MILLS, Clarence A.* (M 193(1), Prof, of Experi-
mental Medicine, University of Cincinnati (for
mail), Cincinnati General Hospital, and 5040
Obcrlin Blvd., Cincinnati, Ohio.
MILLS, Hartzell C. (A 1935), Salesman, Minne-
apolis Gas Light Co., 800 Hennepin Ave., and (for
mail), 4137 Tenth Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
41
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
MILWARD, Robert K. (A 1920), Mgr. (for mail),
U. S. Radiator Corp., 127 Campbell Ave., and
2441 Calvert Ave., Detroit, Mich.
MITCHELL, Charles H. (M 1924), Engr., The
Fels Co., 42 Union St., Portland, and (for mail),
25 Everett Ave., S., Portland, Maine.
MITCHELL, John G* (J 1937; S 1936), Sales
Engr. (for mail), Fairbanks, Morse & Co., 220
E. Fifth St., St. Paul, and 704 Delaware St.,
S.E., Minneapolis, Minn.
MITTENDORFF, Edward M. (M 1932), Asst.
Engr., Sarco Co., Inc., 222 N. Bank Drive
Chicago, and (for mail), 956 Greenwood Ave.,
Winnetka, 111,
MODIANO, Rene (M 1925), Managing Dir.,
Carrier Continentale, 4, Rue d'Aguesseau, Paris
(8s) and (for mail), 65 Boulevard Beausejour,
Paris, (16s) France.
MOELLER, Robert (S 1935), 3250 East 119th St.,
Cleveland, Ohio.
MOFFAT, Ormond G. (A 1037), Sales Engr.
(Field Supervisor), Canadian Westinghouse Co.,
Ltd., Sanford Ave., N., and (for mail), 141
George St., Hamilton, Ont., Canada.
MOFFITT, Lloyd C. (J 1937), Installation Engr.
(for mail), Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., 19th and
Howard, and 1530 South 29th, Omaha. Nobr.
MOHN, H. Leroy (M 1937), Research Engr. (for
mail), Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., Inc., E. Tenth and
Mercer St., and 132J4 W. Fourth St., Oswego,
N. Y.
MOHRFELD, Herbert H. (J 1935), Air Cond.
Engr. (for mail), C. P. Mohrfeld, Inc., 24 Lees
Ave., Collingswood, and 131 Chestnut St.,
Haddonfield, NT. J.
MOLER, William H. (M 1927; J 1923), Vice-
Pres. (for mail), Kribs & Landaucr, 200 House-
man Bldg., Dallas, and Box 09A R. F. D. No. 1,
Irving, Texas.
MOLLENBERG, Harold J. (M 1936), Vice-Pres,,
Mollenberg-Betz Machinery Co., 22 Henry St.,
Buffalo, and (for mail), 172 Wcstgatc Rd.,
Kenmore, N. Y.
MOLONEY, Roger R. (M 1937), 20 Bonner Ave.,
Manley, Sydney, Australia.
MONICK, Fred R. (A 1930), Mgr. (for mail),
Cochran Sargent Co., and 1114 S. Sixth Ave.,
Sioux Falls, S. D.
MONIER, Kurt A. J. (J 1937; S 1935), Secy,-
Treas., A. J. Monier & Co., Inc. (for mail),
1446 N. Flores, and 515 W. Ridgcwood Ct.,
San Antonio, Texas.
MONTGOMERY, John R. (A 1937), Mgr.,
Standards and Research (for mail), Truacon
Steel Co., Albert St., and 21)0 Granada Ave.,
Youngstown, Ohio.
MONTGOMERY, Ora C. (M 1933), Aaat. Supt.
of Power (for mail). New York Central Railroad,
Grand Central Terminal, Room 1842, 70 East
45th St., and 255 West 84th St., New York, N. Y.
MOODY, Lawrence E. (M 1919), Member of
Firm (for mail), Moody & Hutchison, 1701
Architects Bldg., 17th and Sansom Sts., Phila-
delphia, Pa.f and 237 Jefferson Ave., Haddon-
field, N. J.
MOON, Frank L. (A 1935), Utilization Engr., Los
Angeles Gas & Electric Corp., 810 S, Flower St.,
Los Angeles, and (for mail), 1204 Ruberta Ave.,
Glendale, Calif.
MOON, L. Walter (M 1915), Pres. (for mail),
Bradley Heating Co., 3834 Olive St., and 500(i
N. Kingshighway, St. Louis, Mo.
MOORE, Bill J., Jr. (J 1037), Pres., U. S. Air
Conditioning Sales Corp., 1701 Grand Ave., and
(for mail), 1305 Valentine Rd., Kansas City, Mo.
MOORE, Don R. (S 1930), 402 W. Penn St.,
Hoopeston, 111.
MOORE, H. Carlton* (M 1936), Asst, Prof.
Mech. Engrg. (for mail), Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, Mech, Engrg. Dept., Cam-
bridge, and 145 Beaumont Ave., Newtonville,
Mass.
MOORE, H. Leo (M 1919), (Council, 1027-1028),
Repr. (for mail), Buffalo Forge Co., 431 iMilton
Bldg., Pittsburgh, and Flaccus Rd,, Ben Avon,
MUOKU, tienry W. (Af 1035), Mgr., Air Cond.
Encrg. Dept., The Bimel Co., 3(W Walnut St.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, and (for mail), 810 Greenland
Drive, Murfeesboro, Tenn.
MOORE, Herbert S. (A 1023), Dist. Repr., Iron
Fireman Mfg. Co. of Canada, Ltd., GO;: King bt.,
W., and (for mail), 107 Clendenan Ave., Toronto,
Ont., Canada.
MOORE, R. Edwin (A 10128), Vice-Proa., Bell &
Gossett Co., 3000 Wallace St., Chicago, and (for
mail), 42,r> Merrill Ave., Park Kidfgc, III.
MOORE, Wesley R. (A/ IW37), Branch M«r.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 41501
Prospect Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
MOREHOUSE, H. Preston (<W 1933), Gon. Air
Cond. Repr. (for mail), Public Service Electric
& Gas Co., 80 Park Place, Newark, and 85
Halsted St., East Orange, N. J.
MORGAN, Glenn C. (Af 1011), Partner (for
mail), Morgan-Gerrish Co., 307 Eaaex Bldg., 84
S. Tenth St., and 4308 Fremont Ave,r S.. Minne-
apolis, Minn.
MORGAN, Robert C. (Af 1015), Pros,, Stewart
A. Jellett Co., 1200 Locust St., and (for mail),
314 W. Seymour St., Philadelphia, Pa,
MORIARTY, John M. (M 1037), Owner (for
mail), Consolidated Heating & Ventilating Co..
1700 W. Eighth St., and 2M5 Burnslde Ave.,
Los Angeles, Calif.
MORRIS, Arnold M. (J 103-0, Sheet Metal
Worker, Philadelphia Navy Yard, Sh«»t Metal
Shop Bldg.. No. 17, and (for mail), 3022 lialtz
St., Philadelphia, Pa.
MORRIS, Fred II. (A 1029), 14704 Struthraore
Ave., Kast Cleveland, Ohio,
MORRIS, John A. (J 1030), Utg, Dept., Jame*
Robertson Co,, Ltd., 1140 William St., and (for
mail), 4134 Marlowe Ave., Montreal, Que,*
Canada.
MORRISON, Chester B. <M 1031), Mgr. (for
mail), York Shipley, Inc., 81 Jlnkc* Kd., and 347
Route Cohen, Shanghai, China.
MORSE, Clark T. hx 1913), Prca. (for mail),
American Blower Corp,, MKX) Rutwell St., and
8120 E. Jcffertwn Kd., Detroit, Mich.
MORSE, Floyd W. (/I 1031), Awit. Ccn. titties
Mgr. (for mail), Chamberlin Metal Weather
Strip Co., 52 VanderbUt Ave., New York, and
132 Villa St., Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
MORSE, Louis S., Jr. (,t 1U3H; J 11)30), Air
Cond. Sales Knur, (far mail), We-Hterlin & Camp-
bell Co., 5024 Second Blvd., and 1V480 Canter-
bury Rd,, Detroit, Mich.
MORSK, Robert I). (A/ liWJ), Brunch M«r. (for
mail), American Blower Corp.. l.ltti Hrnt Ave.,
y., and -1310 Kast 43rd St., Seattle, Wa»h.
MORTON, <:harlen IL (/I 1031), Sales R«pr,,
Warrftn Wcb»ter & Co., JWH Ottawa Ave,, N.W.,
and (for mail), 1100 Sherman St., S.K., Grand
Rapida, Mich,
MORTON, Harold S. (M li)3l), Sales Knur.,
Sutherland Air Conditioning Corp,, »8# Mln-
neacita St., St. Paul, and (for mail), 4330 Wood-
dale Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
MOSES, Walter B., Jr. (,S 103«), Student, Tulane
Univcraity (for mail), 4ai?> S. Peters SL, and l^ltt
Dufossat St., New Grlean*, La.
MOSHKR, Clarence H. (A 1019), C. H, Mo»her
Co., 423 Ashland Ave., Buffalo, N, Y.
MOSS, Edward (M 11)20), HtK- and Vt#. KnKr.
(for mail), New York Rapid Transit Corp,, 385
Ftatbuflh Ave, Extension, Brooklyn, tittd 0053-
204th St., Ilollis, L. I., N, Y.
MOTZ, O. Wayn«j (M 1032), Corusulting Em
234 Paramount BIdff.. Cincinnati, and (for
2524 Mound view Drive, Norwood, Ohio.
MOULD, Delrnar E. (JkT 1W), Mgr. (for mail).
J. W, Mould & Son, 10708 Ja«u«r Ave,» and
10M8 -128th St., Edmonton, Alb., Canada-
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
MOULDER, Albert W.* (Af 1017), Vice-Pres. (for
mailK Grinnell Co., Inc., 200 W. Exchange St
Providence, and W. Harrington, Providence,
MUELLER, Harold C. (At 1930; A 1930), Sales
Knur, (for mail), Powers Regulator Co., 2720
Gnnmvtaw Ave., Chicago, and 27120 Lawndale
Avc., Kvanston, IK.
MUKLLKR, Harold P. (Jl/ 193(>), Pres. (for mail),
L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., 201)5 W. Oklahoma
Avo., ami 471! I N. Larkin St., Milwaukee, Wis.
MUELLER, John E. (M 1»»7). Mgr. of Com-
merciul Sales (for mail), West Penn Power Co.,
M Wood St., and 3335 Portola St., N.S., Pitts-
burgh, Pa,
MMKIIKU), John G. (J 11)37), Sales Engr.,
i\W-\ViHUvuison, Inc., 423 S, Church St., and
(for iii.iil). 2311 Hopedale Avr., Charlotte, N. C.
MIUXKN, Thomas J., Jr. (7 1035), Sales Engr.,
it. K. Sturtttviint Co., Hyde Park, Boston, Mass.
Ml!LLOY, Kilward (,l 1037), Kn«r. (for mail),
The Trawlers Indemnity Co,, 010 Chamber of
Hldg., and 550 Parker Ave., India-
MUNIttR, Leon L. (Af 1910; J 1915), Pres.-Treas.
(for main, Wolff & Munier, Inc., 222 East 41st
St., Nh'w York, and 68 Columbia Ave., Hartsdale,
MUNN', K. Fitz (Af 1«), DoalKnlna (for mail),
Over & Munn. WXJ McArthur Hldg., and 65
Ht»rrydalo Avt»M Winnipeg, Mun,, Canada.
MUNRO, Ftlward A. (CYw/rr Mtmbrr; Life
.UrmArri, Htu.-VtK. Knur., 3-M Northwest 37th
St., Miami. Fki.
MUNRO, Georfte A. (Af 11137), Member of Firm
unti On. M«r,, Hugh K, Mnrno & Sims, 2404 N.
Miiwlwr St., and (for mail), 178 W. Godfrey
Av<»M Philadelphia, l*u.
MUNSON, Jam™ L. W 1085), Vicc-Prcs. in
Cluw Knurtf., (for muil), Blulitc Corp., 1000
CHmon St., Hoboken, N. J., and 15 Parkwold
Drivo. W., Valley Stream, N. V.
MURDOCH, John P., Jr. (.If Ifl:t7), Pres., John
l» Munich Ct>. (for mail), ,'iOth and Oakford
^ St'».. and ;»44Ja (Vtlar Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
MURNIN. Kdward A., Jr. (.-I 1M7). Dept.
Htw<i, Sarct) Mfj-t. ('o., und (for mail), 802
Hrtudw;iy. lU'thU'hcm, Pa,
MUKI'HkKB, Robert L. (J Km}, Mech. Kngr.
(fur m.tilt, I'iirm Security AdmintHtmtion,
Tntwivillf. and 15CHI North ^l«t Place, Birming-
ham, Ala,
MURPHY, Charles G. (A 1M«; kS 1084). Con-
struct i«tn tingr., Krich Kadi«co, Inc., 422 Elixa-
brth Av«»., Newark, and (for mail), 280 Myrtle
Av<*.» hvin«t«»n, N, J,
MtrHPHY, Edward T.* tt( HJt.'i), Vice-Prcs. (for
mull). Carrier Corp., M^rrhandiHC Mart, and
2,'tO K, Udawam Plwe, Chiaitco, 111.
MURPHY, Howard <:.* (At 1U2I1), Vico-Prep. (for
nmil), American Air Kilter (*o., Inc., 215 Ontral
Av<»., and 4!>f> I.i«l»tf<x»t Kd., Louiaville, Ky.
MURPHY, J<weph R, (Af l»JW; A H>25), Vice-
I'rca, (for mail), Tuco H«vter«, Inc., IW2 Madison
Avf.» Ni*w York, N. Y., and The Terrace,
Kivcrnidtf, Conn,
MURPHY, William A, (M 1025), Gen. Sales
Mar., Wutts Regulator Co., 417 W. Ohio St., and
(for mail), H2M N. Richmond Ave., Chicago, 111.
MtfRPHY, WtlHam W. (Af 1980), Tr<sw. (for
muil), W. W. Murphy Co., 424 Worthington St.,
und &r> Miinsficld St., Springfield. Maaa.
MURRAY, Hayward (L S. (/ MW, Sales Engr.
(for tiuiil), Canadian ("omatock (-'o., Ltd.,
RtfriKomtion tincl Air Cond. Div., 1100 New
Wrlcs HMK., and Apt. G, 8727 De L'Oratoir«,
Moutrc'.'il( Otic,, Canudu.
MURRAY, John J. (A 103.'0» Salesman- Vice-
l*re«., Piww Perry Co,, 230 Congress St., Boston,
and (for muil), (K) Commonwealth Park West,
Newton Ontrft, Mass.
MURRAY, Thoma» F. (M 1028), State Arch.,
ami (for mail), 14 S, Lake Ave., Albany, N. Y.
MUSGRAVE, Morrill N. (A 193/i), Pree. (for
mail), HurrUon Sales Co., 814 Ninth Ave., N.,
and lOO.'S K. Roy Stf Seattle. Wash.
MYERS, Frank L. (M 1933), Sales Engr., Owens-
Illinois Glass Co., Ohio Bldg., and (for mail), 22
Proctor Place, Toledo, Ohio.
MYERS, George W. F. (M 1930; A 1928; J 1923),
Pres., Myers Engineering Equipment Co., 3736
W. Pine Blvd., St. Louis, and (for mail), 476
Pasadena Ave,, Webster Groves, Mo.
MYLER, William M., Jr. (M 1937), Mgr.,
Space Htg. Eng. Dept. (for mail), Surface Com-
bustion Corp., 400 Dublin Ave., and 1120
Northwest Blvd., Columbus, Ohio.
MYTINGER, Kenneth L. (M 1936), Mgr., Air
Cond. Div. (for mail), Fitzgibbons Boiler Co.,
101 Park Ave., New York, N. Y., and 119 E.
Bergen Place, Red Bank, N. J.
N
NAROWETZ, Louis L,, Jr. (M 1929; A 1912),
Secy, (for mail), Narowetz Heating & Venti-
lating Co., 1711-17 Maypole Ave., Chicago, and
112 Park Ave., Park Ridge, 111.
NASS, Arthur F. (Af 1927), Vice-Pres. and Treas.
(for mail), McGinness, Smith & McGinness Co.,
527 First Ave., Pittsburgh, and Elmhurst Rd.,
R. D. No. 8, Crafton P. O., Pittsburgh, Pa.
NATKIN, Benjamin* (M 1909; J 1907), Pres.
(for mail), Natkin & Co., 1800 Baltimore Ave.,
and f>211 RockhiH Rd., Kansas City, Mo.
NEALE, Laurence I. (A 1927), 125 East 57th St.,
New York, N. Y.
NEE, Raymond M. (M 1930), Head of Engrg.
and Utilization Div. (for mail), Boston Edison
Co., 39 Boylston St., Boston, and 10 Orkney
Rd., Brooklme, Mass.
NEILER, Samuel G. (Life Member; M 1898),
Senior Member (for mail), Neiler, Rich & Co.,
Consulting Engrs., 431 S. Dearborn St., Chicago,
and 737 N. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, 111.
NEIS, Willard A. (S 1935), 5538 Forbes St.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
NELSON, Arnold W. (/ 1936), Salesman, Ameri-
can Radiator Co., 1 Manor St., and (for mail),
11 S. Lake Ave., Albany, N. Y.
NELSON, Arthur W. (A 1936), Mgr., Brockton
Oil Heat, Inc., 27 Legion Parkway, Brockton,
and (for mail), 12 Sylvan Rd., Sharon, Mass.
NELSON, Chester L. (A 1937; J 1929), Air
Cond. Kngr., Sears & Piou, 814 S. Vandeventer,
St. Louis, and (for mail), 1731 Princeton Place,
Richmond Heights, St. Louis County, Mo.
NELSON, I). W.* (M 1928), Asst, Prof, of Steam
and Gas Kngrg. (for mail). University of Wis-
connin, Mcch. Engrg. Bldg., and 3006 Council
Croat, Madison, Wis.
NELSON, Edwin L. (A 1936), Engrg. Dept. (for
mail), Union Ice Co., 1315 E. Seventh St., and
4818 Victoria Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
NELSON, Georfto O. (M 1923), Engr., Carstens
Bros,, Ackley, Iowa.
NELSON, Harold M. (M 1937), Pres. (for mail),
H. M. Nelson & Co., Inc., 1223 Connecticut
Ave., and Rear 2208 Que St., N.W., Washington,
D. C.
NELSON, Herman W. (M 1909), Pres., Herman
Nelson Corp., 1824 Third Ave., and (for mail),
2800-llth St., Moline, 111.
NELSON, Richard II. (A 1033; / 1928), Secy.-
Treaa., Herman Nclaon Corp., 1824 Third Ave.,
and (for mail), 1303-30th St., Moline, 111.
NESBITT, Albert J.* (M 1921; J 1921), Secy.-
Treaa. (for mail), John J. Nesbitt, Inc., State
Rd. and Rhawn St., Philadelphia, and Rockfield
Farm, Ambler, Pa.
NESBITT, Johtt J. (M 1923), John J. Nesbitt,
Inc., State Rd. and Rhawn St., Philadelphia, Pa.
NRSMITH, Oliver E. (A 1928). Htg. Engr.,
Williams Oil-0-Matic Heating Corp., and (for
mail), 107 Warner Ave., Bloomington, 111.
NESS, William H. C. (M 1931), Gen. Mgr. (for
mail), Master Fan Corp., 1323 Channing St., and
215 N. Kingsley Drive, Los Angeles, Calif.
NESSFXL, Clarence W. <M 1937), Field Applica-
tion Kngr., Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 1024 Third National Bldg., Dayton, Ohio. *
43
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
NESSI, Andr6 (M 1930), Ingr. des Arts et Mfrs.,
Expert pres le Tribunal Civil de la Seine (for
mail), 1 Ave. du President Wilson, Paris, XVI,
France.
NEST, Richard E. (M 1936), Oil Burner Div.,
Anchor Post Fence Co.. Baltimore, Md., and (for
mail). 725 Taylor St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
NEU, Henri J. E. (M 1933), Pres., Etablissements
Neu, 47-49, Rue Fourier, Lille (Nord), France.
NEWOOMBf Lionel B. (A 11)30; J 1933), Junior
Engr., Philadelphia Electric Co., and (for mail),
U05t> Walton Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
NEWPORT, Charles F.* (M 1900), Sales Engr.,
Weil-McLain Co., Michigan City, Ind., and (for
mail), 10001 Longwood Drive, Chicago, 111.
NICELY, John E. (A 1925), Salesman, American
Kadiator Co., and (for mail), 1208 Marion St.,
Reading, Pa.
NICHOLLS, Percy* (AT 1920), Supervising Engr.,
Fuel Section, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh,
NICKLE, Arthur J. (A 1030), Sales Rn»r. (for
mail), Darling Brothers, Ltd., 140 Prince St., and
4350 Marcil Ave., Montreal, Que., Canada.
NIESSE, Joe H. (Af 1937), Dist. Mgr. (for mail),
llg Electric Ventilating Co., 83(> Archts. and
Bldrs. Bldg., and 0837 Winthrop Ave., Indian-
E, George F. (A 1931), Western
Sales Mgr. (for mail), Tuttle & Bailey, Inc., 01
W. Kinzie St., Chicago, and 021 S, Maple Ave.,
Oak Park, 111.
NOBBS, Walter W. (M 1919), Consulting Knwr.,
20 Victoria St., London, S.W.I, and (for mail),
SO Fairhazel Gardens, London, N.W.O, England.
NOBIS, Harry M. (M. 11)14), 1827 Stanwood Rd.,
East Cleveland, Ohio.
NOBLE, James P. (A 1937), Dist. Repr., Refri-
geration Equipment Co., 32 E. First St., and (for
mail), 229 Delaware Ave., Dayton, Ohio.
NOLL, William F. (M 1924), IIt«, and Vtg.
Contractor (for mail), 029 North 27tli St., and
28GO North 47th St., Milwaukee, Win.
NORDINE, Louis P. (W 1914), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Trane Co., 734 Jackson Place, N.W.,
Washington, D. C., and 812 Silver Springs Ave.,
Silver Springs, Md.
NORMAN, Roy A. (M 1937), Prof. Mech. Kngnu
Iowa State College, and (for mail), 71f> Kidtte-
wood Ave., Amea, Iowa.
NORTHON, Louis (M 1929), Consulting Engr.,
132 Park Ave., Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
NOTTBERG, Gustav (A 1933), Secy.-Treas, (for
mail), U. S. Engineering Co., 914 Campbell St.,
and 1835 East 08th St., Terrace, Kansas City,
Mo.
NOTTBERG, Henry (M 1919), Pres. (for mail),
U. S. Engineering Co., 914 Campbell St., and
150 West 54th St., Kansas City, Mo.
NOTTBERG, Henry, Jr. (J 1937), l£n«r. (for
mail), U. S. Engineering Co., 914 Campbell St.,
and 150 West 54th St., Kansas City, Mo,
NOVOTNEY, Thomas A. (M 19ii8), Gen. Mgr,,
Convector Sales, National Radiator Corp., and
(for mail), 403 Wayne St., Johnstown, Pa.
NOW1TZKY, Herman S. (A 1931), Supt.,
Construction, Maintenance and Repairs, Wilmer
& Vincent Corp. (Theatrical Chain), 1770 liroad-
way, New York, N. Y,. and (for mail), 151
Tenth St., Norfolk, Va.
NUSBAUM, Lee* (M 1915), Owner (for mail),
Pennsylvania Engineering Co., 1119-iil N.
Howard St., and 315 Carpenter Lane, German-
town, Philadelphia, Pa.
NYE, L. Bert, Jr. (J 1930), Htg. Engr., Washing-
ton Gas Light Co., 411 Tenth St., N.W., Wash-
ington, D. C., and (for mail), 309 Piedmont St.,
Arlington, Va.
OAKLEY, LeRoy W. (M 1937), Htg. Engr. (for
mail), Plumbing & Heating Sales Co,, 408 W.
Clinch Ave., and 175 Island Home Blvd.,
Knoxville, Tenn.
OAKS, Orion O. (A/1 1917} , Executive Kngr.,
American Radiator Co., 40 West -4()th St., New
York, N. Y., and (for mail), 119 Oakridjje Ave.,
Summit, N. J.
OATRS, Walter A. (A/ 1931), Htjj. ami Industrial
Engr., Lynn Gas & Klwtrie Co., IK) Kxdumge
St., Lynn, and (t'ur main, 2tW> Humphrey St.,
Swamnscott, Mass.
O'BANNON, Lester S.* (A/ 10281, Prof, oi H«-,it-
Power Kngrj!., HiMtl-Dopt. of Moeh. KIIKTO. q'or
muil), University of Kentucky, uncl 123 Suite St.,
Lexington, ICy.
OBKKG, Harry C. (.1 1933), M^r. KnwR. Di'pt.,
Crune Co. of Minnesota, Kifth and Broadway,
and (for mail), 1»OB W. Mimwhaha St., St. Paul,
Minn.
OBKRT, C<a«in W,* (M Hllii>, (NmnultinK HuKr.,
Union Carbide Kc Carbon Riwurch I. Jib., 30 Ka»t
42nd St., New York, and if or iWiiil), 122 N.
Columbus Av<\, Mt. Vornon, N. Y.
O'BRIKN, Walter N. (.1 1113,")), Sfcy.-TioaB. (for
mail), O'Brien Equipment Co., 272(1 Locust St.,
and 2221 Thurmun Aw,, St. Louia, Mo.
OTCONNELL, PreeUy M. (.U l»I«), 0720 «li»th
Ave., N.IC.. Seattle, Wunlu
O'CONNOR, Georftc P. (A Hl«7). Pa«. Coast
Div. M«r. (for mail), The Ric-wiL Co., No. -117
Call Hld«., and tH2 MunKcla Ave., Sun Kran-
ciaco, Calit,
OFKKN, Ben (A/ 1028^ Owner (f<»r mail), B, Off en
& Co., 008 S. Dearborn St,. and :>()2 W. Hriar
Place, Chicago, 111.
OFFNER, Alfred J.* (A/ 1U22), (National Tmi«.,
UWr>-lM7; Council, lttiJ.VHW7i, l*»nmiltin«
Kn«r. (for mail), I'M East r»:ir<l St., Now York,
and 1(>()-15 IHh Avi«M lUwtihuwt. L, I.f N. Y.
O'KLMIKKTY, John <;. (U H»»7», i*hi«'f Kn«r.,
tlnifm Tube Co., York St., ant] (f«>r mail), 21K)
Central Avo., London, Ont., Canada.
OGARI), Norris L. (J IM7; .S ItKW), Salw Knur,,
Minneapolis-Honey well kntultttur Co.. 2727-^'i
Kourtlt Ave., S., and (tor imiil), 7U1 Wanhington
Ave., S.K., Minneuptilidf Minn,
O*GORMAN, John «*, Jr. (A l«:ti)t Mgr. (for
mail), JohriHon Service (*o., 427 Bniinard St.»
Detroit, and 147 Abbey Rd., Binninnham, Mich.
OKE, William C. (A 1MK; J HW)f Air t:oml.
KiiKr. (for mail), Wwithftrmtkkcni (i'anada),
Ltd,, 5U» Adelaide St., W., and 110 Oriole
Parkway, Ai>t. 101, Tonmto, Ont., Cstruuht.
OLD» William H. (.U UM7), A*ht. M«r. (t«»r null),
Glanis ift Killian Co., 1701 W, Korest Ave., and
;M72 Courvilli* Avv., Detroit, Mich,
OLDKS, Willard E. (J W.Wt Piping an<t Incfnora-
tor DcBigner, Standard Of! Co., Klijulwth, N. J,
and (for mail), 010 VVcat 2(>Uh St., Nrw York,
N. Y.
OLSEN, <Jarlton F. (A HMnJ IttlKJI, <'omhUHtU>n
Kngr., Rewanec Boiler C«»ri>., 18.f>« S. Wajturn
Ave., and (for mail;, 7:U 1 Stewart Avt?., Chicago,
OLSEN, (5u«tav K. (.U HWO), Vic«-Pnr«., l-'iU-
Kibbon« Boiler Co., Inc., 101 I*ark Ave., N'^w
York, and (for mail), tlK-Oi) AXIMK*! Wvd.»
Arv<'rn<>, L. Lf N. Y.
OLSON, Barney (A li»2t». Mfr«. R«-pr. (for muil),
122 S, Michigan Ave., und 072-1 N. N.it^nui Ave.,
Chicago, HI.
OLSON, (Albert E* (At WJO), Partner (for mail),
General Air (Conditioning Co,, 101^ H. Dcmite,
and 2235 S. Oliver, Wichita, Kun.
OLSON, Milton J. (/ 1««7>, Vic«-l'«»*t., Olaon
Bros., 2012 Lcavenvwrtii St., nnd (for mail).
5027 William* St., Omaha, Ncbr.
OLSON, Robert G. (M l\m>, KaMtfrn Mgr, (for
mail). Hydraulic CoupUiiK Div.. Am^ritsin
Blower Corp., 60 Went 4(tt,h St,+ tuul ^ Kant IWith
St., New York, N. Y»
OLVANY, WHltem J* (M H»12), i'rea, (for mail),
Wm. J. c;lvany» Inc., 100 <:hurlc» St., New York,
and H)U-40-7l8t Rd., Korent Hills, N. Y,
O'NEILL, Jame* W. (M li»2f»; A HI27; 7 l»af>),
Chief ICngr., Trane Co. of Canada, Ltd., 4
Mowat Ave., and (for mail),, 8 Springmount
Ave., Toronto, Ont., Canada*
44
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
DONK, William J. (A/ UK"), Dial. Mur., B. F.
Sturtvvant Co., l»l."> Olive St., and (for mail).
4518 Kwlhmi Ave., St. Louis, Mo.
OPPKRMAN, Everett F. (J 1935; 5 1933),
Kstimutitr, Kmleiick Oppennan, Railroad Ave.,
ttiul tfitr nmili, l(tt» Milbank Ave., Greenwich,
ORKAR, Andrew <i. (A/ lt»:«n, Sales Kngr. ami
Pr^s. <tor mail). Trade-Wind Mutorfans, Inc.,
i:w:» Maple Ave,, and 1015 K. Raleigh St.,
C,l<»ntl.ile. Calif.
(VRRA.R, Luwrence R. (,U 1UJM), Pre.s. (for mail),
MuKvest I'lumbmtf & HcatinK Co., 3-150 Blake
St., and IHWH West 37th Ave., Denver, Colo.
O'RCWRKK, Hufth !>., Jr. (J HW7; .S HKW), Sales
Knur,, Tr.me Co., I.aCrosse, Wis., and (for mail),
LWM K. I-ayi'tte St.. Synirime, N. V.
ORR, <Sw»rft«» M. (A/ 1!KM), Pit*, (for mail),
<l. M. Oir & Co., Consulting Knurs., 5412 Baker
Attwii* Hltlx,, and lili'JJi Kmerwm Ave., N,,
MinneapnltH, Minn.
ORU, talfthton (A/ 1M7), Research Kngr.,
Pitt*ibur>*.H Plate (Hans Co,, Research Labora-
tmy, Crt'mhton, ami (for mail), 1110 Cambridge
St., Tarentum. Pa.
OftI)KK<»KR, Thomas L. (A UW7), MRT. (for
mail i. Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co., 90 Market
St., S.W., and U1H Orchard Drive, Grand Rapids,
MU-h.
O&BOKN, Wallace J» (/I 1027), Vice-Proa.,
KeHiey Pultlishixw Co., (taind Central Term.
UUlit., New York. N Y., and (for mail), 59U Old
Post Rd.. Kairlirid, Conn.
OJ&OKNK, <;ur«lon H. (A/ 1022), Gen. M«r.,
VentiUttiW! K Blow Pipe Co., Ltd., 714 St.
Maiiriw St., Montreal, and (for mail), Klill Pratt
Av«f., Out»emont, Montreal. P. C>-» Canada,
OSBORNK, Maurice M. (A/ 1025), 807 Kwicon
St.. 1tcK(i»n. MaH»,
OSYROM, Kric W. (A/ 1H»7), Kn«r.. Svenwka
Makll'ahriken Kun«HK*«»tan H, and (for mail),
John Krit'mtmHKtitan IK, Stockholm, Sweden.
OTIS. <;crahl I«»* (A/ 1022), Vice-Pres. (lor mail),
Herm.m Nelson Corn,, «nd lOlil -liJird Ave..
Mnlinr, 111.
<VIT, <>mn W. (M 10jff»), (Council, 10:M-1<W»),
Conmiltinn M« h, Kn«r. (for mail), <»0« Wa«h-
it»Kt,rm B|«IK.» and Hill S, V'irnil Ave., Ltm AnKeles,
OltRt\HC>FK% I*. S.* (,U lli:U), I')n«r. of Utili/ation
<lt»r mad), VV,»;ihin«ton C»afl I,i«ht Co , 411
Tenth Sf,., NAV.. \Va«hinKton» D. C. and 21
<'wl,ir Parkwav. Chevy Cha«e, Md.
CWWKNKKI., WUUwm A. (A/ 1UH7), Chief KnKr.,
Stawlurd DtHtiibutiiiK <'<«"P.. ^('" ^ Wells St.,
Milwaukee, and (for mail), 801 Marahall Ave.,
South Milwankee, \VJn.
OVKKTON* Sidney H. (A/ 1U2H), Rtw., N. V.
Kattiatoren. Am«t»'rdum, !!fillundf nnd (for mail),
P. < ). llox ftilKfi JttkmnnPttburM, Soutii Afrfai.
<>WKN» J^fl Dnvlft (A/ 1U«7), 4070 KuHt Blvd.,
Culver <'ity, C«»tf.
PABKT* <:h«rlc« «. (Jlf li»M>» Prea. und Mgr.,
Pahst Air Conditioning Corp., ftfi We.Rt 42nd St.,
Ni«w York, uitf! (fr>r mail), 8727-iWth St., Wood-
PAKTO,' Herbert K. ( W 1022). Div, Stilt* M«r. (for
ttiuilK Am«*rl«in Blower C'orp., O.S2 Msher Kldj?.,
ami The Wardell, Detroit, Mich.
|»A<;K. Arvln (A/ i»«5), AKflt. Chief Knar, (for
mail), lialiiwm Co., 1001 S. Marwhall St., and
WM) Aitwr Ud., Whmton-Sjilem, N. C.
!>AC;fc, Harry W. (A/ 11W3), Pwy, (f»r mail),
Wlftronttin K<iuij>ment Co., 018 N. Fourth St.,
Milwaukee, and 7027 Warren Avc., Wauwatosa,
PAXJK. Vwnott O. (A li)«p)r Director of Snlw,
ati^ Heating K: Coollnj: Systems, 2101 N.
'f? St., and (for mail), r>(UO Grcenspring
). Mfr,.
A«ci»t, Hoffman Spo«iulty Co., and (for mail),
7IW1 Hro{>klyn St.. Kannas City, Mo.
PALMASON, John H. (J 1937), Engr. in Plant
Rngrg. Dept., McKinnon Industries, Ontario
St., and (for mail, 163 Ontario St., St. Catharines,
Ont., Canada.
PALMER, Robert T, (A 1935), Patent Lawyer
(for mail), 80 Federal St., Boston, and 15 N.
Pleasant St., Sharon, Mass.
PAQUET, Jean-Marie (/ 1936), Engr., J. A. Y.
Bouchard, Ltd., 9 Buade St., and (for mail),
62, De Salaberry, Quebec, Canada.
PARK, Clifton D. (M 1929), 07 Woodlawn Ave.,
Nccdham, Mass.
PARK, Harold E. (A 1938; J 193G), Salesman,
Shaw-Perkins Mfg. Co., and (for mail), 31 Vilsack
St., Etna, Pa.
PARK, J. Frank (M 1937; A 1936; J 1930), Sales
Engr. (for mail), Western Air & Refrigeration,
Inc., 1234 S. Grand, and 726 N. Occidental, Los
Anjjelcs, Calif.
PARK, Nicholas W. (M 1936), Htg. Engr.,
Philadelphia Saving Fund Society (Real Estate
Dept.), 12 South 12th St., Room 309, Phila-
delphia, and (for mail), 509 Jericho Rd., Abing-
ton, Pa.
PARKER, Philip (M 1915), 8 Middle St., Woburn,
Mass.
PARKS, Charles E, (M 1937), Dist. MRT. (for
mail), UK Electric Ventilating Co., 605 Profes-
sional HldR., and 284 W, Steuben St., Crafton
P. ()., Pittsburgh, Pa.
PARROTT, Lylc G. (M 1922), Consulting Engr.,
(for mail), Snyder & McLean, 2308 Penobscot
Bldtf., and, 8788 Gladstone, Detroit, Mich.
PARSONS, Leonard D., Jr. (/ 1937; 5 1936),
795 Park lilvd., Glen Ellyn, 111.
PARSONS, Roftcr A. (J 1933), Htg, Engr., Board
of Water und Electric Light Commissioners, 116
W. Ottawa St., and (for mail), 2609 Clifton St.,
Lansing, Mich.
PARTLAN, James W. (Life Member; M 1916),
14200 Goddard Ave., Detroit, Mich.
PATERSON, Frederick C., Jr. (M 1936; J 1928),
Prea, (for mail), F. C. Paterson & Co., Inc., 76
Mechanic St., and 70 Stone Ave., Bradford, Pa.
PATORNO, Sullivan A. S. (M 1923), Consulting
ICngr, (for mail), 101 Park Ave., and 312 East
KWrd St., New York, N. Y.
PATRICK, Horace M. (M 1930; J 1929), Engr.,
411 Pembroke Rd., Bala-Cynwyd, Pa.
PATTERSON, Frank H. (M 1936), Sales.,
Hoffman Specialty Co., and (for mail), 9201
Holeyn, Detroit, M!ch.
PATTON, Roy L. (Af 1927), Pres. (for mail),
Hey L. Patton, Inc., 323 N.W. Tenth St., and
1111 Northwest 38th St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
PAUL, Donald I. (M 193«; J 1932), Chief Engr.
(for mail), Gurney Foundry Co., Ltd., 4 Junction
Rd,, and 222 Fern Avc., Toronto, Ont., Canada.
PAUL, Lawrence (X (J IMS), Engr. (for mail),
Carrier Corp., Merchandise Mart, and 2104
Fargo Ave., Chicago, 111.
PAULING, Robert B. (A 1936), Salesman and
Rtipr., IT. S. Radiator Corp., Detroit, Mich., and
(for mail), 211 S, Gary Avc., Tulsa, Okln.
PAVEY, Charles A. (A* 1937), Dist, Mgr. (for
mail), B, V. Sturtevant Co., 812 Michigan Bldg.,
and 17508 Rosclawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
PAYNE, Robert E. (Af 1935) Draftsman, E. I.
DuPont dc Nemours Co., Wilmington, Del., and
(for mail), 244 Sedgewood Rd., Springfield, Pa.
PEACOCK, James K. (M 1921), Asat. Secy.,
Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc., 500 Fifth Ave., New
York, and (for mail), 4.40 Fowler Ave., Pelham
Manor, N. Y.
PEART, Allen M. (A 1937), Dist. Mgr. (for mail),
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 637
Craig West, Room 812, and 4.635 Melrose,
Montreal, Que., Canada.
PEEBLES, John K., Jr. (A. 1925), Arch. Engr.,
10 Oakhurst Circle, University Station, Charlot-
tesville, Va.
PEISER, Maurice B. (J 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Natkin & Co., 1726 St. Mary's Ave and
5016 Casa St., Omaha, Nebr,
45
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
?ELLER, Leonard (J 1034), Mech. Engr,,
International Harvester Co., 180 N. Michigan
Ave., and (for mail), 1359 N. Wells St., Chicago, 111.
PELLMOUNTER, Thomas (A 1930), Dist. Sales
Mgr., Century Electric Co., 903 McGee St.,
Room 512, and (for mail), 3308 Euclid Ave.,
Kansas City, Mo.
PELOUZE, Henry L., 2nd (A 1934), Mffr. (for
mail), Pelouze Sales Co,, 110 N. Seventh St.,
and 4209 Grove Ave., Richmond, Va.
PENNOCK, William B. (M 1927), Sales Engr.,
Pennock Engineering, 63 Sparks St., and (for
mail), 325 Waverly St., Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
PERINA, Arthur E. (J 1930; $ 1933), Engr. (for
mail), Carrier Corp., 300 S. Geddes St., and 434
Cortland Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.
PERKINS, Robert G. (A 1935), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 203 Natchez
Bldg., and 1532 Foucher Ave,, New Orleans, La.
PERRAS, George E. (M 1930), Htg. Expert,
Thomas Robertson & Co., Ltd., 202 Craig St.,
W., and (for mail), 6286 Chambord St., Montreal,
Que., Canada.
PERSSON, N. Bert (M 1937), Design Engr.,
Frigidaire Div. of General Motors, University
Ave., and (for mail), 1418 Simpson Ave,, St.
Paul, Minn.
PESTERFIELD, Charles H. (A 1938; J 11)80;
S 1932), Instructor, Michigan State College,
Mech. Engrg. Dept., East Lansing, Mich.
PETERSEN, Christian P. (A 1037), Owner (for
mail), Petersen Sheet Metal Works, 4120 Cedar
Ave., and 3914 Cedar Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
?ETERSEN, Stanley E. (A 1937; J 19,'J">), Sales
Engr. (for mail), W. A. Ramsay, Ltd,, P. O, Box
1721, and 3G08 Sierra Drive, Honolulu, Hawaii.
PETERSON, Carl M. F.* (M 1030), Instructor
(Mech. Engrg.), (for mail), Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 09 Massachusetts Ave.,
Cambridge, and 40 Fletcher Rd., Woburn, Mass.
*ETERSON, Neil II. (M 1937), Mgr. (for mail),
The Trane Co., 1129 Folsom St., and 2744 Green
St., San Franciseo, Calif,
., , ,
*ETERSON, Sterling I>. (A 1030), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), Johnson Service Co., 514 Cohnan
,, and 5051 Prince St., Seattle, Wash,
T, Ernest N., Jr. (M 1937), Mech. ttngr.,
Downs, Cons. Kngr,, 317 Finance Hldg.,
as City, Kan., and (for mail), 107 Ward
, .,
Bldg,, and 5051 Prince St., Seattle, Wash,
>ETTIT, Ernest N., Jr. (M 1937), Mech.
Nate D
Kansas , .,
Pkwy., Kansas City, Mo.
'EXTON, Frank S. (A 1936), Sales Kngr. (for
mail), Kansas City Gas Co., 824 Grand, and 43
West 73rd Terrace, Kansas City, Mo.
>FRIEM, Peter G. (A 1937), Sales ICngr,, The
Knapp Supply Co., Ohio and Dudley «ta,, and
for mail), 211 N. Hackley St., Munice, Ind.
'UHLER. John L. (A 1925; / 1923), Plumbing
and Heating, 000 Manor Rd., West New Brigh-
ton, Statcn Island, N. Y.
'HILIP, William (M 1937), Sales Kngr., Do-
minion Radiator & Boiler Co., Royce and Lnne-
downe Aves., and (for mail), 74 Bastedo Ave.,
Toronto, Ont., Canada.
'HILLIPS, Frederic W. (M 1921), Kngr., Hou«c
Htg. Dept., Qucensborough Gas £ Klectric Co.,
1610 Far Rockaway Blvd., Far Rockawuy, and
S&S?' 82? ^^ 38th st" Brooklyn, N. Y.
IPS, Ralph E. (M 1930) , Consulting Engr.
"gPi 8l6 W' Kifth St" and r>ir>3 Angeles
Vista Blvd., Los Angeles, Calif.
'HIPPS, Frederick G. (M 1930), VIcc-Pres.j
Preston Phipps, Inc., 9,r>5 St. James St., W., and
(for mail), 5431 Earnscliffe Ave., Montreal,
P. Q., Canada..
ICKETT, CHnton A. (M 1937; A 1923), Mgr.,
Unit Ventilator Div, (for mail), The Herman
E?61?0?,,?0^-' S-10! N- Michigan Ave,, and 1118
East 46th St., Chicago, 111.
ICOT, John W. (A 1937), Dir, and Mgr. (for
mail), Unit Air Conditioners Pty., Ltd., aoO Pitt
St., and No. 11-32 Angelsea St., Waverly,
Sydney, Australia,
IERCE, Edgar D, (J 1933) Mgr,, Carrier Air
C<?.nA D^h <for ^H)' Electrical Products Con-
solidated. 585 S. Broadway, and 1365 Corona,
Denver, Colo.
PIETSCH, James A, (,tt 1030), Consulting Knjsr.
(for mail), Jaa. A, Pietsch, Inc., l.r."> Prospect
Ave., and 101 Cebia Ave., New Brighton, S. L,
N. Y.
PIHLMAN, Arthur A, (Af If»lW. Service Kngr.
(for main, Consolidated Ga« Co. of Nt»w York,
4 Irving Place, New York, N. Y., and 1*8 Sherman
Place, Jersey City, N. .T.
PIKE, Wallace II. (M 1035), Kn«r. Designer (for
mail), Newcomb David Co., ft77«.)-8] Russell St.,
and 4708 Buckingham Rd., Detroit, Mich.
PILLEN, Harry A. (.4 19M), Owner (for main,
H. A. Pillen Co, (Mftf. A«enO, 022 Broadway,
and 2124 Crane Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
PINES, Sidney (.V 1020), Vice-Pros, (tor main,
Natkin it Co., 18(K) Baltimore Ave., and M2f»
Brookstde Rd., Kun«art City, Mo.
PINTO, Chester B. (A I1W7), Div. MRr., Plhg.
and Iltpt. Dept. (for mail), Montgomery Ward &
Co., 150- IS Jamaica Ave., Jamaica, and 11
Buona Vista Ave., Lawrence, N. Y,
PISTLKR, Willard C. (,U ltt«H. Mech, Knjsr. in
charge of detnjtn. Curl J. Kiefer, Consulting
Knur., JM8 Schmidt HldK«. ami (for mail), C >rdiard
Lane an<l Crt'stviow Ave., Pleasant Ridft<v,
Cincinnati, C)hio,
PITCHER, Le-ati* J. (.U 1020; ,1 101>tt; J U)iM),
Klectrimutic Corp., 2100 Indiana Ave., and (for
mail), 7021 K. LaSallc St., rittraxo, 111.
PIZIK, Stuart G. (.4 HWU). Mt'jj. A««»nt, Air
ConditioninK Kqnlpmnnt* 743 InRraham Hldg.t
and (for mail), W) Southwest l«th Rd., Miami, Ha.
PLACE, CIy<!« R. (M IDlMi, Comultinn Kt^r. tf<»r
mail), 41iO LexiiiKton Ave., and an,'* Kant f»7th
St., New York, N. Y
PLAYPAIK, <;cora$ A. (.4 IH1M, M«r. (for mail),
Johnson Tenipemture kcKiiliitinK <"«n of Canada,
IW Simcoe St., Toronto, and UVwt Hill, Ont.,
Canada.
PLRWKS, Staxtloy K. (,U «»17), Urnwh M«r. (for
mall), Johnson Service (%o., 28.1H North l^th St.%
Stiition 8, Philadelphia, and .'UHI Kver«rcen Rd,,
Jenkintown, l*n.
PLIIM, lA»roy H. (Af 1U35; /I l',»;*0, ftnjer. (for
mail), Warren Wcbnter & Co., 17th and t'Vflera!
Kt«., Camdrn, and 207 (Juilford Avc»., t:ollin««-
wo<xl, N. J.
PLUMMKK, Robert S. (J I0r»7), Ami. to Sttpt.,
Fninklin HciitinK Station, arid (far mail), Ojiarry
Hill, Rochester, Minn.
PLl/NKBTr, J«*Im II. (A/ «»ar»!, <*hief of In-
Hpection, Retired, Commrmwealth of Mutt*., HI
woodrow Ave., Boston, Mass.
POEIINKR, Robert K. (*U u»a«>, I»rt»p. (for mail).
R, K. Poehnor, Ut«, Contractor, KJU M,t:m-
chusettB Ave., and a«()8 CoymT Ave., Indla-
napolia, Intl.
POGALIE8, Loulu H. (M I'J.'U), Mwh. Kn«r.,
Wilbur WatHon & Atwociates, 4«>14 ProNuntt
Ave., and (for mail), 410ii Archwo<xl Ave..
Cleveland, Ohio.
POHLE, Kenneth F. (.4 1030), Viec-Prw,, W. K.
Hiracbman ('<>., Inc., 2()a Kant 44th St., New
York. N. Y.
POLDKRMAN, Lambert II. (M im?), \\V;t«-rn
Dist, M«r. (for mail). Carrier Corp., 74H K,
WaehinKton Blvd., and :i4(W I^irnbcth St.,
Los Angeles, (
POLING, Dudley B, (A/ 1WW), Mgr. (for mail,)
Metal Products Div., 182 N. Yale Av<?., and
797 K. Kulton St., Columbus, Ohio.
POLLAK, Rudolf (M 1UU7), Chief Kngr. (for
mail). Rockefeller Center, Inc., ao Ro<x<k«»fdler
Plaxa, New York, and liitt Aqueduct Urlve.
Scarftdale, N. Y.
POLLARD, Alfred L. (A I0»!i). <?cn. Supt, (for
mail), Pu«et Sound Power & Light C«M HflO
Stuart BldK., and 30Q9-28th A,, Seattle, Wawh,
POLLOCK, ?:arl A. (A IM7), Vict-Preu. und (Jen.
Mgr. (for mail), Dominion Kl*ctrr»hr>m« In-
dustriea, Ltd., IJO Kdward St., and 1^0 Sterling
Ave., Kitchener, Ont., Canada.
PONSELL, Francis I, (A IWJfi), Partner and
Sales Engr. (for mail), James P. Pwwoll & Sons,
826 Orange St., and 2708 Madison St., Wilming-
ton, Del.
46
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
»0PE. S, Austin (Af 11117). Pros. (for mail),
\YtllM m A. Pope Co., 2t> N. Jefferson St., Chicago,
and Klil A-ihl.iiul Ave.. River Forest, 111.
HWTKR, Carl W. (J HIM), Kn«r. (for mail),
Htwy KutlKt, 417 \V. CVntral Ave., P. O. Box
.V*'7, .mil 0 K. Lucerne Circle, Orlando. Fla.
XKSKY, James (A/ 11)19). Consulting I£n«n (for
main. 17,V» Haiti more Trust HldR., and 4005
Liberty HeiKhtH Ave., Baltimore, Md.
'Ol'CHKK, Richard C. (jr 10.T7; .S IMS), Sales
Krmr. (for nuiln Diannmd Iron Works, 1728 N.
Sworn! St., and 1771 J Kmcrson Ave., S., Minne-
apolis, Minn.
»OITNI>S, Carlos A., Jr. (J UW), Aa«t. Chief
lf'n«r. and Draftsnum (for mail). Sunbeam
IIp.ttmK & Air Conditioning Co., 'Mil IVaehtree
St., X.K., and i»l!7 Cyiwas St., N.W., Atlanta,
>OWERS, KcljUr C. (.4 1US4; J 1031), Retail
SaU'« M«r., Ut«. and C<»olin« l>cnt. (for mail),
Oil UtirnciN DUtrihutinjt Co., 1100 Cathedral
St., ami M(M» Wayne Av»»., Baltimore, Md.
WWRK8, Fred W, (Lift Mrmbrr; M liHl), Prcs.
(fur mail), INtwvre K<w»lalor Co., 2720 Grcen-
virw Avo., and i«K> Castlowood Tt'rrure, Chicago,
SHOWERS, Lowell <;, (A ll>«7; J 11)30), Sales
I'.nisr* tf<»r m,ul», Carrier Corp., 1/iOl Oarew
Tmvrr, and 2Ml Southern Av<»., Cincinnati, Ohio.
PRA'IT, Fewer J. (U 1M7), Marine KURT., Navy
Yiir«i INiwt Sound, Bremerton, and (for mail),
l»i»rl t K'haitU Wash.
PRATI\ Jt»s^ph r,. (.'1 l»«0)f Air C'oncl.-HtR.
SjKn'ialint, ( an.uiian Ctcnt'rul Klcctric Co,, Ltd.,
.»n*l (inr iiuili, 1 K<wmotmt Ave., Wcstmount,
I*. U., r,ttt.uU,
l»RAWLt Frank K. (/ liKMl), Branch M«r., Sidlea
C<»., Atttrmp l>iv., 'IU."» Stuart Bld«,, and (for
MMtlt, '-IJU5 iMiflitl St., Lincoln. Nobr.
PRKKc:K. Us> W. (.-I iiKWt), Owner and Knur..
L. \V. !»r«iv Co., 17 1U Sjissafras St., and (for
ittaili, k, Is I>. No. 7, Krie, 1'a.
PRKNTIOK, OHvor J. (.1 HW7), Dir. of Publicity
and Ptttilk K^liitionit (f<ir tn.iil), C. A. Dunham
Co,. -Ion !•:. t )hto St., ami H.'»0 Uike Shore Drive,
< 'hioK"* Ht
PRKSDK!*;, cam W, (A W2rt>. MKT. S«5 Div.,
S. K. n««.wr Mf«, (.!«., litadford, Pu.
|»RK:H, Cfmrtvft K. U I'.TO, Trean. (for mail),
Kr*f*ni*y l'uhli'*hinK Co., U N. Michl^nn Ave.,
Chit'iift". ami 1151 Chatllrld Rd.t Winnetka, 111.
PRHIK, Ctmrieii V. (J liW7), UtR. linwr., The
Kruttw SttMv C*»., Ohio and Dudley, and (for
m*iil», 101 ;» \V, WiihhinKttm St., M unicc, Ind.
PRICK, DouftlA** OP (A/ 1*,«W), Ht«. and Air
(V»mK Knar., (irwrul Suvl Wares, Ltd,, 109
River St., and dor null), iltl St. Gwrmaim* Ave.,
T<*rmi(<», Out-, Canada.
JPRWJK, Krm**f II. ( A UW7J/ 1IKW;.V 1«32>, HtR.
J»,»Kf. (ff»r mullh Intt*r»uti(inul Heater Co., 101
Park Avr., urn! V. M. C. A., Utica, N. V.
PRlfCKTKK, <;nyU«- B. (7 l«»5j .V itM), Air Cond.
Knur, (i*»r nuttt. Carrier C:«rp., Merchandise
Matt, sm<l 4h20 N, Wincheirtcr. Chlcugo, 111.
I»R1N<:K* Raymond F. a IWW), Kngr., H. B.
Dunnlftff «f Co., and (for mail), 37 McKinley
St., HunK'T, Mr.
PRXTCHARU, Wllllftin J. (/ I0:i7), Branch M«r.,
Carrier Corp., l*K Terry Kd., Kast Hartford,
< 'arm.
PROIK, John (Af IWW), Pre».
Urttthvn. H»»ti W. North Ave., und 101 Dilworth
St., Ptttuburteli* l*a.
PRU!>I>KN. Orrln I). (J 1038; *9 1»), Engr.,
Ck*n«*ral PhvHticH, Inc., North Tonawanda, and
(for nuiiU, :*7 l*sirfc Place, Lockport, N. Y.
FRUDKN* Ilmdlcc <*T 1030), Kngr., Barber-
Colnutn Co., LW Loomis St., and (for mail),
lfrf)i> < »rant Avt., Hockford, 111.
VRYIBIL, l^ul L. (A lt)U2)t Partner, Hucker-
PryiWl Co., 1700 Walnut St., and (for mail), 328
K. PUtailemi St., Philadelphia, Pa.
PRYKK, John K. M. U 1937), Htg. and Vtj.
Knar,, 7 Sunderland Terrace, London, W. 2,
Kn
PRYOR, Frederick L. (M 1913), 5 Colt St..
Paterson, N. J.
POLLEN, Royal R. (M 1935; A 1035), Mech.
Engr., 109 East Hill St., Lead, S. D.
PURCELL, Frederick C. (M 1920), Sales Engr.
(for mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co,, 415 Brainard St., and 4711 Second Blvd.,
Detroit, Mich.
PURDY, Randall B. (A 1927), Associate Editor,
Power (for mail), McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.,
3,30 West 42nd St., New York, and 224-05-139th
Ave., Laurelton, L. I., N. Y.
PURINTON, Dexter J. (A 1923), Vice-Prea. (for
mail), Mahoney-Troast Construction Co., 511
Fifth Ave., and 104 East 40th St., New York,
N. Y.
PURSKLL, H. E. (M 1910), Special Repr.,
Kewanee Boiler Corp., Kewanee, 111.
QUAIX, Clarence O. (A 1937), Owner (for mail),
Quail Plumbing & Heating, Ninth St., and 54
Pearl St., Clintonville, Wis.
QCEER, Elmer R. (Af 1933), Instructor in Enarg.
Research (for mail), Pennsylvania State College,
Engrg. Experiment Station, and 338 Arbor Way,
State College, Pa.
QUIRK, Clinton H. (M 1910; J 1915), Eastern
Sales Rcpr. (for mail), Trane Co., 250 East 43rd
St., New York, and 465 Front St., Hempstead,
N.Y.
R
RABER, Benedict F. (U 1937), Prof, of Mech.
Kngrg. (for mail), University of California,
Room 114, Engrg. Bldg., and 1124 Arch St.,
Berkeley, Calif.
RACHAL, John M. (A 1936; J 1930), Air Cond.
Section, Andersen, Meyer & Co., Ltd., P. O. Box
205, Shanghai, China.
RAGATZ, Theodore E. (A 1937), Sales (for mail),
Sidles Co., Airtcmp Div., 14th St., Columbus,
and Y. M. C. A., Lincoln, Nebr.
RAINE, John J. (M 1912), Vice-Pres. (for mail),
G. S. Hlodgett Co., 190 Bank St., Burlington, and
Ksaex Junction, Vt
RAUWKR, Wallace F. (A 1930; J 1924), 441
I-Iawthurne Ave., Yonkcrs, N. Y.
RAISLER, Robert K. (A 1933; J 1930), Treas.
(for mail), Rainier Heating Co., 129 Amsterdam
Ave., and 38 East 85th St., New York, N. Y,
RAMSAY, Jamos W. (A 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), King £ Shepherd, 50 Church St., New
York, and 8-115 Fourth Ave,, Brooklyn, N. Y.
RANDALL, Robert D. (A 1930), Partner (for
mail), D. T. Randall & Co., 7310 Woodward
Ave., No. 404, and 340 E. Grand Blvd., Detroit,
Mich.
RANDALL, W. Clifton* (M 1928), Chief Engr.
(for mail), Detroit Steel Products Co., 2250 E.
Grand Blvd., and 5540 Ridgewood Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
RANDOLPH, Charles H. (M 1930; A 1928;
J 192(1), Air Cond. Engr., Milwaukee Electric
Railway & Light Co., 231 W. Michigan St., and
(for mail), 1614 E. Royall Place, Milwaukee, Wis.
RANK, Arthur L (A 1936), Pres. (for mail).
Universal Insulation Co., 2429 South St., and
6308 Ross St., Philadelphia, Pa.
RANSOM, Clifford F. (J 1936; S 1935), 313 E.
Springfield, Champaign, 111.
RASMUSSKN, Robert P. (Af 1931), Pres.,
Economy Equipment Co., 223 N. Wolcott Ave.,
and (for mail), 1243 East 46th St., Chicago, III.
RATHBUN, Perry W, (M 1933), 1809 Northwest
37th St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
RATHER, Max F. (M 1919), Mgr. Eastern
Territory, Johnson Service Co., 28 East 29th St.,
New York, N. Y.
RATHKE, Arthur C. (J 1937), 1025 Wayne St.,
Sandusky, Ohio.
47
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
RAY, Lewis B. (M 1932), Mech. Engr. (for mail),
Ray Engineering Co., Inc., 800 Broad St.,
Newark, and 151 Augusta St., Jrvington, N. J.
RAYMER, William F., Jr. (A 1936; J 1934),
Sales Engr. (for mail), American Blower Corp.,
249 High St., Newark, and 266 Fourth Ave.,
East Orange, N. J.
RAYMOND, Fred I.* (A 1929), Owner (for mail),
F. I. Raymond Co., 029 W. Washington Blvd.,
Chicago, and 547 N, Keystone Ave., River
Forest, 111.
RAYNIS, Theodore (J 1934), Draftsman, Hull
Drafting Room, Bldg. No. 5, Navy Yard, Brook-
lyn, and (for mail), 8528-118th St., Richmond
Hill, N. Y.
REAMER, William S., Jr. (M 1937), Vice-Pres.
and Treas. (for mail), Reamer Industries, Inc.,
Seaboard Park, and 2400 Blossom St., Columbia,
S. C,
RECK, William E. (M 1927), Civil Engr. (for
mail), Reck Heating Co., Ltd., Copenhagen N.,
Esromgade 15, and Sundvej 1C, Hellcrup,
Denmark.
REDRUP, Will D. (M 1936), Pres. (for mail),
Majestic Co., and 310 Randolph St., Huntin«ton,
Ind.
REDSTONE, Arthur L. (M 1931), Research
Engr. (for mail), Proctor & Schwartz, Seventh
and Tabor Rd., and Park Towers, Kemble and
Ogontz Ave., Philadelphia, Pa,
REED, Irving G. (A 1937; J 1934), Asat. Supt.
and Chief Engr., Grant Building, Inc., 420 Grunt
Bldg., and (for mail), 3227 Middletown Rd.,
Sheradan, Pittsburgh, Pa.
REED, Van A., Jr. (M 1930), Mech. Enter, (for
mail), Federal Engineering Co., 239 Fourth Ave.,
Pittsburgh, and 114 Water St., Elisabeth, Pa.
REGER, Henry P. (M 1934), Pres.-Treaa. (for
mail), H. P. Reger & Co., 1501 East 72nd Place,
and 6939 Bennett Ave., Chicago, 111.
REID, Henry P. (M 1931; A 1927), OperatinR
Engr. (for mail), Universal Atlas Cement Co,,
208 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, and 3507 Oak Park
Ave., Berwyn, 111.
REID, Herbert F. (A 1932), Reid-Graff Plumbing
Co., 1417 Peck St., Muskegon Heights, Mich,
REIF, Allan F. (M 1937), Pres. (for mail), Reif-
Rexoil, Inc., 37-43 Carroll St., Buffalo, and 10
Livingston Pkwy., Snydcr, N. Y.
REIF, Charles A. (M 1937), Vice-Pros, (for mail),
Reif-Rexoil, Inc., 37-41 Carroll St., Buffalo, and
77 Ruskin Rd., Kggertsville, N. Y.
REIK, Robert C. (J 1088), Enffr., L. E. Stevens
Co., 622 Broadway, Cincinnati, Ohio, and (for
mail), 37 W. Southgate, Ft. Thomas, Ky.
REILLY, Charles E. (A 1930; J 1928), 4920 City
Line Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
REILLY, J. Harry (M 1031; A 1931; J 1920),
Sales Engr., American Radiator Co., 528 Kerry
St., Newark, and (for mail), 14 Watson Ave.,
East Orange, N. J,
REINKE, Alfred G. (J 1933), Secy., Rcinke
Machinery & Tool Co., 03 Dickerson St.,
Newark, and (for mail), 3121 Park Place, Irving-
ton, N. J.
REINKE, Louis F. (A 1937), Owner (for mail).
Reinke Sheet Metal Works, 534 S. Fifth St., and
1535 W. Walker St., Milwaukee, Wls.
REINOLDI, Charles (J 1937), Cadet Gas Kngr.
Washington Gas Light Co., 411 Tenth St.,
Washington, D. C,, and (for mail), 3905 Wilaby
Ave., Baltimore, Md.
RENOUF, E. Prince (M 1933). Air Cond. Supv..
Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., 1007 In-
surance Bldg., and 3431 Rankin, Dallas, Texas.
RENTE, Harry W. (M 1931), Owner, Oil liumer
Engr. and Contractor, 114 Morris Ave., Buffalo,
REPKO, Joseph J. (J 1930; 6' 1934), 4924 Hamm
Ave., Cleveland, Ohio.
RESS, Otto J. (J 1937), Gas Htg, Engr., Iowa-
Nebraska Light & Power Co., 1401 "0" St., and
(for mail), 1900 South 17th, Lincoln, Nebr.
RETTEW, Harvey F. (M 1929), Chief Engr.,
Board of Education, 21st and Parkway, and (for
mail). 6821 Martins Mill Rd., Philadelphia, Pa.
REYNOLDS, Thurlow W. (.U 1922), Consulting
Engr., 100 Pinecrest Drive, IIustinga-on-Hudson,
N Y.
REYNOLDS, Walter V. (A ll)i>8), Pros.. Walter
Reynolds, Inc., 8(>1 Third Ave., New York, N, Y.
RHEA, Chester A. (A 1931), Steel Hoilers, 722
Carpenter Lane, Philadelphia. Pa.
RHOTON, Walter R. (A/ lltttt), Pres. (for mail),
W. R. Rhoton Co., 1305 East 107th St., Cleve-
land, and 1728 Lee Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
RICE, Clarence J. (A 1023), Pres. (for mail),
Sterling Engineering Co., 373K N, Holton St., and
Rte. (i, Box 374, Milwaukee, Wis.
RICE, Robert B. (M 1934), Aasoc. Prof, of Mech.
En«rg. (for mail), School of Knginoerinq, Uni-
versity of North Carolina, and 70S HHlsboro St.,
Raleitfh, N. C.
RICHARD, Edwin J. (A/ !'.«»>. Sole Owner (for
mail), Kclwin J. Richard Kquiptnent Co., 52H-29
Chamber of Commerce Hldg., and 8147 Victoria
Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
RICHARDSON, Henry G. (A/ IO.W, Kn«r..
Williams-RichardHon, 2<M Dooly Bldg., and (for
mail), 1433 Harvard Ave,, Salt Lake City, Utah.
RICHFIELD, Nicholas H. (Af 1087), Meld Knur.,
Delco-Frigidairc Conditioning Divi»ion, General
Motors, Dayton, Ohio, and (for mail), 17U N.
Tyson Ave., Moral Park, L. I., N, Y.
RICHMOND, John (J 1087; a IW3»), 7)285 Forbes
St., Pittsburgh, Pa., and (for mail), flftl
dalc Rd., Cleveland HeightH, Ohio.
RICHTMANN, William M.* (.1 UM2? J
Aasoc. Prof, of ICngrg. (for mail), Texas College
of Arts and IndtiBtries. and (U(J W. Santa Ger-
trudia St., Kinwville, Texas.
RICKNER, Charle.8 A. (Af UKW, Sales Mgr. (for
mail), Gump Klectric Co., 21)24 Locust St.,
St. Louis, and HOIJ S. Kerry Rd., Webster Groves,
Mo.
RIES, Lester S. (A/ IftSSI), Supt. of Bldgtt. and
Grounds (for mail), Oberlin College, itli K.
College St., and (W Klmwood Place, Oberlin,
Ohio.
RIESMEYER, Edward H., Jr. (A lOHtt; J liKtO),
Kn»r,, HtR. nml Air Cond., Sdmffer Heating Co.,
2;U-&t Water St., and (for mail), 4702 Stunton
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa,
RIETfc, Rimer W.* (M 1«2.U Gen. Sahit Mgr. (for
mail), Powers Regulator Co., 2720 Cnwnvicw
Ave., Chicago, and 22f>0 S. Sheridan Rd.,
Highland Park, 111.
RIGBV, Robert A. (/I 1037), Sal™ Knj«r., Air
Conditioning, and (for mail), m*) North 4Hlli
Ave., Omaha, Nebr.
RILEY, Robert C. (J IMtt; ,V 11KJ4), T«««tin«
Kn«r., Leviton MfK. (*a, lilill Gr«?n Point Avtk.,
Brooklyn, and (for mailh 8«:<7-17!>th St.,
Jamaica. N. Y.
RIST, Lawrence M. (J HKJ7), Sul«» Kn«r. (for
mail), Sidles Co,, Airtfmp Div., 502 South l«th
St., and :i:i2« Harrn^y, Onxahu, Nt*br.
RITCHIE, A. Cordon (M 1MK), Pre». und M«r.
(for mall), John Ritchie*, Ltd,, 102 Adelaide St.,
K., and 41 Garfwld Avc., Toronto, ('-.mathi.
RITCHIE, Edmund J. (At «««), Vicf*-I»n».,
Saks, Surco Co,, Inc., IKIJ Madl«on Av^.f New
York, and (for mail), 2 Grace Court, Brooklyn,
RITCHIE, William (M ItKW), 17 Van Rdpen
Ave., Jersey City, N, J.
RITTt Cheater F. (A I»8tt), M«r., Air C«nwl, Div.,
Columbia Specialty Co., Im;., 103fl Connecticut
Ave., N.W., and (for nmil), 2i07-I.r>th St., N,W.,
Washington, I>. C.
RITTER, Arthur (At 1011). Dint. M«r, (for nuiit).
American Blower Corp., f>() VVc.st 4(Hh St., New
York, and 29 KdKcimmt Rd.. Scareda!*, N. Y,
RIVARD, Melvin M. (A/ 11W»), Mgr., Kiv;ird
Sales Co., 4r),r><) Main St.. and (for rnuiU, IXU5
West 4«th Terrace, KanwiH City, Mo.
ROBB, Joseph K. (A HKtti), Salcu Kn«r.» <iu» Ulv.
(for mail), Minncai>oliH-Honeywdt Ke«uhttor
Co., 21f> Pershing Rd,, Kama* City, M<n. jtnd
0020 Maple Ave., Overland Park, Kan«.
or MEMBERSHIP
ROBERTS. Henry L. Of Ifllfi), HtR. Eiwr. and
Contractor (for mnW, 228 North Kith St.,
Fhila<Hi)hi;i, and IOM Alston Rd,, Krookline,
JVI. O>,. !»;i.
ROBERTS* Henry P. (A I03C), Scry, (for mail).
Kobr-rts-n.itniHon Co., 713 8. Third St., and
IttlU T.HWfc Avc.t S., Minneapolis, Minn,
ROBERTS. James ft. (.1 1H37; ./ 1M41, Engrg.
Msr. 0'<»r nuiH* SulhwUnt! Air Conditioning
<N»n>,. I."» X KiKhth St., and 5705-1 Uh Ave., S,,
Minntstimlfr* Minn,
ROBKRT8ON, Janunt A. M. (A 1030V Vice-
TrcB (for mail', Jam** Rnbfrtnon Co., Ltd., 040
William St,» Montreal, and 1(K) Sunnysidc Ave.,
WtNtmnunt. Vwv. Oinjulai.
ROBINSON, Arthur S. (Af IMtl), K. I. duPont
d<* Nrmiuirt *'a» Wilmington, Del,, and (for
nutit\ 7tt»» < >«»lfn Ave,, Swarthmore, Pa.
ROBINSON. IXmnItf M. (.4 I»«m, Sa>s Kn«r.
(for math, Hutfulo Kong* Co., Rat) Woodward
HMji., Washington, 1). 0«, and 10 Cedar St..
Hy.iWvUK Mcf.
ROBINSON, <;<H»rft*L. (A lt»3ft), Draftsman and
DwiRArr, K. 1, dtiPtmt dc Nemours (for mail),
2W \\Vot ilSth St., Apt. 1, WilminKtcm, Del,
ROHINSON. Jiiclt A. (J li»«rt), Air Cond. Kngr.
mutt*, Australian t»an Light Co., Parker St.,
y. am! It) M.wswm Rd., Strathtiekl, N.S.W.,
ROC1IK, Ivttf F. (A 11)30). M«r. (for mail), Few
Oil Hunw* n( (\matta, Ud.» HU5 Drummond
St „ McmtriMl* yu*» . Canada.
KO<;K. <;*«rfU> A. (»U W»»7), Partner, Forbea &
<'(», airt JHitiihwrni U'Ui Avf., and (for mail),
1.THU Avr,, Minml, Ma.
., hfodm-f F. <M IWWj / l»32),
nr i« IH«- ami Vtg (for nmil), CarnoKie
rst l>;hti'«ioKy( PltUhurKh, and 313
SMh St.. A0pin«-ull. P».
ROX>KF., K, John (A/ «»««>, Knar, (for mail),
J«thn H Mwvf Ftutndatlon, 1KW) ConareMi Ave.,
Nrw lUvrn* nnrl 1W) Itellevw Ave., Weit
Hitvi*n. i'otin.
R«>t>F,NIIKtSFR, <^<«Pg0 B. (A/ 1033), Head
>1i«t am! Air Com!. I,)n>t, (for mailh David
KiinUrn. J«.« Shintl of Mwham'«*al Trades, 4431
Finnry Av^,, .uul IUWtla Dover Place, St. Louia,
Mn.
KOIHiKRS. Frwlwlcfc A, <A 1034), Itnmch MKT,.
i^H«wyw«?U Ke«ulator Co., 3S17
,. M
,
ROWERS, F. F,4win (^ 1?»«7), liwtallntloa Mjcr.
'for mniln HrHl«rr« I'liimbinK A Klcctric Supply
,. . .
Jowph 8. (/i 1037; / 1031), Kngr.
rwrifiMn. I,' S. (iw^rnm^nt, KH«cwood
Awn*!), !-<!ii*w<iiKi. ami (for nmil), I Third
Avr,. flrrv4ilyt* Park, M<L
OIKiERS. Wllltam a C/ IIWH; 5 l»3fi). 400
MMrrvv-fH.tJ Avr., ritthbtlTKh, Pft.
RODMA.N. IMbtn W, (Af ««W), Supt. of Plant
Oit^Mtlitn <f»»r in:tilt. Itastrd of K<ht<nttlon, Uty
dT NVw Vmk, WM> I*»«k Ave,»ftnd 17fi West 73rd
t.. NVw Y«irk. N. V.
, WilUnm. Jr. (W 1U17). Mfr», Aftftnt
Ur'Awure Av<?., stn«l 1*M Sandera
, V, „ w
w^t <:. (A 1037J, Ho«§« Ht«. Enor.,
Nuitirnl <U» <*»., and (for mail),
*«»* KAM ;*tth H.f Hryan, Texat,
ROIiUN. KnrI W. (-W IWW), Kn«r. (for man),
Wairen \\V»wt« * *'«,, 17th and F«deml bt*.,
Cftimton, wn»l 44ft« Terrace Ave., McrchantvlUe,
HOLLAND. «. L. (A IflW). Dealgn Enor. (for
mmlt, Okliilvtitw c;«i ft Metric Co.. 421 N.
Hnrvey Av*».» a«d al»X Northwest 20th St.,
okiulujmu I'ity, OkUu
RONSHJK, K<tw«rd II, (W W37), Indimtrml Gai
Kn«r. <*w mail., Tl»* Kt, J/»uta County Gas Co .
S3* W. UvkwofKl Ave., Webster Grove*, and
701# Marion Court. Maptewcxxl, Mo.
RCX>S, KHk B. J» (/ I0«5), 405 M, Union Av«.,
Cranford. N, J.
ROOT, Edwin B. (M 1936), Mgr. Htg. and Air
Cond. Dept., Nelson Co., 2604 Fourth Ave.,
Detroit, and (for mail), 964 Pierce St., Birming-
ham, Mich.
ROSE, Arnold A. (A 1935), Sales Mgr. and Sect.,
(for mail), Suburban Air Conditioning Corp.,
7 Depot Plaza and Briar View Manor Apt.,
White Plains, N. Y.
ROSE, Harold J. (M 1937), Sr. Industrial Fellow
(for maiO, Anthracite Fellowship, Mellon Insti-
tute, 4400 Fifth Ave.. and 219 Lytton Ave.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
ROSE, Howard J. (Af 1934). Sales Engr., Fitz-
gibbons Boiler Co., Inc., 32 Depot Plaza, White
Plains, and (for mail), 100 Slebrecht Place, New
Rochelle, N. Y.
ROSE, Jerome C. (M 1937), Air Cond. Engr.,
Euenaod-Stacey Air Conditioning, Inc., 60 East
42nd St., New York, and (for mail), 8831 Ft.
Hamilton Parkway, Brooklyn, N. Y.
ROSEBROUGH, J. Stoddard (A 1937), Sales
Engr, (for mail), L. J. Mueller Furnace Co.,
424<J Forest Park Blvd., and 5917 Washington
Ave., St. Louia, Mo.
ROSEBROUGH, Robert M. (M 1920), Branch
Mgr. (for mail), L. J. Mueller Furance Co., 4246
Forest Park Blvd., St. Louis, and 204 S. Maple
Ave.. Webster Groves, Mo.
ROSELL, Axel F. (M 1935), Mech. Engr., A. B.
Svenska Flaktfabriken, Kingsgatan 8, Stockholm,
and (for mail), K>, Atlas SJuidingo I, Sweden.
ROSENBACH. Rudolph F, (M 1937), Chief
Engr. (for mail). Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., 425
Stuart Bldg., Lincoln, Nebr.
ROSENBERG, PWUp (A 1928), Secy.-Treas.,
Universal Fixture Corp., 137 West 23rd St., and
(for mail), 250 West 104th St., New York, N. Y.
ROSENBURG, William E. (J 1935), Plbs-Htg.,
John C. Rosenburg, Birch Hill Rd., Locust
valley, L. I., N. Y.
ROSENTHAL, Emanuel (5 1937), Student, New
York University (for mall), 1893 Vyse Ave.,
ROSS, John D.' (A 1937), Sales (for mail), Railway
and Engineering Specialties, Ltd., 037 Craig St.,
W., and 4370 Karnsdiff Ave,, Montreal, P. Q.,
ROSS? John O.* (M 1920), Pres. Ross Industries
Corp,, SfiO Madison Ave., New York, N. Y.
ROSS, Roderick (U 1937), Consulting Engr. (for
mail), Nicholas Bldg., 37 Swanston St., Mel-
bourne, C. 1., P. O. Box 1381 M , and 5 Burns
St., Elwood, Melbourne, S. 3, Australia. m
ROTH, Charles F. (A 1930), Pres,, International
Expoaltion Co., Grand Central Palace, and (for
IHlf 1UUU/, \_ttllUUlttH WU.4WN.WV w., w>*.( ~. — ----
St., W., and 18 Ticheater Rd., Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
ROTHMANN, S. C. (M 1936), Industrial Hygiene
Engr. (for mall), West Virginia Workmen's
CompenWion Commission, State Capitol Bldg.,
and 1580 Lee St., Charleston, W. Va.
ROTTMAYER, Samuel I. (A 1933: / .1928),
Mech Kngn (for mail), Samuel R. Lewis, 407
a Dearborn St?, Chicago, and 625 Duane SL,
ROmEIrvfn4 E. (A 1936), Engr. and Estimator,
Etie Sheet Metal Works, 1416 Summer St., and
(for mail), 512 Bishop St., Houston, Texas.
ROWB, William A.* (M 1021), (Council 1929-
, Mech. Engr. (for mail), The Trane Co.,
we. Wis., and 718 Longfellow Ave.,
Om M. (/ 1936), Sales Engr (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 1302 Swetland
Bldg., Cleveland, and Bentleyville Rd., Chagrin
1918), y™td«M
Vice-Pres., 1931;
1927-1933), Prrf.
.,
ROWLEY^Frank B.*
Minn.
J. AC. A J. UNO
AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
ROY, Arthur C. (A 1937), Metropolitan Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Hoffman Specialty Co., Inc.,
500 Fifth Ave,, New York, N. Y., and Box 507,
Columbia Rd., Morristown, N. J.
ROY, Leo (4 1937), Power Sales Engr. (for mail),
Quebec Power Co., Quebec Power BIdg., and 41
Laurentide Ave., Quebec, Que,, Canada.
ROYER, Earl B. (M 1928), Designing Engr.,
Fosdick & Hilmer, Consulting Engrs., 1703
Union Trust BIdg., and (for mail), 6035 Iris Ave.,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
RUDD, Dann J. (M 1937), Mech. Designer, New
York World's Fair 1939, Inc., Administration
BIdg,, Flushing, and (for mail), 367 Deer Park
Ave., Babylon, L. L, N. Y.
RUDIO, H. M. (M 1921). Regional Engr., Air-,
temp Sales Corp., 631 Investment BIdg., Wash-
ington, D. C., and (for mail), 2704 N. Lexington
St., Arlington, Va,
RUFF, Adolph G. (M 1935), Supt. of Power,
U. S. Playing Card Co., Park Ave., Norwood, and
(for mail), 3824 Woodford Rd., Cincinnati, Ohio.
RUFF, DeWitt C. (U 1922), Healy-Ruff Co.,
765 Hampden Ave., St. Paul, Minn.
RUGART, Karl (A 1924), Dist. Repr. (for mail),
Warren Webster & Co., 26 South 20th St.,
Philadelphia, and 612 Bryn Mawr Ave., Penn
Valley, Narberth Post Office, Pa.
RUGGLES, Robert F. (M 1936; A 1927; J 1920),
Dist. Mgr., Autovent Fan & Blower Co., 2
Rector St., New York, and (for mail), 15 Gregg
Place, Randall Manor, S. I., N. Y.
RUMMEL, Adolph J. (M 1937), Air Cond. En«r.
(for mail), San Antonio Public Service Co., 201
N. St, Marys St., and 319 Thonnan Place, San
Antonio. Texas.
RUNKEL, Charles (M 1935), Pres. (for mail).
Acme Heating & Ventilating Co., Inc., 4224 S.
Lowe Ave., and 7921 S. Hermitage Ave., Chicago,
RUPLE, Paul E. (A 1936), Chief Engr., Man-
hattan Mfg. Co., 210 S. Lexington Ave., and
(for mail), 170 Grand St., White Plains, N. Y.
RUSSELL, Edward A. (Af 1936), Chief Rngr.,
Vapor Car Heating Co., Inc., 1600 S, Kilbourn
Ave., and (for mail), 8103 Dorchester Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
RUSSELL, J. Nelson (Life Member; M 1809),
Managing Dir. (for mail), Rosscr & Russell,
Ltd,, Romney House, Marsham St., Westminster,
and Fernacres Fulmcr near Slough, Buckingham-
shire. England.
RUSSELL, Wayne B. (A 1936), Kngr., Russell
Furnace Co., 601 N. Monroe, and (for mail),
1203 S. Cedar, Spokane, Wash.
RUSSELL, William A. (M 1921), (Council, 1934-
1937), Capitolaire Div, (for mail), U, S. Kadiator
Corp., 1056 Natl. Bank BIdg., Detroit, Mich.,
and 628 West 57th Terrace, Kansas City, Mo,
RYAN, Harry JT. (M 1922), Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Trane Co., 47 Harris Ave., Albany, N. Y,
RYAN, James D. (M 1935), Supt. and Kngr.,
Whitney National Bank, St. Charles and Gravier
St., and (for mail), 215 N. Rendon St., New
Orleans, La.
RYAN, William F. (/ 1933), Engr,, 310 W.
Republic, Salina, Kan.
RYDELL, Carl A. (M 1031; J 1928), Owner,
C. A. Rydell Associates (for mail), 14 Chambria
St., Boston, and 280 Qumobequin Rd., Waban,
Mass.
RYERSON, Herbert E. (M 1037), Mgr., Air
Cond. Sales (for mail), Bryant Air Conditioning
Corp., 122 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, and 813
S. Clinton, Oak Park, 111
SABIN, Edward R. (U 1919), Pres,, Edward R,
Sabin Co., 4710-12 Market St.. Philadelphia, Pa.
SADLER. C. Boone (M 1928), Associate Civil
Engr. (for mail), Public Works Office, llth Naval
District, and 2223 Soto St., San Diego, Calif.
SAHLMANN, Frank L. (A 1937), Transportation
Dept. (for mail), General Electric, East Lake Rd.,
and 3926 Beech Ave., Erie, Pa.
Mortgage BIdg., Houston, Texas.
SAJLTER, Ernest H. (M li>36), Engr. (for
Electrical Testing Laboratories, 80th ht
East End Ave., New York, and 182 Clev
Ave., Great Kills, S, I., N. Y.
SALZER, Alfred R., Jr. (S 1930), Box
Oakland Station, Pittsburgh, Pa., and (for ,
2322 N. Villere St., New Orleans, La.
SALLANDER, H. A. (A 1937), Branch
Sidles Co., Airtemp Div., and (for mail),
Fontcnelle Blvd., Omaha, Nebr.
SAMUELS, Sidney (A ICttS; J li>2f>), Pn?s
mail), Sidney Samuels, Inc., 140 West tWtl
and 825 West End Ave., New York, N. Y.
SANBERN, E. Nute* (Al 15)23), Kngr., Hof
Specialty Co., :>00 Fifth Ave., New York,
(for mail), 317 Windsor Ave., Rockville Cc
SANDS, Olive C. (M 102fl), G. P. O. Box
F. F., Sydney, N.S.W.. Australia.
SANFORD, Arthur L. <3/ IiH.r>), Mech. K
C. H. Johnston, Archt., 300 Robert St., and
mail), 1071 Marshall Ave,, St. Paul, Minn.
SANFORD, Sterling S.* (Af 1U8U1, &il?a I'
(for mail), Detroit Kdison Co., 201X> Second *
and 1503 Sevburn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
SAPP, Charles L. (A HOT, Sales M«r., Karq
Furnace Co., and (for mail), OUO N. Walnut
SAUNDBRS, Laurence P. (M 2033), Chief Ki
Harrison Radiator Corp., Lockport, N. Y.
SAWDON, Will M,* (A/ 11)20), Prof., Kxj
mental Kngrg. (for mail), Cornell University, <
lege of KnKrg.,and 1018 K. State St., Ithaca, N
SAWHILJL, R. V. (A l»2tf), Kxec, Viw-Pre«.
mail). Domestic Kntfin^erinfj Co.. 110 Kant 4
St., New York, and llo Townaeml Ave., IVI1
Manor. N. Y.
SAWYER, J, Neal (J 1033), Kn«r.r Oustln-Hn
Mfg. Co., 1412 Went 12th St., Kanciaa City, J
SCANLON, Edward S. (A 1034), Utiliaat
Engr., Kquftable (*a« Co., 427 Libc-rty Ave.. -<
(for mail), 35 W. Fruncia Ave., Brentwo
Pittsburgh, Psu
SCARLETT, William J. (At Iffiwn, DwL R<
(for mail). Currier Corp., 0017 Walnut !
Kansas City, Mo.
SCHAD, Clifford A. (A 1038; J 1037), Km
United States Air ConditioniriH Corp,, 2101 N
Kennedy St., and (for mail), V14 Fulton St., S.
Minneapolis Minn.
SCHAFER, Harry C. (Af 1087), Stolen MICT. (
mail), Iroquoia (tad Owp.. 45 Church t
Buffalo, and 197 Union vSt., liumbunc. N. Y.
SGHKCOTKR, Jack B. (J 11^7), Salen Knf
York Ice Machinery Co., antl (for mail). 17
N, Orange Grove Ave., Log Angelm. ("aUi.
SCHECHl'KR, John F, (/ IflSft), Kn«r.. Hot
Ht«. Dcpt,, Detroit City Gas Oo,, 4 W C'Hffoi
and (for mail), 1812 HurnH Ave., I Detroit, Mi<
SCHEIDECKKR, Daniel B* (A W«). Hw-y. (f
mail), Hunter-Clark Ventilating System 0«
2BCK) Cottage Crove Ave., and 4020 N. Kilbou
Ave,. Chicnxo, 111.
SC2HBRMKR, Richard (J ItK'JS; ,V HWl. Hat
Kngr., American Radiator Co., 40 Wiwt 401
St., New Ygrk, and (for mail), 4(MJ7 Ilumpi*
St., Klmhurst, I-. I., N. Y.
SCHRRNBKCK, Fred H. (A IfttO}, Siiletiman (f<
mail), William Kim Hotter & Mfif. <,'o., Nin>ll<
Island, and £045 Portland Ave., Miiincupt>li
Minn.
SCHKRRER, Kenneth C* (J IIKJO), Kn«
Natktn & Co., 114 K. Third, and (for nuiil
12 Ka«t liith St., Tulia, Olcla.
SCHERRKR, UOR B. (J 1930), Ditit. Kn^r
Reynolds Corp., 10 Rector St., New York, N. Y
and (for mail), 0112 Simpson Terrace, St. LouU
Mo.
SCHICK, Karl W. (A 10,14). DUt. Mgr., Mlnn<
apolla-IIoneywell Regulator Co., H. M. A, HWg.
and (for mail), 200 Kaet 7«nd T«rrH<:«, "
City, Mo.
50
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
SUIILKMMKR, Byron G. (J 11)38; .V 1937), Kngr.
(tor m.ul i, Ji>hn«im .Service Co., MO Bond Bldg.,
\\.ittmxttitnn, 1>. („., and itju Manchester Ave,,
8<:i!ll<"liTiN<;. Walter G. (A/ 1032), MRT., Air
C outl. Itepl., Haw Kan Co., North and Porter
Ms., urn! (for mail), Mi7 W. Lovell St., Kala-
' L- H- CAT 1937), Asst, to Pres.
(for mail). Anthracite Industries, Inc., Chrysler
(,Vf 1M7), Air Cond. Engr.,
jfaoturiug Co,, ,">7 Tonawanda St.,
-.'•"•' •* *'M Norwalk Av<\, Huffalo, N, Y.
I , Honu-c I. a IU37K Branch Mgr. (for
Manufacturing Co., Inc., UOl)
*ui<l 2BW Laclwle St., Dallas, Texas.
, , __ori, Jr. (7 11W7), House Htg. Kngr.,
l ity UiN Co,, 415 Cliiford, and (for
u^t^Vf -iSl '*'' J^'wnto'n1 K<IM Detroit, Mich.
S(.HM( I/,, Jean (.U 1M3), Adininistrateur-
l>Il|7»m'% SonVur I», R. S. M., 8. Passage de
1 1 K • ' ^tt>r mail)* IX| '"*' ' )llfr<kn°y' ^^
fK:ii*NKU>KR, <:hnrlo« H. (J WJIT), «ales Engr.
0«»r m.iih. II« Hrrtrie Ventilating Co., 1031
t nntmrtoal Trust, »Wg,. Pliilaclelphia. Pa., and
L»tf'j h*»»-Mm! Aviv, Haddcm HH«ht8, N. L
«< :it<>KN! J AIIN. Robert I». (A/ l»ltt), Consulting
l-.nnr, (for main, ,'{<M-5 tnduittrial Trust Bldg,,
»"«* ?,Jt* NnltinKlwm Rd., \Vilmin«ton, Del.
«K:HOKI»FMN. i»aui H. a/ ioao>, Pres! (for
main, Ntiifr.uu Kl«nver Co., 0 Kaat 45th St., New
<irm>l ian'ii*1 v«^«*y ^^^ I^arehmont. N. Y.
Knur, fnr KMitemv IHg., American Foundry &
I*«iivM*t* ('it., \Vu»!hfftKtcm and McClun St., and
4h»r mail), :>t»,*i !•;, Wa«hin«ton St., Bloomington,
.VttllRKIUKR, Herbert W. (A 1037), Sales (for
m,iili* j«»hn«i>n Service Co., 507 K, Michigan St.,
"' rt11t\^ W«btj|» St., Mflwiuiket, Wi»V '
i Aye.« l>utio«, Texas.
I f. S. <?vf>ttiun J'ti., 12,13 Divnicy Parkway, and
0»*r niiitl), MJ2«r» M Avers Ave», (/hicago, 111.
Kttin iLKIN, Krtwt H, (/ HKt7)r Contultiiue KHRT.,
Iiir«:h «Sf Kr<>«I»iK', VVnler fnrimajwjfde 31.
< 'i»lx«nh,*K<'rt K, I^nmark, and (for mail), 245
Puritan Aw., ton-rat Hills, L. I., N. Y,
M<;m?I,KR, WHUftm H, (A 1«»7), ^alcs, Taco
il<**tl»"frt4 Inf., *Hif JMaditton Av^., New York,
N- Y , undl (for mail), 1530 Kurt (Hlth St., Chicago,
AK!llll/r3iv Albert W. (W WWfl), Kn«r. (for mail).
(;r»un«-n <*«., lac., U10 Seventh Ave., S., and
W(»t I'tantv Avt*., S,, Minneapolis, Minn.
.SCUU,/,. E<tws»rd L. (J' HK*7)f Kngr., Carrier
O*rt»,, 1% (ierMcji St., and (for mail), <KK) James
.St., Syrju*uiw» N. Y.
>S(;inn,/.. Howard I. (/I 1015), Crane Co., 1223
W. ftmw! St., Richmond, Va.
M(tIIIfI^li, Wt*n*jtillct H. (Ajf lUiil), Kaatcrn Sales
NSltr. <l««r nutU). Kewnnee Holler Corp., ;J7 West
Illtth St , and «i7 l*urk Ave,, New York, N. Y.
SCHURMAN, John AM Jr, (A/ 10*%; / 1936),
RW'inuI Air C%»nd. Div. M«r, (for mail). York
IIT Machinery Corp., 2700 Wnihln«ton Ave,,
NfAVM t'tirwlanct, and 14503 Dekiware Ave.,
HCIIWANTKS. Arno R, (/ H)3fi)f Factory Salea
Aiul Service Kiistr, (for niail), Watermiin-Water-
bmy Co., 1121 Jackson, N.K., Minneapolis,
ami 14 iff Arowi, St. Paul, Minn,
3CMWAKTZ, Ilnroia (6* 1036), 34fiO Ainslie St.,
( hir.igo, III,
SCHWARTZ. Jacob (A 1036; J 1020), Contractor
(for mail), Samuel SchvmrU & Stm, Inc., 30
W«it a7ih Wt,f Uayonne, and 12 Van Houten
Ave,, J<*r«ey City, N. Jf.
SCHWI-;iM, Henry J. (Af 1028), Secy, and Chief
Kwjr. (0>r maiO, Gypsum Araociatlon, all W.
Warkw Drive, and 1037 Kate* Ave., Chicago, 111.
K<XH''IKU>, Paul C, (A 1037; / 1033), Engr. (for
mall), Carrier Corp., 748 K. Washington Blvd.,
and 3K70 lulenhurst Ave., Los Angeles, Calif.
Inc., 153 East 38th St.,
., ^nd 654 King St., Port Chester, N. Y.
., Eugene D. (A 1933; J 1929),
*""•, Qumn Engineering Corp., 151
••• New York, N. Y,, and (for mail),
SCUDDBR, nBMTO« (A 1935),' Vice-Pres., James
P. Marsli Co., 2073 Southport Ave., Chicago, and
SEAlfcL^'w^
Kn«r., The Ballinger Co., 105 South 12th St.
Philadelphia, and (for mail), 207 Maple Ave.,
Narberth, Pa.
SEEBER Rex R.* (M 1934). Head-Mech. Engrg.
Dept., Miclusan College of Mining and Tech-
nology, HouRhton, Mich.
SEKLBACH, Herman (K 1931). Pres. (for mail),
, . . ,
Sales, Inc., 800 Erie County Bank
Bldg., Buffalo, and 31 Central Ave., Hamburg,
SEELBACH, Herman, Jr. (A 1937), Sales Engr.
(for mail), Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator
Co., 45 Allen St., and 280 Crescent Ave., Buffalo.
SBRLERT, Edward H. (A 1935), Secv.-Treas. (for
mail), McQuay, Inc., 1000 Broadway, N.E., and
a 20M7 (Hysses St., N.E., Minneapolis, Minn.
SEELEY, Lauren E.* (M 1930). Asst. Prof. Mech.
Kngrg. (for mail), Mason Laboratory, Yale
University, and 130 Event St., New Haven,
Conn.
,
Kngrg.
Universi
Conn.
SEEUG, Alfred E. (U 1026), Pres. and Gen. Mgr.,
U J. Wing Mfg. Co., 154 West 14th St., and (for
mail). 310 Convent Ave,, New York, N. Y.
SEEUG, Lester (M 1925), Chief, Engrg. Dept.,
Museum of Science and Industry, Jackson Park.
and (for mail), 725 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago.
SEELY, Irving R. (J 1936; 5 1935), General
Klectric Co., and (for mail), 1059 Wendell Ave.,
Schenectady, N. Y.
SEIDEL, Glenn E. (J 1937; 5 1936), Tulane
University, and (for mail), 1437 Audubon St.,
New Orleans, La.
SEITER, J. Earl* (M 1928), Asst. Mgr., New
Business Dept., Consolidated Gas Electric Light
& Power Co., and (for mail), 7117 Bristol Rd.,
Baltimore, Md,
SEKIDO, Kunteufce (M 1903), Consulting Engr.,
eJB5 Marunouchi Bldg., and (for mail), 19
Momozono, Nakano, Tokyo, Japan.
SKLIG, Ernest TM Jr. (M 1930), Industrial
FelJow (for mail), Mellon Institute of Industrial
Research, 4400 Fifth Ave., and 0022 North-
umberland St., Pittsburgh, Pa.
SELLMAN, Nils T. (M 1922), Asst. Vice-Pres.
(for mail), Consolidated Edison Co. of New
York, 4 Irving Place, New York, and 56 Wai-
worth Ave., Scarsdale, N. Y.
SENIOR, Richard L. (M 1925), Pres, (for mail),
R. L. Senior, Inc., 103 Park Ave., New York, and
10 Cherry Ave,, New Rochelle, N. Y.
SENNET, Lowell E. (J 1936; S 1934), Sales Engr.,
Crane Co., 6215 Carnegie Ave., Cleveland, and
(for mall), 108-1 East 133rd St., E. Cleveland,
Ohio.
SETTELMEYER, James T. (J 1937), Air Cond.
Engr,, Blocker Air Conditioning Corp., 825
Krelinghuysen Ave., Newark, and (for mail),
293 N. Oraton Pkwy., East Orange, N. J.
SEVKRNS. William H.* (M 1933), Prof. Mech.
Engrg. (for mail), University of Illinois, and 609
Indiana Ave., Urbana, 111.
SEYMOUR, James E. (A 1937), Partner and
Mgr., Lee & Seymour, 346 Russell St., and (for
mail), 1438 Rutledge St., Madison, Wis,
SHAER, I. Ernest (A 1934), Treas., Sales Engr.,
Capitol Engineering Co., Potter and Binney Sts.,
Cambridge, and (for mail), 35 Feseenden St..
Dorchester, Mass.
51
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SHAFFER, Chester E. (M 1937), ReWg]j
mafn',' 11 Waverly Place.^New'York, ft. Y.
SHANKLIN, Arthur P. (M 1029), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Carrier Corp,, 12 South 12th St., Phila-
delphia, and 40 Amherst Ave., Swarthmore, Pa.
SHANKUN, John A. (M 1928), Secy.-Treas. (f or
mail), West Virginia Heating & Plumbing Co.,
233 Hale St, and 1507 Quarrier St., Charleston,
W Va
SHAPIRO, Maurice M. (J 1937), Branch Engr.,
Sidles Co,, Airtemp Div., 425 Stuart Bldg., and
(for mail), 2145 "N" St., Lincoln, Nebr.
SHARP, Henry C. (M 1935), In CJ«8« <*
Application Engineering, Automatic Heat and
Air Cond. Div. (for mail), Herman Nelson Corp.,
and 1204-24th Ave,, Moline, 111. _ .
SHARP, John R. (A 1937), Supervisor, Htg. and
Air Cond. Reprs,, Public Service Electric & Gas
Co., 235 Main St., Hackeneack, and (for mail),
Maple St., Haworth, N. J. ' _ c .
SHAVER, Herbert H. (A 1929), Asst. Gen. Sales
Agt. (for mail), Hudson Coal Co., 424 Wyoming
Ave., and 1208 Vine St., Scranton, Pa,
SHAW, Burton E.* (A 1936; J 1934),. Research
Chief (for mail), Penn Electric Switch Co.,
Goshen, and The Maples, Bristol, Ind.
SHAW, Charles G. (A 1935), Engr. and Prop.,
Shaw Engineering Co., Port Arthur, Texas,
SHAW, Norman J. H. (M 1927; J 1925), Barnea
& Jones, Inc., 128 Brookside Ave., Jamaica
Plain, and (for mail), 37 Benjamin Rd.. Arling-
ton, Mass.
SHAWLIN, Walter C. (A 1031), Mgr., Industrial
Air Cond. (for mail), Northwestern Ventilation
Co.t 2540 W. Wells St., Milwaukee, Wis.
SHEA, Michael B. (M 1921), Sales Dept, (for
. mail) , American Radiator Co., 8019 Jos Campau,
and 4366 Tyler Ave., Detroit, Mich.
SHEARS, Matthew W. (M 1022), Engr. (for
mail), C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., 1H23 Davenport
Rd., and 39 Sylvan Ave., Toronto, Canada.
SHEFFIELD, Raymond A. (M 1937), Prop, (for
mail). Air Conditioning Engineering Co,, 01
Rogers St., Cambridge, and 84 Governor Win-
throp Ave., Somerville, Mass. , m
SHEFFLER, Morris (M 1921), Pres. (for man),
Sheffler-Gross Co., 1000 Drexel Bldg,, Phila-
delphia, and 419 Chapel Rd., Melroee Park,
SHEl35^N,%8on E!'(M 1927), Dist. Sales M«r.
(for mail), Carrier Corp., S. Geddes St., Syracuse,
and 41 Lanark Crescent, Rochester, N. Y.
SHELDON, William D. Jr. (A 1936; J 1934),
Chief Engr., Sheldon's, Ltd., and (for mall),
Cedar St., Gait, Ont,, Canada,
SHELEY, Earl D. (M 1937), Pres. (for mail),
Plumbing, Heating, Ventilating Contractors,
1761 W. Forest Ave., Detroit, and R. R. No. 1,
Birmingham, Mich,
SHELNEY, Thomas (M 1931), Prcs. (for mail),
Pierce Blower Corp,, 100 Rhode Island St.,
Buffalo, and Grand Island, N. Y.
SHENK, Donald H. (M 1934), Assoc. Prof. Mech.
Engrg, (for mail), Clemson Agricultural College,
and 106 Calhoun Circle, Clemson, S. C.
SHEPARD, John deB. (M 1937; J 1929), Air
Cond. Repr. (for mail), Consolidated Gas Electric
Light & Power Co,, 40t) Lexington Bid*?,, and
Tudor Arms Apts., W. University Parkway,
Baltimore, Md.
SHEPHERD, Clark B. (M 1937), Chemical Engr.
(for mail), E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.,
Technical Div., duPont Experimental Station,
and 1211 Delaware Ave., Wilmington, Del.
SHEPPARD, Frank A. (M 1918), Salesman (for
mail), Johnson Service Co., 1031 Wyandotte St.,
and 27 East 70th St., Kansas City, Mo.
SHEPPARD, William G. F. (M 1922), Partner,
Sheppard & Abbott, 119 Harbord St., and (for
mail), 1 Clarendon St., Toronto, Ont., Canada,
SHERBROOKE, Walter A. (M 1937), Mgr..
Tech. Div. (for mall), Utica Radiator Corp., 101
Park Ave., Room 518, and Hotel Shelton,
Lexington Ave. at 49th St., New York, N. Y,
SHERET Andrew (M 1029; .4 1025), Pres. (for
mail) Andrew Shek Ltd., 11 W B^shard bt,
and 1030 St. Charles St., Victoria, B. C., Canada.
QHPRMAN Ralph A.* (At UKtt), Supervisor.
^pSto D& (for mail), Battelle Memorial In«ti-
tute, 505 King Ave.. and ISitt Coventry Rd.,
SHERMAN; vector L. <w im. Actiw Head,
Dcpt/Meih. Hn«r«., Lewis Institute, 1»«I W.
Madison St., Chicago, and (** ™»1>. ^3
SfflS^W*. "WS. Commercial Div.
^SSSJ^I^^
Div 412 Houston St., N,K,, Atlanta, and (for
mail), 2(18 Michigan Ave., Uecutur, Ga
SHERWOOD, Laurence T. Uf IH«< . Glass
Technologist (for mail), Ptnna. \\irr-OlM9 Co.,
Dunbar, and 11 Angle St., ( onndl«vtlU% Pa.
SHIELDS, Carl P. t(Jr 1937; 5 1U»0), 21« Crescent
on. Ohio. ,
Howard 0. (A 1»3H). Salesman (for
mau>r»ftrb«r-Colman Co., 221 N. UuSille H.,
and 7008 N. Paulina St., Chica«<>. III.
SHIRLEY, William B. (If ly:*7), IJsL MKT.,
Lennox Furnace Co., Inc., Syracuse, M. Y., H«d
(for mail). Mayfalr Hotel, C harlot te, N. vv
*R«eudi DTv.lformail), MinneaWi^Yfoneyweii
Regulator Co., and 75 W. Mapfc St., Wubuuli,
SHODRON, John G. (Ji/ 1821), Prof.,
Univ. EnurK. School, and (for mail.,
Wisconsin Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
SHOEMAKER, Forrest K. <:i MOT). ,..- ,--
Mgr. (for mail). Air Conditioning Co,. Inc., £-
Central Bank Wdg.. ami 2412 bant iwntj St..
SHORB»°WU1 A. (Af WKtM, Treae, (for nutUU
Field & Shorb Co., 705 N. Pirn* St., t)mitur, lit.
SHOTWELL, Hojjer W. (M 1U3A), C'hiH Kn«r ,
Air Conditioning AppUnnc* Co,. an<l ((or nuul),
07 Franklin St., Veroiui, N, j,
mail), New York Blower Co,, 171 l'a*'t*try St.,
and 1002 Indiana Ave,, LaPorte, Ind.
SHUUTZ. Earl (A WIN, Vjf-Kej. (for mm.
Illinois Maintenance C o., n,«a W. Adiimt bt..
and Edcewttter Beach Apt*., Chirt\u«» HI.
SICKERfTcene D. (J MISMW. M«r. Hi*. Div.,
Perfex Hadlator Co., 415 \V. Okluhonia Ave.,
and (for maH), 4315 W. Lisbon Ave,, Ml— "t-
Vflt.
SIDBLL, Philip A. (/ K>»»; «V «K»7U Mftth. Kn
(for mail), Krlgidaire l)iv.» General M«t<ir*
r , .»
CorpTand tt»T N, Rraartway.
SIDWELL, K. W. (/I XOS7K „
strong Kurntice <-o.f und (for nntiU), ^
Ave., Columbus, Ohio.
SIKBS Caudc T. (A WS7), Scrvif*
Kins
. (if IW), IM, Mgr. tf*
mail), R R tfturtcvant Co., <U» PruvMi^nt
Blel«M und WW (>ak St., Cinclttnuti, Ohio,
vSaleH Mur/Cfor tttfJlUHc Kliitrlc- VenUitttin* <**>.'«
02li Broadway, and S14 K. Mitchell Avf.,C«idn.
rmti, Ohio.
SIMISON, Allen L. (^f 1037), Kt*fctmh ^"Wg1*
an^Oor maflf, lfi» Nfonh'ilit St., Newark. OW«i*
SIMKIN, Milton (J IWWiA; 1«», Atntxr. Knar,,
Charles Sirnkin, 103 Brighton Ave., r«rth
Amboy, N' jf.
SIMON, Andrew (J 10IJ7), Kn«rv MinneapoHj-
Honeywell HeguUUor Co., and (for mail), -»7w
Eaat 12ftth, Cleveland, j )hl<>,
SIMONSON, G«ora» M, (AT 1U37), Con*ultin«
Engr. (for mull), O. M* simoiwKm, 74 New
Montgomery SLf San Fr*nd«cot and W>
Ave., Piedmont, Cttlif,
52
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
SIMPSON, Arthur M.* (A 1935). Chief Engr. and
Sales Mgr. (for mail), Van Kannel Revolving
Door Co., 101 Park Ave., New York, and 37-34-
85th St., Jackson Heights, N. Y.
SIMPSON, William K. (M 1910), Vice-Pres. (for
mail). Hoffman Specialty Co., 193 Grand St., and
9 Sands St., Waterbury, Conn.
SINGLETON, John H. (A 1937), Gen. Mgr. (for
mail), Annas Heat & Cold, Inc., 13 N. Perry, and
66 Franklin Blvd., Pontiac, Mich.
SKAGERBERG, Rutcher (M 1924; J 1921),
Market Development Engr. (for mail), Brown
Instrument Co., Wayne and Roberts St., and 211
Rockglen Rd.. Penn Wynne, Philadelphia, Pa.
SK3DMORE, John G. (A 1937; J 1930), Sales
Engr., Carrier Corp., 1931 Holland Ave., Utica,
SKINNER, Henry W. (M 1920), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), 4816 Dexter St., Fort Worth,
Texas.
SKLAREVSEI, Rimma (J 1936), Instrument
Engr., Russian Div., Brown Instrument Co.,
Wayne and Roberts Aves., Philadelphia, Pa.,
' and (for mail), 226 E. University Parkway,
Baltimore, Md.
SKLENARIK, Louis (A 1937; J 1928), 305 East
72nd St., New York, N. Y.
SLAYTER, Games (M 1931), Director, In-
duatrial and Structural Prod. Lab., Owens-
Illinois Glass Co., and (for mail), 1181 Evansdale
St., Newark, Ohio.
SLEMMONS, John D. (M 1937), Branch Mgr.,
American Blower Corp., Columbus, and (for
mail), Rte. 2, Wilson R. D.t Worthington, Ohio.
SLUSS, Alfred H. (M 1935), Prof. Mech. and
Industrial Engrg., University of Kansas, and
(for mail), 827 Mississippi Ave., Lawrence, Kans.
SMAK, Julias R. (A 1934), Supt. of Service
Depts.. Crane Co., South Ave., and (for mail),
3135 Park Ave., Bridgeport, Conn.
SMALL, Bartlett R. (A 1937; J 1932), Secy.,
Sam E. Beck, Inc., and Mgr., Guilford Engrg.
Co. (for mail), 625 Security Bank Bldg., Greens-
boro. N. C.
SMITH, D. Kennard (4 1938; / 1937), Engr. and
Estimator, H. F. Wampler, 6312 Callowhill St.,
and (for maiD, 525 S. Conestoga St., Phila-
delphia, Pa.
SMITH, Elmer G.* (Jf 1929). Asst. Prof, of
Physics (for mail), Agricultural and Mechanical
College of Texas, College Station, Texas.
SMITH, Frank J. (A 1937; J 1930), Engr.,
1 Fernwood Place, Upper Montdair, N. J.
SMITH, Card W. (M 1927), Sales Engr., Premier
Furnace Co., Dowagiac, Mich., and (for mail),
1131 Gtiilford St.. Huntington, Ind.
SMITH, Jared A. (A 1933), Distributor (for mail),
Bryant Heater Co., 626 Broadway, Cincinnati,
and 3817 Indian View Ave., Mariemont, Ohio.
SMITH, J. Darren (M 1933), Mech. Engrg.
Dept., Philadelphia & Reading Coal & Iron Co.,
and (for matt). 317 North 19th St., Pottsvflle, Pa,
SMITH, Milton S. (M 1919), Treas. (for mail),
Buensod Stacey Air Conditioning, Inc., 60 East
42nd St.. New York, N. Y., and 13 N. Terrace.
Maplewood, N. J.
SMITH, Reginald J. (Jf 1936), Mgr., Smith &
Elston, 71 Third Ave., and (for mail), 112 S.
Maple St., Timmins, Ont., Canada.
SMITH, Robert H. (A 1937: J 1934; S 1933),
Asst. Buyer, Sears Roebuck & Co., Chicago, and
(for mail), 611 Washington BJvd., Oak Park, 111.
SMITH, Stuart (A 1936), Branch Mgr. (for mail),
American Radiator Co., 807 Times Star Bldg.,
and 1188 Herschel Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
SMITH, Wilbur F. (Af 1920), Consulting Engr.,
W. M. Anderson Co., 600 Schuylkfll Ave., and
(for mail), Garden Court Plaza, 47th and Pine
St., Philadelphia, Pa.
SMITH, William D. (Af 1937; A 1935), Pres. (for
mail), Bryant-Smith, Inc., 2153 Prospect Ave.,
Cleveland' and 3265 Enderby Rd., Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
SMITH, William O. (A 1937), Pres. (for mail)
Smith Automatic Heat Service Co., 19250 Johr
R. St., Detroit, and 343 E. Maplehurst, Ferndale
Mich.
SMOOT. Theo H. (M 1935), Chief Engr., Fluid
Heat Div., Anchor Post Fence Co., Eastern Ave,
and Kane St. and (for mail), 2512 Talbot Rd.,
Baltimore, Md.
SMYBRS, Edward C. (A 1933), Sales Engr.,
Barber Colman Controls, 1013 Penn Ave.,
Wilkinsburg, and (for mail), 148 Jamaica Ave.,
West View, Pittsburgh, Pa.
SNAVELY, A. Bowman (M 1937), Chief Engr.,
Hershey Chocolate Corp., Hershey, Pa.
SNAVELY, Earl R. (M 1937), Gen. Mgr., Air
Cond. Dept.,. Nash Refrigeration Co.. Summit
and New Sts., Newark, and (for mail), 222
Victory St.. Roselle, N. J.
SNBLL, Ernest (M 1920), 3914 LeMay Ave.,
Detroit. Mich.
SNYDER, Allen K. (A 1937; J 1930), Application
Engr., Airtemp. Inc., 1119 Leo St.. and (for
mail), 2122 Shroyer Rd., Dayton, Ohio.
SNYDER, Jay W. (Af 1917). Member of Firm (for
mail). Snyder & McLean, 2308 Penobscot Bldg..
and 8987 Martindale Ave., Detroit, Mich.
SNYDER, Joseph S. (.A 1925), Sales Repr.,
Detroit Lubricator Co., 1807 Elmwood Ave.,
Buffalo, and (for mail). 9 Knowlton Ave.. Ken-
more (Buffalo), N. Y.
SODEMANN, Paul (M 1926; J 1920). Sales Engr.,
Sodemann Heat & Power Co., 2300 Delmar
Blvd., and (for mail). 4136 Farlin Ave., St. Louis,
Mo.
SODEMANN, William C. B. (Jf 1919), Pres. (for
mail), Sodemann Heat & Power Co., 2306
Delmar Blvd.. St. Louis, and 7542 Teasdale
Ave., University City. Mo.
SOETERS, Matthew (If 1937), Consulting Engr.,
5392 Seebaldt, Detroit, Mich.
SOGG, Allen (A 1937), Sales Engr., Strong,
Carlisle & Hammond Co., 1392 W. Third St.,
Cleveland, and (for mail), 3084 E. Derbyshire
Rd.. Cleveland Heights. Ohio.
SOLSTAD, Lester L. (J 1936), Development
Engr. (for mall), American Radiator Co., Filter
Div., 1330 W. Congress, and 5132 Blackstone.
Chicago, I1L
SOLZMAN, Isel I. (A 1937), Owner (for mail).
Pasol Engineering Co., 606^ World Herald
Bldg., and 4410 William St., Omaha, Nebr.
SOMMERFIELD, Stunner S. (7 1936). In-
structor. Refrigeration & Air Conditioning Inst.,
2150 Lawrence Ave., and (for mail), 5705 School
St.. Chicago. HI.
SOMMERS, William J. (M 1937), Mfrs. Agent,
505 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, and (for mail), 150
Stfflwell Ave.. Kenmore, N. Y.
SONNEBORN, Charles (Jf 1930), R. D. No. 3,
New Castle, Pa.
SONNEY, Kermit J. (7 1936: 5 1934). L. B. 136.
Wilcox, Pa., and (for mail), 316 W. Symmes
St., Norman, Okla.
SOPER, Horace A. (M 1916), Vice-Pres. (for
mail), American Foundry & Furnace Co., and
1122 E. Monroe St., Bloomington. 111.
SOULE, Lawrence C.* (M 1908), Secy, and
Consulting Engr., Aerofin Corp.. 410 S. Geddes
St.. Syracuse, N. Y., and (for mail), Cor. Stewart
and Gordon Rda., Essex Fells, N. J.
SOUTHMAYD, Richard T. (/ 1936), Salesman,
American Blower Corp. (for mail), 11433 May-
field Rd., Cleveland, Ohio.
SPARKS, James D. (A 1937), Northwest Repr..
Dg Electric Ventilating Co., 7331 W. Green Lake
Way, Seattle, Wash.
SPECKMAN, Charles H. (M 1918). Prof. Engr..
375 Bourse Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.
SPELLER, Frank N.* (M 1908), Director, Dept.
of Metallurgy and Research (for mail). National
Tube Co., Frick Bldg.. and 6411 Darlington Rd.,
Pittsburgh, Pa.
53
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SPENCE, Morton R. (7 1934), Asst. Purch. Agt.,
Runelle & Spence Mfg. Co., 445 N. Fourth St.,
and (for mail), 709 E. Lexington Blvd., Mil-
waukee, Wis.
SPENCE, Robert A. (J 1937), Engr., Boston
Edison Co., 39 Boylston St., Boston, and (for
mail), 37 Davis Rd., Belmont, Mass.
SPENCE, Robert T. (A 1935). 1556 South 60th
St., West Allis, Wis.
SPENCER, Dean (A 1937), Commercial Mgr. (for
mail), Brown Electric Division, Brown Supply
Co., 120 E. Grand, and 3110 Northwest 23rd,
Oklahoma City, Okla.
SPENCER, J. Boyd (M 1935), Owner (for mail).
Spencer Cooling £ Air Conditioning Co., 413 S.
Sixth, and 2215 Newton Ave., S., Minneapolis,
Minn.
SPIELMANN, Gordon P. (A 1931; J 1923),
Vice-Pres. (for mail), Harrison-Spielmann Co.,
408 Milwaukee Ave., Chicago, and 730 N.
Prospect Ave., Park Ridge, 111.
SPIELMANN, Harold J. (M 1933\ Air Cond.
Engr., Vilter Mfg. Co., 53 W. Jackson Blvd.,
Chicago, and (for mail), 507 Elmore Ave., Park
Ridge, 111.
SPITZLEY, Ray L. (M 1920), 1200 W. Fort St.,
Detroit, Mich.
SPOELSTRA, William J. (M 1935), Pres.,
W. J. Spoelstra Co., Inc., 154 Parker Ave.,
Hawthorne, N. J.
SPOERR, Frank F. (J 1937), Carrier Engr., W. L.
Thompson, Inc., 700 Commonwealth Ave., and
(for mail), 137 Peterboro St., Boston Mass.
SPOFFORTH, Walter (M 1930), Chief Mech.
Services, U. S. Penitentiary, McNeil Island, and
(for mail), 615 N. Ainsworth, Tacoma, Wash.
SPROULL, Howard E. (M 1920), Div. Sales Mgr.
(for mail), American Blower Corp., 1005-0
American Bldg., and 3588 Raymar Drive,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
SPURGEON, Joseph H. (M 1924), Salesman,
Spurgeon Co. (for mail), 5-203 General Motors
Bldg., and 17215 Pennington Drive, Detroit,
Mich.
STAGEY, Alfred E.f Jr.* (M 1914), Buensod-
Stacey Air Conditioning, Inc., 60 East 42nd St.,
New York, N. Y., and (for mail), Wootton Rd.,
Essex Fells, N. J.
STACK, Arthur E. (A 1935), Lab. Supv., Wash-
ington Gas Light Co., 411 Tenth St., N.W.,
Washington, D. C., and (for mail), 911 Gist Ave.,
Silver Spring, Md.
STACY, L. David (A 1936), Sales Engr., Ilg
Electric Ventilating Co., 182 N. LaSalle St., and
(for mail), 2247 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago, HI.
STACY, Stanley C. (M 1931), Mech. Engr. (for
mail), Board of Education, 13 S. Fitahugh St.,
and 531 Wellington Ave., Rochester, N. Y.
STAFFORD, Thomas D. (A 19371, Secy, and
Mgr., Alexander-Stafford Corp., 313-319 Allen
St., N.W., and (for mail), 954 Ogden Ave., S.E.,
Grand Rapids, Mich.
STALB, Joseph C. (A 1934), Mgr. Air Cond. Div.,
Reynolds Corp., 19 Rector St., New York, and
(for mail), 149 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn,
STAMMER, Edward L. (M 1919), Supt. Htg. and
Vtg., Board of Education, Ninth and Locust Sts.,
and (for mail), 4430 Tennessee Ave., St. Louis,
Mo.
STANGER, Ralph B. (M 1920), Owner (for mail),
Robinson & Stanger, Empire Bldg., Pittsburgh,
and Middle Rd., Glenshaw, Pa.
STANGLAND, B. F. (Charter Member1), (2nd Vice-
Pres., 1908; Board of Governors, 1905-1900-
1909: Board of Mgrs., 1895-1899: Council. 1896-
1897), Retired, Kendall, N. Y.
STANNARD, James M.* (Life Member: M 1906),
Pres. and Treas. (for mail), Stannard Power
Equipment Co., 53 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago,
and 1402 Elinor Place, Evanston, 111.
STANTON, Harold W. (M 1937), Commercial
Sales Dir. (for mail), Iowa- Nebraska Light &
Power Co., and 2807 Washington, Lincoln, Ncbr,
STARK, W. Elliott* (M 1926), (Council, 1932-
1937), Dist Sales Mgr., Bryant Heater Co.,
17825 St. Clair Ave., Cleveland, and (for mail),
1875 Rosemont Rd., East Cleveland, Ohio.
STEELE, John B. (M 1932), Chief Operating
Engr., Winnipeg School Board, Ellen and
William Ave., and (for mail), 184 Waterloo St.,
Riverheights, Winnipeg, Man., Canada.
STEELE, Maurice G. (M 1929), Tech. Advisor
(for mail, Revere Copper & Brass, Inc., 1301
Wicomico St., and 4109 Roland Ave., Baltimore,
Md.
STEENECK, Kenneth C. (J 1935), Sales Engr.,
Warren Webster & Co., 95 Madison Ave., New
York, and (for mail), 9410-211th St., Bellaire,
L. L, N. Y.
STEFFNER, Edward F, (A 1937; J 1934), Htg.
and Air Cond. Engr., Henry Furnace & Foundry
Co., 3471 East 49th St., Cleveland, and (for
mail), 1427 East 133rd St., East Cleveland, Ohio.
STEGGALL, Howard B. (A 1934), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), U. S. Radiator Corp., 941 Behan St.,
N.S., and 1106 Murray Hill Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
STEHL, Howard V. (A 1930), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Campbell Metal Window Corp., Bush and
Hamburg Sts., Baltimore, and 5 Beacon Hill Rd.,
Woodlawn, Baltimore Co., Md.
STEINHORST, Theodore F. (Af 1919), Pres.,
Emil Steinhorst & Sons, Inc., 612-16 South St.,
and (for mail), 1661 Brinckerhoff Ave,, Utica,
N. Y.
STEINKE, Bernard J. (S 1937), Htg. and Vtg.
Engr., Bernard H. Steinke & Son, 1104 East
180th St., New York, N. Y., and (for mail), 17
Westervelt Place, West Englewood, N. J.
STEINKELLNER, Edward J. (J li)3U; 6' 1935),
2162 South 32nd St., Milwaukee, Wis.
STEINMETZ, C. W. Arthur (M 1934), Branch
Mgr. (for mail), American Blower Corp., 2-19
High St., Newark, and 50 Oakwood Ave.,
Bogota, N. J.
STELLWAGEN, Frank G. (A 1937), Sales,
Fitzgibbons Boiler Co., Inc., 101 Park Ave.,
New York, and (for mail), 8<i37-77th St., Wood-
haven, N. Y.
STENGEL, Frank J. (A 1935), Secy, (for mail),
R. F. Stengel & Son, 7(5 RuaehiU Place, Irvington,
and 23 Russell Place, Summit, N, J.
STEPHENSON, Lewis A. (M 1917), Mgr. (for
mail), Powers Regulator Co., 40',) East lath St.,
and 801 West 57th St. Terrace, Kansas City, Mo.
STERLING, James G., Jr. (S 1936), 1841 Wilton
Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio.
STERMER, Clarence J. (M 11)36), Kngr., Crane
Co., 836 S. Michigan Ave., and (for mail), 7839
Clyde Ave., Chicago, 111.
STERNBERG, Edwin (A 1932; J 3931), Air
Cond. Engr., Anno Cooling & Ventilating Co.,
30 West 15th St., and (for mail). 315 East 08th
St., New York, N. Y.
STERNE, Cecil M. (A 1934), Chief Kngr. (for
mail), Metropolitan Refining Co., Inc., 23-28-
50th Ave., Long Island City, N. Y.
STERNER, Douglas S. (A 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Minneapolis- Honey well Regulator Co.,
415 Brainard St., and 1313 Scwurd Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
STETSON, Lawrence R. (M 1913), Kngr. (for
mail), McMurrer Co., 303 Congress St., und 35
Bradncld Ave., Roslindale, Hoston, Ma«s.
STEVENS, Harry L. (M 1934; A 1927; J 102-1),
Secy.-Treaa. (for mail), M. M. Stevens Co., 10S
W, Sherman St., and 7 West 22nd St., Ilutchin-
son, Kang.
STEVENS, Kenneth M, (J 1036), Sales En«r. (for
mail), Powers Regulator Co., 409 East 13th St.,
and 900 E. Armour, Kansas City, Mo.
STEVENS, William R. (A 1<)34), Partner, L. 1C,
Stevens Co., 020 Broadway, Cincinnati, Ohio,
and (for mail), 159 Tremont Ave., Ft. Thomas,
Ky.
STEVENSON, Melvin J. (U 1935), Mgr,, Air-
temp Div., Sidles Co., 425 Stuart lildtf., und (for
mail), 1643 South 20th St., Lincoln, Nebr.
KOLL OF MEMBERSHIP
STEVENSON, Wilbur W. (Af 1928). Steam Htg.
Engr. (for mail). Allegheny County Steam
Heating Co., 435 Sixth Ave., and 1125 Lancaster
Ave., Pittsburgh. Pa.
STEWART, Charles W. (M 1919; A 1918), Asst.
Secy, (for matt), Hoffman Specialty Co., Water-
bury National Bank Bldg., and 21 Yates Ave.,
Waterbury, Conn.
STEWART, Duncan J.* (M 1936; A 1930), Mgr.,
Electrical Div. (for mail), Barber-Colman Co.,
P. O. Drawer 99, and R. R. No. 4, Rockford, 111.
STEWART, James P. (J 1937), Engr. (for mail),
12 South 12th St., and 4709 Conshohocken Ave..
Philadelphia, Pa.
STIEGLER, Alvln J. (A 1937), Owner (for mail).
Valley Sheet Metal Works, 315 Main St., and
319 Monroe St., Neenah, Wis.
STILES, Gordon S. (J 1936). Sales Engr., (for
mail), Airtemp Div., Sidles Co., 118 Tenth St.,
and 206 llth St., Des Moines, Iowa.
STILL, Fred R.* (M 1904), (Presidential Member),
(Pres., 1918; 2nd Vice-Pres., 1917; Council
1916-1919), Vice-Pres. (for mail), American
Blower Corp., 50 West 40th St., New York, and
3457-82nd St., Jackson Heights, N. Y.
STILLER, Frederick W. (J 1933), Estimator (for
mail), F. C. Stiller & Co., 129 S. Tenth St., and
138 West 49th St., Minneapolis, Minn.
STINARD, Rutherford L. (J 1934), Engr.,
American Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St.. New
York, N. Y., and (for mail), 1377 Boulevard East,
West New York, N. J.
STUBS, Richard, Jr. (J 1937). Sales Engr. ffor
mail). Coon DeVisser Co., & Buffalo Forge Co.,
2051 W. LaFayette Blvd., and 35 Edison,
Detroit. Mich.
STIIT, Arthur B. (/ 1935; S 1933). Mech. Engr.,
F. H. McGraw & Co., 51 East 42nd St., New
York, N. Y., and (for mail), 22 Bundy Apts.,
Middletown, Ohio.
STOCK, Charles S. (M 1936). DisL Repr.,
Herman Nelson Corp., Room 404, 1108-16th St.,
N.W., Washington, D. C., and (for mail), 6752
Fairfax Rd., Bethesda, Md.
STOCKWELL, William R. (M 1903: J 1901),
Gen. Mgr.. Mfg. Div., Weil-Mctain Co.,
Michigan City. Ind.
STOKES, Alvln D. (M 1936), Erection Engr. (for
mail), York Ice Machinery Corp., 1238 North
44th St., Philadelphia, and 331 Cheswold Rd.,
Drexel Hill, Pa.
STOKES, Arledfte (J 1936), Air Cond. Engr. (for
mail), Mehring & Hanson Co., 162 N. Clinton
SU and 901 Argyle St., Chicago, 111.
STONE, Eugene R. (M 1913), Treas. (for man),
Stone-Underhill Co., 78 Woodbine St., and 86
Sea Ave., Quincy, Mass.
STORMS, Robert M. (M 1936) . Consulting Engr..
Storms & Glbbs, 604 Architects Bldg., Los
Angeles, and (for mail), 354 W. Wilson Ave.,
Glendale, Calif.
STOTT, F. W. (Af 1937), Sales Engr. (for mail),
C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., 1139 Bay St., Toronto,
and Palmer Ave., Oakvflle, Ont., Canada.
STRAKOSH, Walter C. (J 1937; S 1935), 911 a
Fourth St., Champaign, I1L
STRAUCH, Paul C. (A 1934), Sales Engr.,
Henry Furnace & Foundry Co., 18th and Merri-
man Sts., and (for mail), Sherwood Hall, Cam-
bridge Court Apts., Edgewood Boro, Pittsburgh,
Pa.
STRAVITSGH, Joseph J. (J 1936), Estimator
and Salesman, Standard Air, Inc., 40 West 40th
St, New York, and (for mail), 9508 Linden Blvd.,
Ozone Park, L. L. N. Y.
STREVELL, Roger P. (M 1934), Secy.-Treas. (for
mail), William R. Hogg Co., Inc., 900 Fourth
Ave., Asbury Park, and State Highway and
Victor Place, Neptune, N. J.
STRICKLAND, Albert W. (A 1929), Htg. and
Vtg. Engr., Big Timber, Mont.
STRINGFELLOW, Jack G. (J 1936; 5 1935),
A. M. Lockett & Co. 305 Magnolia Bldg..
Dallas, Texas.
STOOCK, Clifford (M 1937; A 1929), Associate
Editor (for mail), Heating & Ventilating. 14?
Lafayette St., New York, and 82-15 Brittor
Aye.. Elmhurst, L. L, N. Y.
STROUSE, Sidney B. (If 1921). Consultini
Engr. (for mail), S. B. & B. H. Strouse, 500-2$
Guarantee Trust Bldg., and 22 S. Illinois Ave.,
Atlantic City, N. J.
STRUNIN, Jay (J 1933), Engr., and Contracts
(for mail), Strunin Plumbing & Heating Co.,
Inc., 408 Second Ave., and 54 West 89th St.,
New York, N, Y.
STUART, Milton C.* (M 1935), Prof, of Mech.
Engrg. (for mail). Lehigh University, Mech.
Engrg. Dept., and 505 Norway Place, Bethlehem,
STUBBS, William C. (If 1934), Associate Naval
Archt., U. S. Government (for mail), Hull
Drawing Room, Norfolk Navy Yard, and 36
Channing Ave., Portsmouth, Va.
STURM, William (J 1937; 5 1936), Engr.,
Spencer Cooling & Air Conditioning Co., 413
a Sixth St., and (for mail), 315-16th Ave., S.E.,
Minneapolis, Minn.
SUDDERTH, Leo, Jr. (J 1936). Atlanta Branch
Mgr., Johnson Service Co.. 813 Bona Allen
Bldg., and (for mail), 310 Sixth St., Apt. 4,
Atlanta, Ga.
SUMMERS, Ernest T. (A 1930), Pres. (for mail),
Summers-Darling & Co., 121 Smith St., and
Ste. 22 Newcastle Apts., Winnipeg, Man.,
Canada.
SUNDELL, Samuel S. (J 1935; 5 .„
Larx Co., Inc., 607 S. Fifth Ave., and (for x
3040 Longfellow Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.
SUPPLE, Graeme B. (M 1934), Sales Engr. (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 625 Architects
and Builders Bldg., and 6224 Park Ave., India-
napolis, Ind.
SUTGLIFFE, Arthur G. (M 1922; A 1918), Chief
Engr., Ilg Electric Ventilating Co., 2850 N.
Crawford Ave., and (for mail), 4146 N. St. Louis
Ave., Chicago, 111.
SUTFIN, George V. (A 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), American Blower Corp., 1005-6 American
Bldg., Cincinnati, and 2951 Montana Ave.,
Westwood, Cincinnati, Ohio.
SUTHERLAND, David L. (A 1934), Pres. and
Treas. (for mail), Sutherland Air Conditioning
Corp., 15 N. Eighth St., and 1815 Colfaz Ave.,
S., Minneapolis, Minn.
SUITER, Edgar E. (A 1936), Sales Engr., Mueller
Brass Co., Port Huron, Mich,, and (for mail),
6705 Sixth St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
SWANEY, Carroll R. (M 1929; J 1921), Sales
Engr. (for mail), G. H. Gleason & Co., 28 St.
Botolph St., Boston, and 43 Clyde St., Newton-
vflle, Mass.
SWANSON, Earl G. (A 1935), Plant Mgr. (for
mail), Andersen Corp., Bayport, Minn.
SWANSON, Nils W. (A 1936), Sales Engr. (for
mail), McDonnell & Miller, 400 N. Michigan
Ave., Room 1316, and 7438 N. Artesian Ave.,
Chicago, 111.
SWANSTROM, Alfred E. (J 1935; 5 1932).
Construction Foreman, U. S. Dept. of Interior,
and (for mail), 1444 Van Buren St., St. Paul,
Minn.
SWEATT, Charles H. (J 1936; 5 1935), 274
Lexington Ave., Buffalo, N. Y.
SWENSON, John E. (A 1930), Industrial Engr.
(for maH), Minneapolis Gas Light Co., 800
Hennepin Ave., and 4853 South 14th Ave.,
Minneapolis, Mfrm.
SWIFT, Paul F. (A 1935), Secy., Carl F. Scheffer
Co., 838 S. Main St., and (for mail), 1115 Old
Orchard Ave.. Dayton, Ohio.
SWISHER, Stephen G., Jr. (M 1936; A 1934),
Branch Mgr. (for mail), Trane Co., 1835 N.
Third St., and 1711 E. Dean Rd.. Fox Point,
Milwaukee, Wis.
SYDOW, Louis J. (Jf 1936), Owner (for mail).
Colonial Heating & Sheet Metal Co., 1423
Hodiamont Ave., and 3841 Maffit Ave., St.
Louis, Mo.
55
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
SYSKA, Adolph G. (M 1933), Consulting Engr.,
Syska & Hennessy, 420 Lexington Ave., New
York, N. Y.
SZEKELY, Ernest (M 1920), Vice-Pres. and Gen.
Mgr. (for mail), Bayley Blower Co., 1817 South
66th St., and 3104 W. Kilbourn Ave., Mil-
waukee, Wis.
SZOMBATHY, Louis R. (A 1930), Pres., Fergu-
son Sheet Metal Works, 34 N. Florissant Blvd.,
Ferguson, Mo.
TAGGART, Ralph C.* (M 1912), 14 Lyon Ave.,
Menands, Albany, N. Y.
TALIAFERRO, Robert R.* (M 1919), Service
Engr., Carrier Corp., 330 S. Geddes St., and (for
mail), 1400 Euclid Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.
TALLMADGE, Webster (M 1924), Pres. (for
mail), Webster Tallmadge & Co., Inc., 255
North ISth St., East Orange, and 7 Claremont
Place, Montclair, N. J.
TANGER, O. C. F. (A 1937), Director N. V.
Technische Handels Maatschappij, "Renova,"
and (for mail), Rembrandtlaan 34, Arnhem,
Netherlands.
TANKER, George E. (J 1937; 5 1936), Mech.
Engr., Weatherhead Co., 620 Frankfort Ave.,
Cleveland, and (for mail), 1303 Virginia Ave.,
Lakewood, Ohio.
TAPLEY, Mark S. (M 1937), Htg., Vtg. and Air
Cond. Engr., 3280 Holdrege St., Lincoln, Nebr.
TARR, Harold M. (M 1931), Htg. and Vtg. Engr.,
21 Montague St., Arlington Heights, Mass.
TASKER, C.* (M 1935), Research Fellow (for
mail), Ontario Research Foundation, 43 Queens
"Park, and 737 Avenue Rd., Toronto, Ont,
Canada.
TAVERNA, Frederick F. (M 1928; A 1927;
J 1924), Engr., Raigler Heating Co., 129 Amster-
dam Ave., New York, N. Y., and (for mail),
406-12th St., Union City, N. J.
TAYLOR, Edward M. (4 1934), Tech. Mgr. (for
mail), Taylors, Ltd., 32-A Lichfield St., and Cr.
Kahu Rd., Totara St., Christchurch, New
Zealand.
TAYLOR, Harold J. (M 1937), Htg.- Vtg. Con-
tractor, 17514 Greenlawn Ave., Detroit, Mich.
TAYLOR, R. F. (M 1915), Consulting Engr. (for
mail), 911 Bankers Mortgage Bldg., and 1734
W. Alabama, Houston, Texas.
TAYLOR, Thomas E. (J 1937), Engr., Control
Equipment Co., 304 Selling Bldg., and (for mail),
8424 Southeast 13th Ave., Portland, Ore.
TAZE, Donovan L. (M 1931), Mgr, (for mail),
American Blower Corp., 1302 Swetland Bldg,,
Cleveland, and 19412 Winslow Rd., Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
TAZE, Edwin H. (M 1937), Sales Engr. (for mail),
American Blower Corp., 50 West 40th St., and
542 East 89th St., New York, N. Y.
TEAL, Edwin T. (J 1936; S 1935), Graduate Asst.,
Dept. of Mech. Engrg. (for mail), Agricultural
and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station,
and 6416 Velasco, Dallas, Texas.
TEASDALE, Lawrence A. (M 1926), Partner (for
mail), Office of Hollis French, 20 Ashmun St.,
and 262 W. Rock Ave., New Haven, Conn.
TECKMYER, Fred C., Jr. (S 1936), 1515 Wood-
ward Ave., Lakewood, Ohio.
TEELING, Georfie A. (M 1930), Consulting
Engr., (for mail), 1 Columbia Place, Albany,
and Box 81, Clarkesville, N. Y.
TEMPLE, Walter J. (M 1931), Engr., J. A.
Temple Co., 120 Red Arrow Parkway, and (for
mail), 1215 Reed St., Kalamazoo, Mich.
TEMPLIN, Charles L. (M 1921), Pres. (for mail),
Carrier Atlanta Corp.. 348 Peachtree St., and 781
Sherwood Rd., N.E., Atlanta, Ga.
TENKONOHY, Rudolph J. (M 1923), Vice-Pres.
Airtherm Mfg. Co., 1474 S. Vandeventer Ave.,
and (for mail), 3650 Shaw Blvd., St. Louis, Mo.
TENNANT, Raymond J. J. (A 1929), Engr. (for
mail). Pittsburgh Business Properties, Inc.,
Oliver Bldg., Room 2237, and 1215 Mississippi
Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa.
TENNEY, Dwight (M 1932), Pres. and Chief
Engr. (for mail), Tenney Engineering, Inc.,
Bloomfield Ave, at Grove St., Bloomfield, and
33 Summit Rd., Verona, N. J.
TERHUNE, Ralph D. (A 1930), Repr., American
Gas Products Corp., Fourth and Channing Sts.,
N.E., Washington, D. C., and (for mail), 4516
Highland Ave., Bethesda, Md.
TERRY, Matson C. (M 1936), Chief Engr. (for
mail), Standard Air Conditioning, Inc., Second
and Beechwood Sts., and 138 Calhoun Ave.,
New Rochelle, N. Y.
THEOBALD, Art (A 1937), Research Engr. (for
mail), Payne Furnace & Supply Co., Inc., 336
N. Foothill Rd., Beverly Hills, and 116H S.
Kings Rd., Los Angeles, Calif.
THEORELL, Hugo G. T.* (Life Member ;M 1902),
Consulting F^ngr., Hugo Theorells Ingeniorsbyra,
Skoldungagatan 4, Stockholm, Sweden.
THETFORD, James E. (J 1936; 5 1935), 411 E.
Healey St., Champaign, 111.
THINN, Christian A.* (M 1021), Chief Engr.,
C. A. Dunham Co., 450 E. Ohio St., Chicago, 111.
THOM, George B. (M 1937), Asst. Prof. Mech.
Engrg., Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.
THOMAS, Glegge (M 1023), Branch Mgr. (for
msuTi, Clarage Fan Co., 816 District National
Bank Bldg., Washington, D. C., and 7 Leland
St., Chevy Chase, Md.
THOMAS, L. G. Lee {M 1934), Vice-Pres.,
Economy Pumps, Inc., Hamilton, Ohio.
THOMAS, Melvern F. (M 1909), Consulting
Engr., (for mail), Thomas & Wardell, 24 Bloor
St., W., and 74 Rivercrest Rd., Toronto, Ont.,
Canada.
THOMAS, Norman A. (M 192S), Pres., Thomas
Heating Co., 142 South 14th St., LaCrosse, Wis.
THOMAS, Richard H. {Life Member; M 1920),
Pros., Economy Pumping Machinery Co., 3431
West 48th Place, Chicago, 111.
THOMMEN, Adolph A. (A 1920), Metal Worker,
John W. Thomson, 1437 West 103rd St., and (for
mail), 3-400 West 61st Place, Chicago, III.
THOMPSON, Frank (M 1935), Chief Engr..
Vulcan Iron Works, Ltd., Sutherland Ave., and
(for mail), 543 Newman St., Winnipeg, Man.,
Canada.
THOMPSON, Nelson S.* (At 1917; / 1897), 1615
Hobart St., N.W., Washington. D. C.
THOMSON, Thomas N.* (Life Member; M 1899),
Consulting Engr., Plbg. and Htg.f 37 Irwin Place,
Huntinfiton, L. I., N. Y.
THORNBURG, Harold A. (M 1932; J 1020),
c/o N. V. Industricele Mi j Gcbr. Van Swaay,
Societeitstraat 10, Soerabaia, Java, Dutch East
Indies.
THORNTON, Thaddeus L. (Af 1037), Main-
tenance Engr., Prudential Insurance, 00 Barclay
St., Newark, and (for mail), 37 Perry St., Belle-
ville, N. J.
THORNTON, William B.* (M 1031), Sales Engr.,
Norge Nestor, Inc., 1024 W. Adams St., and (for
mail), 3329 Randall St., Jacksonville, Fla.
THRUSH, Homer A. (M 1018), Pres., H. A.
Thrush & Co., 21-23 Riverside Drive, Peru, Ind.
THUNEY, Francis M. (/ 1930), Application
Engr. (for mail), William E. Kingswell, Inc.
(Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co.), 3707
Georgia Ave., N,W., and 4-174 Conduit Rd.,
N.W.. Washington, D. C.
TIBBETS, John C. (M 1920>, Engrg. Dept.,
B. & O. R. R. Co., and (for mail), P. O. Box 10(J,
Ellicott City, Md.
TILLER, Louin (A 1935; 5 1933), Air Cond.
Engr., Oklahoma Gas & Electric Co., 331 N.
Harvey, and (for mail), 27113 Northwest 15th
St., Oklahoma City, Okla.
TILTZ, Bernard E, (M 1930), Preg. (for mail),
Tiltz Air Conditioning Corp., 230 Park Ave.,
New York, and 24 Barnura Rd., Larchmont.
TIMMINS, W. W. (M 1937), Dist. Mgr. (for mail),
Viking Pump Co. of Canada, Ltd., and Canadian
Powers Regulator Co., Ltd., 344 University
Tower Bldg., Montreal, and 351 Brock Ave,,
N., Montreal West, Que., Canada.
56
ROLL OF M:
TIMMIS, Pierce (M 1920), Service Equip. DepL
(for mail), United Engineers & Constructors, Inc.,
1401 Arch St., Philadelphia, and 202 Midland
Of 1933; A 1925), Mgr..
Systems and Control Div. (for mail), American
Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St., New York, and
32 Oak Lane, Glen Cove, L. L, N. Y.
JERSLAND, Alf (Af 1916; J 1906), E. Sunde &
OwTer iSFSw. VSSfl). GeT J/Tobin, iK
191 North Ave., and 510 Grant Ave., Plainfield,
TOB&, John F. (A 1934), Salesman (for mail),
American Blower Corp.. 228 N. LaSalle St., and
11256 S. Artesian Ave., Chicago, 111.
TODD. Meryl L. (J 1936), Mech. Engr. (for mafl).
901 Waterloo Bldg., and 1119 Vine St., Waterloo,
TODD,* Stanton W., Jr. (J 1935), Sales Repr.,
American Radiator Co., 8019 Joseph Campau,
Detroit, and (for mail), 309 Pan*. S.E., Grand
TOLl^URSTfGeorge C. (Af 1936J, Htg. Designer,
Gurney Massey Co., Ltd., Principal SL, and (for
mafl), 142 Blvd. St. Germain, St. Laurent, near
Montreal, Canada.
TONRY, Robert G. (M 1936), Mgr. (for mafl),
St., and 217 Fairmont Ave., Fairmont! W. Va.
TOONDER, Clarence L. (Af 1933), Air Cond.
Sales Engr., Norge Div., Borg Warner Corp.,
670 IE. Woodbrfdge, and (for mafl), 133§1
W«.*.IM» Tko**vM+ Mi^h
(A 1934), Utilization
v7 (for mail), Public Service Co. of Northern
Illinois, 72 W. Adams St., Chicago, and 465
Parkside Ave., Elmhurst, 111.
TOROK, Elmer (Af 1936), Supt. of Power (for
mail), North American Rayon Corp., Elizabeth-
ton, and 203 West "G" St.. Elizabethton. Tenn.
TORR, Thomas W. (M 1933), Chief Ifcigr.. Rudy
Furnace Co., and (for mafl), P. O. Box 73,
Dowagiac, Mich.
TORRANCE, Henry (Af 1933), Chairman, Car-
bondale New York Co., 175 Christopher St.. and
(for mafl), 112 East 17th St.. New York, N. Y.
TOUTON.'R. D.
~v ,»» . x*»
1933). Tech. Director (for
T__ ^"-^ Columbia
, Cynwyd,
TRUTTT. G. Scott (J 1937: S 1936), Production
Dept. (for mafl), Baatian-Morley Co., Inc., and
907 Indiana Ave., LaPorte, Ind.
TRUMBO, Silas M. (A 1926), Sales (for mafl).
Buffalo Forge Co., 20 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago,
and 921 Franklin St., Downers Grove. 111.
TRUMP, Charles C. (M 1934), Pres. (for mall),
James Spear Stove & Heating Co., 1823 Market
St., Philadelphia, and 503 Baird Rd., Merion
Station, Pa.
TUCKER, Frank N. (M 1926), Field Engr.. Hg
Electric Ventilating Co., Room 1108. 13 Park
Row, New York, and (for mafl), 239 Whaley St..
FreeDort. L. I. N. Y.
TUCKSC Leonard A. (M 1935), Dist. Engr..
J. J. Pocock, Inc., 1920 Chestnut St., Phila-
delphia, and (for mail), 518 Monroe Ave.,
TUCKED, Thomas T. (A 1936), Chief Efcgr..
Armor Insulating Co., 260 Peachtree St., and (for
mail), 3619 Ivey Rd., N.E., Atlanta, Ga.
TUCKERMAN, George E. (M 1932), Mgr. (for
mafl), Anderson York Co., 600 Schuylkill Ave.,
Philadelphia, and 502 Rodman Ave., JerOdn-
town. Pa.
TURLAND, Charles H. (If 1934; A 1930), Sales
Engr. (for mafl), R. E. Johnston Co., Ltd., 1070
Homer St., and 4579 W. First Ave., Vancouver,
B. CM Canada.
TURNER, George G. (A 1934), Western Repr.
(for mafl), Industrial Press, 228 N. LaSalle St.,
Chicago, and 744 Hinman Ave., Evanston, HI.
TURNIP Harry S., Jr. (J 193?; 5 1936), Dallas
Power & Light Co., 1001 Dallas Power & Light
Bldg., and (for mail), 4950 Gaston, Dallas, Texas.
TURNER, John (Jf 1930), Engr. (for mafl),
Capitol Engineering Co., Potter and Binney Sts.,
Cambridge, Mass., and Contoocook, New
Hampshire.
TURNER, Prescott K. (A 1937; / 1935), Head
Engr., Airco Heating Equipment Co., 29 Barbour
St-Tand (for mauV22 Maplewood Ave., Brad-
ford, Pa.
TURNO, Walter G. W. (Af 1917; A 1912), Secy.,
H. W. Porter & Co., Newark, and (for mail), 71
Lafayette Ave., East Orange, N. J.
TUSCH, Walter (M 1917), Htg. and Vtg. Engr.,
Tenney & Ohmes. Inc., 101 Park Ave., New
York, and (for mafl), 881 Sterling Place, Brook-
lyn, N. Y.
TUTTLE, George H. (Jf 1937; A 1936; J 1
TOWER, Elwood S. {M 1930), Engr. (for matt),
213 Investment Bldg., and 5644 Forbes St..
Pittsburgh, Pa*
TRACY, William E. (J 1937), Dist. Mgr., (for
mail), B. F. Sturtevant Co., 237 Grain Exchange
Bldg., and 5016 Cass St., Omaha, Nebr.
------------ — . _ ----- ~ g^ jk—
. Ave.. New
__ t _ ; Argyle Place,
N. Arlington; N. J. '
TRANE, Reuben N.* (Af 1915). Pres. tfor mafl),
Trane Co., and 126 South 15th St., LaCrosse,
Wls.
TRAUGOTT, Mortimer (A 1930). East Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Bryant Heater Co., 830 N.
Broad St., Philadelphia, and 721 Meeting House
TRAWICK^Jack G. Of 1937), Dist. Repr. (for
mail), Minneapolis-Honeywejl .Regulator, Co.,
1316 Comer Bldg.
Birmingham, Ala.
TRAYNOR, Harrj S. (7 1937), Export DepU
- - -• ^ — • --• -- ~- ,44 Beaver St,
, 443 Morris
HtgTEngr. (for mafl)', Detroit Edison Co., 2000
Second Ave., and 16714 Kentfield. Detroit, Mich.
TUTTLE, J. Frank (Jf 1913), Skies Agt. gpr
mafl), Warren Webster & Co., 127 Federal St.,
Boston, and 9 Lewis Rd.. Winchester, Mass.
TUVB, George L.* (Af 1932). Prof, of Beat-
Power Engrg. (for mafl), Case School of Applied
SdSJce7 and 1294 Cleveland Heights Blvd..
Cleveland, Ohio.
TUXHORN, David B. _(tf
_ .. SteuWt & Bro., Inc., 13i ..
and (for mail). 4853 Sedgwick St., N.W., Wash-
ington. D. C.
TWIST, Charles F. at 1921). Pres. (f or **&) u
Aahwdl-Twist Co., 967 Thomas SU and 2310
Tenth Ave., N., Seattle, Wash.
TWIZELL, Edwin W. (Af 1937), l-k-
mafl), Connolly & Twfeefl Reg*d., 1405 _ ,
St., and 4944 Earnsdiffe Ave.. Montreal. Que.,
TYLER, W D. (Jf 1928), Mgr. (for mafl).
ModSe Mfg. Co., 101 Park Ave.. New York, and
15 Highbrook Ave^ Pelham, N. Y.
TREADWAY, John O- (4 1936; J 1932), Dist
Sales Mgr. (for mail), Oarage Fan Co., 410
Refolds Arcade, and 826 Winona Blvd.,
Rochester, N. Y.
TROSTEL, Otto A. (Af 1935), Engr. ff or mafl).
Kern KiMPTTA^ttg Co., Inc., 5083 Plankinton
Bldg., andSlS >f. Seventh St., Milwaukee, Wis.
-,
TYSON, William H. Of 19, . .
(for mafl), Goodyear Tyre to. Rubber Co., Ltd.,
and "Kipewa" Codsall Rd,, Nr. Wolverhamp-
ton, England.
. of Engrg.
., Ltd.,
UHL, «dwln J. (Af 1925), Partner (for mail),
Uhl Co., 132 S. Tenth St., and 4830 Pleasant
Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
UHL, Willard F. (M 1918), Partner (for mail),
Uhl Co., 132 S. Tenth St., and 4716 Lyndale
Ave., S., Minneapolis, Minn.
UHLHORN, W. J. (M 1920), 733 S. Highland
Ave., Oak Park, 111.
ULLMAN, Herbert G. (A 1928), American
Radiator Co., 40 West 40th St., New York, and
(for mail), 107 White Rd., Scarsdale, N. Y.
ULLRICH, Anton B., Jr. (J 1937), Sales Engr.,
Gilbert Engineering Co., 1314= Liberty Bank
Bldg., and (for mail), 1330 Hollywood, Dallas,
Texas.
URDAHL, Thomas H. (M 1930), Consulting
Engr. (for mail), 726 Jackson Place, N.W., and
1505-44th St., N.W., Washington, D. C.
VALE, Henry A. L. (M 1929), Managing Director
(for mail), Vale & Co., Ltd., 141-43 Armagh St.,
and 241 Ilam Rd., Fendalton, Christchurch,
New Zealand.
VAN ALEN, Walter T, (M 1924), Htg. Engr. and
Sales Agt., 1300 Darlington Rd., Beaver Falls,
Pa.
VAN ALSBURG, Jcrold H.* (M 1031), Ensr, of
Application, Hart & Cooley Mfg. Co., 01 W.
Kinzie St.. Chicago, 111.
VANCE, Louis G. (M 1919), Partner, Vance-
McCrea Sales Co., 2700 Sisson St., and (for
mail), 4402 Maine Ave., Baltimore, Md.
VANDERHOOF* Austin L, (A 1933), Dist. Repr.
(for mail), Warren Webster & Co., 2341 Carnegie
Ave.. Cleveland, and 2762 Landon Rd., Shaker
Heights, Ohio.
VANDERLIP, P. J. (A 1935), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), Howland Engineering Co., 200 S.
Grand Ave., and 911 W, Ottawa St., Lansing,
Mich.
VAN NOUHUYS, Herbert C. (J 1937), Engr..
Air Cond. Div., Naah-Kelvinator Corp., 141if>0
Plymouth Rd., and (for mail), 2007 Seward Ave.,
Detroit, Mich.
VAN NUYS, Jay C. (J 1938; 5 1930), Junior
Partner, P. C. Van Nuys, Archt., 1 W. Main St.,
and (for mail), 56 W. Cliff St., Somerville, N. J.
VARNER, John L. (A 1935), Air Cond. and
Commercial Engr,, Jacksonville Refrigeration,
Inc., 35 W. Monroe St., and (for mail), Seminole
Hotel, Jacksonville, Fla.
VAUGHAN, John G., Jr. (J 1935), American
Heating Engineering Co., Inc., 1005 New York
Ave., N.W., Washington, D. C.. and (for mail),
4415 Maple Ave., Bethesda, Md
VAUGHN, Frank R. (M 1937; A 1930), Vice-
Pres. (for mail), Green Foundry & Furnace
Works, and 532 Polk Blvd., Des Moines, Iowa.
VERNON, J. Rexford (M 1928; A 1026), (for
mail), Johnson Service Co., 1356 Washington
Blvd., Chicago, and 733 Brummel St., Evanston,
111.
VERVOORT, Edward L. (J 1937; 5 1930), House
Htg. Engr., Brooklyn Union Gas Co., 180
Remsen St., Brooklyn, and (for mail), 31 Yale
Place, Rockville Centre, L. I., N. Y.
VETLESEN, G. Unfier (M 1930), 1 Beekman
Place, New York, N. Y.
VIDALE, Richard (M 1935), Air Cond. Engr, (for
mail), Flesch & Schmidt, Inc., CO Brown St.,
and 572 Flower City Park, Rochester, N. Y.
V1ESSMAN, Warren (M 1930), Mech, Engr.,
Public Buildings Branch, Procurement Div.,
U. S. Treasury Dept., Washington, D. C,, and
(for mall), 2205 Lake Ave., Baltimore, Md.
VINCENT, Paul J. (M 1931), Enter, (for mail),
P. J. Vincent Co,, 2208 Maryland Ave., Balti-
more, Md.
VINSON, Neal L. (J 1936; 5 1932), Engr. and
Estimator, L. W. Vinson & Son, Bisbee and
Douglas, and (for mail). Box 3007, Lowell,
Ariz.
VISSAC, Gustave A. (M 1937), Consulting Engr.,
1325 Frontenac Ave., Calgary, Alta., Canada.
VIVARTTAS, E. Arnold (M 1910), Engr., 247
Potter Ave., West New Brighton. S. I., N. Y.
VOGEL, Andrew (Jl/ 192M, Knur.. General
Electric Co., 1 River Rd., and (for mail), 1821
Lenox Rd., Scheneetady, N. Y.
VOGELBACH, Oscar (<U 1023). Consulting
Engr., Chamber of Commerce BId«., Newark,
N. J., and (for mail), R. F. D. 3. Montgomery,
N. Y.
VOIGT, Robert N. (S 1037), Student, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, and (for mail), 001
New York St., Lafayette, Ind.
VOISINET, Walter E. (M lt)«M. Sales Rcpr. (for
mail), John J. Nesbitt, Inc., iir>0 Ueluwure Ave.,
Buffalo, and 151 Warren Ave., Kenmorc, N. Y.
VOLBERD1NG, Leroy A. (A UTO, Air Cond.
Engr. (for mail), Nor«e Div. of Horn-Warner,
670 E. Woodbridge, Detroit, and 471 Oakland
Ave., Birmingham, Mich.
VOLK, Joseph IL (M 1023), Pres. and Troas. (for
mail), Thos. K. Hoyc Heating Co., !<.)()« W. St.
Paul Ave., and U005 South 43rd St., Milwaukee,
Wis.
vonCHRISTIERSON, Carl A. (J HOT, Kati-
mating Enirr. (for mall), Carrier Kngineering
(S. A.), Ltd., P. O. Box 31M9, and 03 Claim Str..
Johannesburg, South Africa,
VOORHEES, Guy A, (A/ 1922), ConaiiUlnK Kn»cr.,
C33 S. Delaware St., and (for mail), 3-WI Broad-
way, Indianapolis, Ind.
VOYE, Vcrnon J. (A 1935), Salesman, Richardson
& Boynton Co., 17 Karnnworth St., Koston, and
(for mail), 20 Richview St., Dorchester, Maw.
VROOME, Albert E* (Jl/ 11W1«. Air Cond. Kn«r.,
Phoenix Engineering Corp., 2 Rector St., Ni*w
York, N. Y., and (tor mail), 0218 Ambf»y Rd..
Prince Bay. Staten Island, N. Y,
W
WAOIIS, Louia J. (A 1030; J 1930), Sal«»wan,
Carrier Corp., Chrynler Hldg.. New York, and
(for mail), 3M Kant Ulat vSt., Brooklyn, N. Y.
WADE, Richard H. (,U 11)37), KnKr., Spencer
Heater Co., 101 Park Ave., New York, and (for
mail), 130-73 -IKJOth St., Laurclton, L. U N. Y.
WADSWORTH, Raymond H. (J U»37), Salfca
Kngr. (for imiil), Clurawc Kan Co., 500 Wt'th
Ave., New York, N. Y., and 24 CarUon St., Ku»t
Herman P. (A 1030; J 1«27>, Air
OranKC, N, J.
WAECHTER, I
ngn, W, T. Grant Co., U41
»rk, and (for
Ktaten Island, N, Y.
. ,
Now York, and (for mail), W) Sherman Ave.,
t
WAGGONER, Jack II. (A/ 1U37), Genenil
Factories Chemint (for mail), Znchwtriul imd
Structural Products Dtv,, Owcnrs- Illinois Gluwt
Co., and Rtc. T>, Munice, Ind.
WA<;NER, A. M. (A n»ai>, Hmnch M«r. (for
mail), Amcrictin Radiator Co., 17-U W. St, Paul
Ave., and 18f>7 N» ProHi>cct Ave,, Milwaukee,
Wla.
WAGNER, Edward A. (.W IW37; A UK«i». !»rt>3..
Wagner ICnsinecrinK Corp., 22 Dunham St., and
(for mail), 28 Waverly St., IMttufwld, Matw,
WAGNER, Frederick IL, Jr. (M liW>, Vices-
Pros. (for mall), Niagara Blower C<x, « 1-^iat -tAth
St., New York, and 11211 Poat R<1.,
Bedford Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
WAHRENBROCK, Orln K. (J . n«r.,
Automatic Appliance Corp., 'M Richmond Hill
Ave., Stamford, and (for mail), ;j«0 W«»t Ave.
(Box 117), Glcnbrook, Conn,
WA1D, Glen H. (A 11)30), Dl«t, Sjilea Kn«r,,
Scott Valve Mfg. Co,, 3908 McKinley Ave., and
(for mail), 2928 Northwestern Av«., Detroit,
Mich.
WAITE, Harry (A 1920), Sccy.-Treau. (for mull),
Gray Plumbing Co., 12U O«<ten Avc.t and 1400-
17th St., Superior, Wia,
WALDON, Charles D. (A 11W2), Consulting
Engr., Spencer Foundry Co., Punctang, and (for
mail), 32 Fcrndale Ave., Toronto, Ont,, Canada,
58
OF MEMBERSHIP
WA1*KKK. Kdmund R. f Af 1034), Sulca MRT. (for
mail'.* I'VtMm Mt«, <"*>.. Inc., «r>7 Tonuvmnda
St,» lliiit.iift, and ;iiW» MeKinley Avc,, Kenmore,
WALK'HR, Jmm»» B. a w:t7; .v ww, 214 Rock-
W.H«I Av«\, I»,iyt«»n. and (tor mail), 21M Abing-
ton Uil., Ovrl.'nil, Ohio,
WAMCKR. J. Herbert* i.U Ii»W), (Council, 1925),
I'm-r,. Ar.t. t«> <ien, NU;r. (for mail), Detroit
lMl»:..«a Co,, *MHio svimil Av«»,, Detroit, and 432
Arlington K»l., Hinninwlwm, Mich,
WALKI-R, WlWum K. (Af IUS5), Sales Kngr.,
American K.ulut** «'«>., 40 West 40th St., New
t'AU.At'.K, David R. (A 1W7), HnKr. (for mail),
Yi»mu; tv H««tit\ 0 l''i,mkttn Avr., Ridfiewood,
,iml '.** tUnlnu; Hd., I Hen Kwlc, N. J.
WAU..MW. <;vorfce J. (M I'.WIti, Principal Knur.
,m*i t .wtiiiit»»r, 'Xi- tl» ;i.*rth AVP.. Corona, and
U"r m.ult. VJ7-U«» Hrirwson St,, Kast Khuhurst,
WAIJ.A<:K. cj«»rn* N. n/ Ji«{?>. (J^ ««^»
(ir.,rB*» N. W,i«,i«'«* l i».» H^l M,ulw<m AVI*., New
Ytitk. ,*«•! "" V i»11rv Rd,, N«'w U«H'Uf!U% N. Y,
WAM-ACF. Harry I'., Jr. i.l ISWtJ), M«r., Salt's
l»MmH|*.«n i Mr nwil-, <%Mno n,., 4(10 Third
Av,, N., **»«! -ItMiti :itth Av»v» S., Minneapolis
lllIXctK, Kenneth S.t<W IH3D, (Di«t. Kngr.
aJilli^s/Sm iWro'st^iiil HUH \Vcttt83rd SU
rlul'VciJ^^ljiUm M., II U/ ItTO. Purtner.
1ri!n«'i.»ttit<* Kilfji Co., lltt* North Mill «., and
Ixuit-nwii'1 HuV Piv.i York 'lot- Machinory
' tinr imiih, MWtt Him T«?rrae« Apta.,
-,
Mum M.,
l jim« A. M IWIIS;
n. Mijr,, Mr i%iinllti«»nlnj?tt».,
awl '"it-i H,iwth««Hf St., H««wt«,m, c*w,
WUSU, MttU'fifni t^r ii«i4), Vicc-Pwu. (for
iu»u"\V.»I.ih <v Wrtthoim, *r»»i \V. I^idwuy,
N»'w YttrU. ami *,»! IVnltrMke Ave., S. I., N. V.
mums, Arthur u or uiw; A inafl; J ;i»a4v,
( ht*<i i'n^r, i»o» miunt<rr^iU'tmmlry«:l;^
\\MtU-i* Ililnl t»nd hUn Stu., and IKJO-BWth St.,
l»»*'}
WAM*KKH,
W I«17>, Btt«r,,
ittit ».. «- St, and Kunne Aye,,
ur maitn 7tf»M I'liilHiw Aw,, ('WcaiMr*. Ill,
.
XV,. »n«t «lif
42-a Va
WAI//.. <J
wi W.f Jr. (A/ lf««). Mech.
^ RwkfhjttM tVntw, Inc., 30
,rt, N>w Vork, M, V., and UO
t:ita AVI*.. RidK«*wo«xlr N. J.
r .
|, 1««W (,»cntnhmx H.,
.
vf,, NAV,. untl (fo
N.W,* \V.i'»hiiiKt««»* , *
\RI> Mw»rd B, (W UKI7), Owner (for mail),
Mi*W W JwifS * <X 271) fmwint St., and
t!a;»t(a«'4atrtSttt!''*andrt<-t»f t ahf.
WARD. Fmnk J. Of lg»B). Owner, I'rank J.
Want <'«*., (^4tl Si*rlnK, Ky- ., .n
WARD llarryll.M UW7). OiHt, «n«r. (for ina I),
I iS'liTiStfiV f :»«»!. l>lv,, SfcW N«rUi«iit Wth
S an I 7§ i NmlbwMl I«U St., Mlttml, IHa.
J Ol X^l»» 1>rcs- ifor mail)J
, JnV, ITtt'TMtto tower, and
WARING, James M. S. (M 1932), Consulting
Enfir., 277 Park Ave., New York, N. Y.
WARREN, Charles W. (/ 1936; 5 1935), Mech.
Engr., A. J. Warren (for mail), 2313 Ave. E, and
3317-R-H, Galveston, Texas.
WARREN, Francis C. (M 1934), Branch Mgr.
(for mail), American Blower Corp., 200 Division
Ave., N.t and 329 Gladstone Ave., S.E., Grand
Rnpida, Mich.
WARREN, Harry L. (M 1930), Sales Research
Kngr., Southern California Gas Co,, 950 S.
Broadway, Los Angeles, and (for mail), 1303
Huntington Drive, South Pasadena, Calif.
WARREN, John S., Jr. (/ 1937), Sales Engr.
(for mail), York Ice Machinery Corp., 115-121
South llth St., and 2017 Maury Ave,, St. Louis,
WASHBURN, Marcus J. (A 1934), Insulation
En«r. (for mail), Eaglc-Picher Lead Co., Temple
Bar BldR., and 2211 Park Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio.
WASHINGTON, George (M 1934), Engr.,
Hoffman Specialty Co., Waterbury, Conn.t>and
(for mail), 4327 Johnson Ave., Western Springs,
III.
WASHINGTON, Laurence W. (M 1929), Modu-
trol Div. Mgr. (for mail), Minneapolis-Honey-
well Regulator Co., 433 E. Erie St., Chicago, and
778 Laurel Ave., DCS Plaines, 111.
WATERMAN, John H. (M 1931), Engr. (for
mail). Charles T. Main, Inc., 201 Devonshire
St., Boston, and 7 Centre St., Cambridge, Mass,
WATERS, Frank A. (A 1930), Htg and Vtg.
Knur., Westinghouse Electric Supply Co., 150
Vnrick St., New York, and (for mail), Bedford
WATERS! George G. (M 1931; A 1926), Dist
Mur. (for mail), American Blower Corp., 1433
Oliver BIdg., and 110 Longuevue Drive, Pitta-
burgh (1«), Pa.
WATKINS, George B. (A 1930), Director of
Research (for mail), Libby-O wens-Ford Glass
Co Research Dcpt., Oakdale and E. Broadway,
and ,Wl Berrlnn Ave., Toledo, Ohio.
WATSON, H- Dalton (A 1036). Branch Mgr. (for
mail), Undo Canadian Refrigeration Co., 124
King St., and 830 Mulvey Ave., Winnipeg, Man.,
WATSON, M. Barry (M 1928), Consulting Engr.,
184 College St., and (for mail), 121 Welland Ave.,
Toronto 5, Canada. « w « u
WATT, Robert D. (J 1937), Enffr., H. W. Beecher
Consulting Knur.. fi02 Securities Bids., and (for
mail), 1300 Madison St., Seattle, Wash.
WATTS, Albert B. (A 1937), Mgr., A. E. Watts,
M7 Cruig -St., W., and (for mail), 2347 Beacons-
old Ave,, N. D. G., Montreal, Que., Canada.
WAUNG, Tshifi-fi (U 1935; J 1933), Htg. Engr.
(for mail), Andersen Meyer & Co., Ltd., Yuen
Ming Yuen Rd., Shanghai, China.
WAYLAND, Clarke E. (A 1937), Vice-Pres. tfor
mil), Western Asbestos Co., 675 Townsend St.,
and <ia Allaton Way, San Francisco, Calif.
WEATHERBY, Edward P., Jr. (/ 1936; 5 1935),
Product Engn, Air Cond. Dept., General
gn, Ar on. ep.,
490C Woodland Ave., and (for mail) ,
Avc., Apt. No. 2, Cleveland, Ohio.
11125 I^ike Avc., f\in- *>v ~i -.*WT^» — ,t — --•_-
WEBB, Enwat C. (M 1085), Enm. Serjj"^;
ffor mail), Iron Fireman Mfg. Co., 3170 West
idJthSt, Cleveland, and 1202 Woodside Drive,
Rocky River, Ohio.
WEBB, John S. (M 1920), Sales Engr., W. D.
Caflhin Co., 69 A St., Boston, and (for mail),
:*ir> Brooklinc vSt,, Needham, Mass.
WEBB John W. CM 1920), Managing Director
(for maU)7 Webb Dust Removing & Drying Co.,
Ltd., Vinery Works, Town Lane, Denton Nr.
Manchester; and "Ebor." Brmnington, btock-
WEB^Erwin (M 1921), Consulting Engr..
534 Medical Art. Bldg., Seattle, Wash.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
WEBSTER, E. Kessler (M 1915), Warren Webster
& Co., 17th and Federal Sts,, Camden, N. J.
WEBSTER, Warren (Life Member; M 1906;
A 1899), Pres., Warren Webster & Co., 17th and
Federal Sts., Camden, N. J., and Pass-a- Grille,
Fla.
WEBSTER, Warren, Jr, (M 1932; J 1027), Vice-
Pres. and Treas. (for mail), Warren Webster &
Co., 1625 Federal St., Camden, and 200 Colonial
Ridge Drive, Haddonfield, N. J.
WEBSTER, William H., Jr. (A 1935), Vice-Prea.
(for mail), Hurst Heating Engineers, Inc., 400
York St., and 200 N. Shore lid., (Academy
Terrace), Norfolk, Va.
WECHSBERG, Otto (M 1032), Pres. and Gen.
Mgr., Coppus Engineering Corp., 344 Park Ave..
and (for mail), 1006 Main St., Apt. 4, Worcester
Mass.
WEDDELL, George O, (M 1930), Branch M«r.r
York Ice Machinery Corp., 2400 Carson St.,
Pittsburgh, and (for mail), 3114 Wainbell Ave.,
Dormont, Pittsburgh, Pa.
WEEKS, Paul (A 1937), Mgr., Engine Sales Div.
(for mail), Caterpillar Tractor Co., and 121
Barker Ave., Peoria, 111.
WEGMANN, Albert (M 1918), C206 North 17th
St., Philadelphia, Pa.
WEIDELE, Erwin J. (A 1937), Htg. and Vt«.
Inspector, City of Los Angeles, Room M8, City
Hall, and (for mail), 8519 Colecrest Drive, Los
Angeles, Calif.
WEIL, Martin (A 1925), Vicc-Prca. (for mail).
Weil-McLain Co., 041 W, Lake St., and 4U,W
Hazel Ave.T Chicago, 111.
WEIL, Maurice I. (A 1928), Pres. (for mail),
Chicago Pump Co., 2336 Wolfram St., and 1409
W. Elmdale Ave., Chicago, 111.
WEIMER, Fred G. (A 1919), Mgr., Milwaukee
Office, Kewanee Boiler Corp., 3113 E. Wisconsin
Ave., Room 412, and (for mail), 3958 N. Stowell
Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.
WEINERT, Fred C. (A 1937), Asst. Sales M«r.
(for mail), Chamberlin Metal Weather Strip Co.,
Inc., 1264 Labrosse St., Detroit, and 9909 York
Ave., R. No. 2, Plymouth, Mich.
WEINFELD, Charles (J 1936), Sales En«r., Jig
Electric Ventilating Co., 182 N. LaSuIIe St..
and (for mail), 5100 Cornell Ave., Chicago, 111.
WEINSHANK, Theodore* (Life Member ;M 1900),
(Board of Governors, 1913), Consulting En«r.,
3307 Belden Ave., Chicago, 111,
WEISS, Arthur P. (M 1928), Burnham Boiler
Corp., Irvington, and (for mail), 134 Farriniiton
Ave., North Tarrytown, N. Y.
WEISS, Carl A. (M 1930; A 1924), Gen. Mgr, (for
mail), Kornbrodt Kornice Co., 181Mf> Troost
Ave., and 29 East 68th St, Kansas City, Mo.
WEITZEL, Cameron B. (M 1930), Owner and
Operator, 122 E. High St., Manhcim, Pa,
WEITZEL, Paul H, (J 1930; 5 1034), Junior
Engr., Cameron B. Weitzel, 122 K. High St.,
Manheim, Pa.
WELCH, Louis A., Jr. (A 1929), 443 Second St.,
Schenectady, N. Y.
WELDY, Lloyd O. (M 1930), Diet. Mgr. (for
mail), Powers Regulator Co., 2341 Carneftie
Ave., Cleveland, and 19623 Laurel Ave., Rocky
River, Ohio,
WELSH, Harvey A. (A 1036), Engr., A. P.
Woodson Co,, 1313 H St., N.W., Washington,
D. C,, and (for mail), 4118 Lee Highway,
Arlington, Va.
WELTER, M. A, (A 1926), Engrg, and Htg.
Contractor (for mail), Welter Furnace Mfg. Co.,
2023 S. Lyndale St., and 4200 S. Aldrich Ave.,
Minneapolis, Minn.
WENDT, Edftar F. (M 1918), Pro, (for mail),
Buffalo Forge Co., 490 Broadway, and 120
Lincoln Parkway, Buffalo, N. Y.
WENDT, Edwin H. (J 1930), Estimator and
Draftsman (for mail), Wendt & Crone Co., 2124
Southport Ave., and 3809 N. Troy St., Chicago,
111.
WERNER, John G. (Af 1037), Branch Mtfr. (for
mail), L. J. Mueller Furnace Co., Delaware
Ave. and Morris St., Philadelphia, and 215 N.
Easton Kd., Glenside, Pa.
WERNER, Richard K. (A/ 1030), Consulting
Ensr. (for mail), 310 W. T. Wagoner Hldg.,
and 3071 Monticello Drive, Fort Worth, Texas.
WESLEY, Ray O. (A UKJ7), Sales Hnjrr. (for mail),
XT. S, Radiator Corp,, Ml Boren Ave., N.,
Seattle, and Yarrow Point, Hdlevue, Wash.
WEST, Perry* (,U 11U1), (Council, llttiO-1025;
Treiuu. ItllM-lOltf), Prof, of Steam and Power
Knprg., Head of Dept. of Mech. Kn^rs. (for
miul), University of Kentucky, College of
Knsnr., and 185 K, Maxwell St., Lexington, Ky.
WESTOVBR, Wendell (M 103tt). Prca. (tor mail),
\\Vatover-Wolfe, Inc., 170 Washington Ave.,
and ^21 S. Main Ave., Albany, N. Y.
WESTPHAL, Norman E. (S 1937), Student,
Purdue University, West Lafayette, and (for
mail), Long Bench, Michigan City, Ind.
WfiTHEKED, Woodworth (M HWn, Consulting
Knxinccr, Hotel Sir Francis Drake, San Fran-
cisco. Calif.
WETXELL, Horace E. (JLf 1034), Chief Kngr. (for
main, Smith & Oby Co., «107 CarneKie Ave., and
874W Klamere Drive, Cleveland, Ohio,
WHEELER, Joe, Jr. (jl/ 11)37), SiUcs Repr. (for
mail), Johnson Service Co.. 28 Hast &>th St.,
New York, N. YM and 30 Dunnell Rd.. Maple-
WHKLAN,' William J. (A/ 1923), Purchasing and
Estimating (for mail), Harrlgan & Reid Co.,
i:u$,"> Hagley, and 3790 Seminole Ave., Detroit,
Mich.
WHRLLER, Harry S. (M 1910), Vice-Pre*., L. J.
Winx Mf«. Co., 154 Wct>t 14th St., New York,
N. Y., and (for mail), 725 Union Ave,, Ktoboth,
WHitF, Elmer D. (J 1037), Engr, (for mail),
Ranco, Inc., 001 VV. Fifth Ave., and i!()80 Neil
Avr., Columbu*, Ohio,
WHITE, Euftene H. (Af TO-tt, Arch, and ICn«r.
(for mull), Y. M, C. A., 10 8. LaSulle SL, Chicago,
and 300 N. Taylor Ave., Oak Park. III.
WHITE, Everett A. (Af 1921), Knm. Hept.,
Cmne Co., 30 South 10th St., and (for mail),
,r>244 Nottingham St., St. Loul«» Mo.
WHITE* Elwood S. (M 1021), Press, (for mull),
U. S. Radiator Corp., 105tJ National Bank Md«..
Detroit, Mich., and Meadow bank Kd., Old
Greenwich, Conn.
WHITE, Harry S. (A 1930), Mgr., Sheet Mftai
Dept. (for mail), Sellers & Marquis Rooting Co,»
ii201 Broad wsiy, and 20 W, Dartmouth Rd.»
Kansas City, Mo.
WHITE, John 0. (M um>, State Power Plant
Kngr., Wisconsin Bureau of KntcinotrinK. Pow<»r
Plant Div. (for mail), <tH K. Main $t,. uml 02'J H .
Main St., Marlitton, Win.
WHITE, Taylor <;., Jr. (A HM7), Saten Kn«r.(
XI, S, Radiator Corp., and (for mull), 013 State
St,, Louiavillc, Ky.
WHITE, Thoma* J, (J 1037), Sale* Kn«r.,
American Blower Corp., and (for mail), 14,72
Filbert, San Krancitco, Calif.
WHITE, WHHam R* (A 108ft), Air Cond, Kngr.
(for mail), Nebraska Power Co.. 17th an*l Harncy
St., and 4380 Larimore Ave,, Omaha, Ncbr*
WHITELAW, H. Leigh (U 1010), Vice-Pren, (for
mail), American Ga* Products Corp,, 40 Went
40th fet. New York, N. Y., and Rln» Knd Rd.,
Noroton, Conn.
WHITELEY, Stocfcott M. (JW 1933), Connultin*
Kngn (for mail), iM)S Baltimore Uf« HMg., and
3031 Canterbury Rd., Baltimore, Md,
WHITMER, Robert P. (U 1»33). Secy, (for niail),
American Foundry & Furnace Co,, McClun ana
Washington St»., and 1402 E. Washington «t.r
Bloomin«ton, 111.
WHITNEY, C. W. (M 19:jr»), Prca,, ABC OU
Burner & Engineering Co., !iQliM4 Chetlnut St.,
Philadelphia, and (for mail), Apt. F-l, SevilJ*
Court, Bala-Cynwyd, Pa.
60
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
WIII'lT. Sidney A. t t I'WX: J l\W7\, Air Cond.
and RrtK. Km;r. if or mail), K*klvinatr>r Corp.,
U-VtO rivmotith Kd., and ll'.KK) Ohio Ave.,
tvtr.-it. MU-h.
WHITTAKKR, Wayne K. f.l I'.Wrt, Rid*.
Maintfnano* Mechanic, Irvin« Trust Oo. Hldg.,
I Wall St., Now \ntk, and uor mail), 2U1-U-
II fth Avc.. M, Allian?'. L. U X. Y.
WHrrrvU*. ttnu'st T. t.i 1M.U Vice-Prcs,,
May ( til Hmnrr »>t Canada, Ltd., 17 Klin St., and
ttnr m.tiK H < «iuinjsham Kd., Toronto, Ont.,
WIlVlTKN. Horaro K. f Af IDlM. Prc*. and Trcaa.,
II. l'\ \Vli«tt»'n l'o,, t» Kotlrral Coutt, Hnttton, and
(liit wail . .'iO HiMltl'tnd Kd.. Sunu'rville, Mann.
WIirrnNCwTON, Jtuut-B A. (A/ r.KJJU. rtili/ation
l>;thiu! i-mtr. (fur main, Pct^lra t»iw Light &
tVUr <%»„ IK*ai *S, \VatMr*h AVP,, (thicano, and
itl".! Sh»it»il,w Stiuarr, Kvanston, 111.
WIDDOWFIKMX Arthur S. (J IWm. Stiles
I'Hiif «i«»r tnaill, Tlw* Mcrcoul C*orp., 41101
IMniMtU AVI* , anil r»r»IG N. Mai»l«w<uxl Avo.,
t'tmav:-*, 111,
WU'iiSEH. Henry B. Uf IOIW, Branch M«r.,
tohr.'.Mn Srfxii'*« t4«>., "20 Winrhniter St., Bouton,
and U"» t«a>li, Hit Stanrlwh Rd., Watertuwn,
WIKRIMAN, William J. (.-I 1M7; J 103tt),
Hfuttnnun tfor math, K«*.irney £t Trrcker Corp.,
.mil 1 l»iLf Suuth 7*«h ^t.t Wwt AllU, Wia.
WUi<;8. <i. t«m* tU UWrtj .1 I»H2; J 1024),
C»miuUtnK t*tt«r, (f«^r mall), ITnivcnity Tower,
and "47^7 iiT^Vfiu'i Ave., Montreal, Oue ,
Wull^rHrut^ M. M HUiM, Prwi. (for mail),
Mawr XViuli* PhtntbinK Sc Healing Co., W117
U«itttiUon Avf,, ami 1MH Oak Drive, Detroit,
WILMKK, KUwunl I.. <,U HUM, Mxr.,tOfti Sales
tltoadwav/ NVw Voili, and ll? Mere land Rd,,
Ni'w K*H hf!l«*. N. V.
WltfKY. tVmttttt <»• (^ IWHfl). Hn«r,, (for mail),
I Him j. N>#h«l, Int*,, Stall* Ktud «r Rlmwn St.,
)iiHf :i.*RH St, Vmr«*nt St., PhiladHphia, I*a.
WU.Hl-.I.M. JiMvph K, (7 IOM; .V lUJM), Office
t-nur* antl I*t«rh, A^ent, Av^ry Kn«in«onng Co.,
V'ltit i'atnrKtrf Av<*»» and (for malt), IHO't Kait
UrtHh St . < Irvrlaiut, Ohio,
WII*KKS. CJ«tra«« ».* <Af K»»7). Prof, of Heat
f nitric* (^T niuiti, Mapmchiifwtu Inntttute of
*l'r»tim'l«»iiy, <'amhtMitc. Mn»., and 51 Kvcrctt
Si,, NVwttm c>ntr«% Man.
WH*KJNSC)N\ Arthur (A 1WW. Mgr. (for mall),
%Vilkiitw>fi V»»inretin« Agcnclw, Wfta McGill
rullnie A%'**,, M<ttitr«al» «nd 4<K» Argyle Ave,
\\ninu'unl, ^uc.4 Canada.
WILKINSON, fartoy J. (Af WJW), Mgr., Cent.
I* num. S«vl4*»4 MontRrtmery Ward & Co., nnd
« fi.rt *»i;t»li» 1HU*T»7 Murttn Av<s., Hoiu^wocd, III.
Will AKI>. Arthur
.,
^ln,, ; «mn. W-«»ttl». tfor n«H),
!*jrr:titl**m. t nivriitity of HHnoiu, and 711 Florida
Av*.. t^liwiM* IIU , _ .
WIIXKR. Mun-ny I>. <J IW: 5 1WK Air Cond.
t>mif,. I'1, VV, Chamt^r* «t Co.* Ltd., *»» »»"«
*L*W.. and (M mail), 1243 St. Clalr Ave.. W.,
WILLIAMS, J. Walter (M 1915), Pres. (for mail),
Forest City Plumbing Co., 332 E. State St., and
923 E. State St., Ithaca, N. Y.
WILLIS, Leonard L. (J 1930; 5 1935), Engr.,
Conrad Refrigeration Co., 17 E. Hennepin Ave.,
and (for mail), 5036 Lyndale S., Minneapolis,
Minn.
WILLNERV Ira (M 1937), Pres. (for mail),
Willner Heating Co., Inc., 210 East 38th St., and
8870 Waldo Ave., New York, N. Y.
WILMOT, Charles S. (M 1919), (for mail),
Kuilding Insulation Co., Lancaster Ave. at
Jefferson St., Philadelphia, and 406 Essex Ave,,
Narbcrth, Pa.
WILSON, Alexander (M 1936), Consulting Engr.
(for mail), 315 New Birks Bldg., and 3750 Cote
des Neiges Rd., Montreal, Canada.
WILSON, Andrew (M 1935), Survey and Esti-
mating lingr., Paragon Oil Burner Corp., 75
Uridgewater St., and (for mail), 5523 Seventh
Ave,, Brooklyn, N. Y.
WILSON, Eric D, (M 1936), Special Agent for
India, Carrier Corp., c/o Volkart Bros., Ballard
Ktitate, Bombay, India.
WILSON, George T. (M 1925), Sales Engr..
Gurney Foundry Co., Ltd., 4 Junction Rd.,
Toronto, and (for mail), Tyre Ave., Islington,
Ont., Canada.
WILSON, Harry B. (/ 1037), Sales Engr., Brook-
lyn Union Gas Co., 180 Remsen St., and (for
mail), 801 Ocean Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
WILSON, James W. (/ 1936; S 1935), Route lf
Box 132 A, Irving, Texas.
WILSON, Raymond W. (M 1934), Member of
Firm (for mail), Wilson-Brinker Co., 412 Pythian
Bldg., and 429 Creston Ave., Kalamazoo, Mich.
WILSON, Robert A. (M 1936), Sales Engr.,
Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., 4501
Prospect Ave., Cleveland, and (for mail), 1520
Grace Ave., Lakewood, Ohio.
WILSON, W. H. (A 1932), Steamfitter Foreman,
Pullman-Standard Car Mfg. Co., 11001 Cottage
Grove Ave., and (for mail), 22 West 110th Place,
Chicago, 111.
WILTBERGER, Constant F. (K 1935) .Partner,
S. Howard Penncll & Co,, Land Title Bldg., and
(for mail), 2050 N. Ninth St., Philadelphia, Pa.
WKNANS, Glen D. (M 1929)., Engr, of Steam
Distribution (for mail), Detroit Edison Co., 2000
Second Ave.f and 10183 Wisconsin Ave., Detroit,
r
WINKLER, Ralph A. {7 1937), Sales Engr. (for
mail), Alfred C. Goethel Co., 2337 North 31st
ea or ma, ,
St., and 314 Prospect St., New Haven, Conn.
WINl'KRBOTTOM, Raloh F, (M 1923), Engr..
Winterbottom Supply Co., and (for mail), 400
Campbell Ave., Waterloo, Iowa.
WINTERER, Frank C. (M 1020), Sales Mgr. (for
mail), Cochran Sargent Co., Broadway and
Kellogg Blvd., and 836 Juno St., St. Paul, Minn.
WINTH&R, Anker (M 1937: ,4 1936; / 1932), Air
Cond. Kngr. (for mail), York Ice Machinery
Corp., 659 E. Sixth St., and 3620 Stettinms Ave.,
wfsS?NGf6lem°cnt B. (A 1936) , g*y. and Sales
Mgr. (for mail), Ebner Ice & Cold Storage Co.,
Locust and Chestnut Sts., and 702 N, Sixth St.,
- >. Engn, W. A.
Witheridge Co., 746 S. Fourth Ave., Saginaw,
WII.LKYVlUiri'€*'- (W *ttW\i A*1- r>VV in"
HIKIM , uirn^n State Coll eg*, and (for mail),
t*t,W **A" M., r«rviillii» Oregon. Mien -..
Wll 1 IAMK All**n W« (A lttlfi)» Managing WITMER Charles N. (A 1937; J 1930), Diet.
WIhwCT#$£B. J^«"l« ^W% "•}*« »«S ^upv (for mail), Carrier Corp., 2022
A Ai» i uRditUmiiiiE Af^ffiv? MToSfe' -.SEraaS1-^^^^ ??^^s5?Kl*ffi!;
< *4«imbui. tt»<i ^»1 M«tdow Park, Baxley, onto.
WILLIAMS. I)on*ltl D, (/ 1037), Gai Htg. Engr.
W,^?^
w"-MA^v»«v: ^«Sg&lfiS«gSS
h, W Ktwkfon! Ave., Dayton, Onto.
^^.o^A Coraon ». (/ Ittli7{ $ 1036), 207
pram* St.. N«w Huvrn, Conn.
.
o UT937rSaW Engr. (for
mail), Dail Steel Products Co., Hosmer and
Main and 204H E. Kalamazoo, Lansing, Mich.
WOESE, Carl F. (M 1934), Consulting Engr. (for
aSST Robson& Woese, Inc., 1001 Burnet Ave.,
and 2Sfl Robineau Rd., Syracuse, N. Y.
WOLFfjohS Tcf (M f l&CHtf. and Vt«. Engr.
tfor mail), B. F. Sturtevant Co., and 76 Beacon
St., Hyde Park, Mass.
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
WOLF Philip (M 103TO, Proprietor, City Con- WYLD, Reginald G. Hf IOJ7J. Executive Knjjr
"v*-1*! * *A****vJ>7 ,-, i /.«„ j t«i -NT» tr«-r. ivT vr /f.ii- t«.i?!i AirtArnn ln*». lilt) I^**^ St_ mill *t!41
, ,
tract ng Co., 304 East <52nd St., New York. N. Y.
WOLFF, Peter P. (M 1035), Kngr., Bell & Gossett
Co., 3000 Wallace St., and (for mail), 7601) S.
S: 5 1037), Knur
WOODS,WCharlcs'F. (A/ 1037), Director, .New
Product Demands, Delco-KriKidairo Division,
1420 Wisconsin Blvd., and (for mail), 861) Aber-
deen Ave.. Dayton, Ohio.
WOOD, Roderick A. (J 1037), Editorial Apt.,
Fowler-Becker Publishing Co,, 420 Madison
Ave., New York, and (for mail), 482 Bard Ave.,
West New Brighton, Statcn Island, N. Y.
WOODMAN, Lawrence K. (M 1034), PH». (for
mail), Woodman Appliance £ Engineering C.<jn>.,
203 E. Capitol, and Prince Edward Apt., Jeffer-
son City, Mo.
WOODS, Baldwin M. (A/ 1937), Prof. Mech.
Engrff. (for mail), University of California, and
249 The Uplands, Berkeley, Calif.
WOOLLARD, Mason S. (Af 1934), Draftsman,
H. H. Anaus, Consulting Kn«r., 1221 Bay St.,
and (for mail), 31 Hillcrest Park Ave., Toronto fi,
Ont., Canada.
WOOLLEY, J. Herbert (A 1036), Vicc-Pres. (for
mail), Woolley Coal Co., Inc., 12 Burnett Ave,,
Maplewood, and 75 Oakvicw Terrace, Short
Hills, N. J.
WOOLSTON, A. H. (M 1010), Woolaton- Woods
Co., 2132 Cherry St., Philadelphia, Pa.
WOOTAN, Charles (A 1037), Sales En«r, (for
mail), Crane Co., 0215 Carnegie Ave,, and 11118
Clifton Blvd., Cleveland, Ohio.
WORLD, Harry P. (M 10310, En«r. (for mail),
Col. Mackcn/ie Waters, Archt., 1)0 Bloor St., W»,
and 30 RoswcU Ave,, Toronto, Ont., Canada.
WORSIIAM, Herman (M 1025; / 1018), National
Business (for mail), Delco-FriKidaire Condition-
ing Division, 1420 Wisconsin Blvd., and 510 W.
Norman Ave,, Dayton, Ohio.
WORTHING, Stanley L. (M 1030), Consulting*
Kngr. (for mail), 433 Kelsey Bldg., Grand Rapids,
and Spring Lake, Mich.
WORTHINGTON, Thomas H. (M 1937), Local
Mgr. (for mail), Dominion Radiator « Boiler
Co., Ltd., 405 Beaubien St., W., and 5145 Cote
St. Luc Rd., Montreal, Quc., Canada.
WORTON, William (M 1037), Mgr., Branch
Office (for mail), C. A. Dunham Co., Ltd., 504
Scott Bldg., and 202 Lanadowne, Winnipeg,
Man., Canada,
WRIGHT, Clarence E. (J 1035; S 1033), Sales
Engr., Fairmont Wall Plaster Co,, Tenth St.,
and (for mail), 008 Gaston Ave., Fairmont,
W.Va.
WRIGHT, Harris H. (Af 1017), Mfrs, Repr. (for
mail), 320 K. Tenth St., and 808 Grecnwtiy
Terrace, Kansas City, Mo.
WRIGHT, Kenneth A. (U 1021), Branch MRT.
(for mall), Johnson Service Co,, 1113 Knee St.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, and 113 Orchard Rd., Ft.
Mitchell, Covington, Ky.
WRIGHT, M. Birney (A 1032- J 1020), Mech.
Engr. (for mail), E. J. duPont deNemours & Co.,
P. 0. Box 1537, and Cedar AvcM S. Hills, Charles-
ton, W. Va.
WRIGHT, William J, (J 1030; S 1035), 1114 W.
Illinois St., Urbana, 111.
WRIGHTSON, Wilbur T. (M 1037), Eastern
Mgr. (for mail), Garden City Fan Co*, 55 West
42nd St., and 324 East 41st St., New York, N. Y.
WUNDERLICH, Milton S.* (M 1025), Chairman
Research and Test Committee, Insulite Co.,
1100 Builders Exchange, Minneapolis, and (for
mail), 545 Mt. Curve Blvd., St. Paul, Minn,
WYATT, DeWitt H. (M 1936), Pres. and Gen.
Mar., Cooling & Heating, Inc., 364 N. High St.,
and (for mail), 226 Northridgc Rd., Columbus,
Ohio.
, . .
(for maill, Airteinp, Inc., 111!) Leo St., and 481
Hronkside Drive, Peyton, Ohio.
WYUK. Howard M. (.If IlWoj / 1017), Vice-
Pros, in eliurfte of Sales (for main, Nash Kn«i-
ncerini! Co., and 51 Klmwoixl Ave., South
Norwalk, Conn.
YAGRR, John J. (Af 1021), 425 WoodbrldKe Ave.,
Buffalo, N. Y.
YAGLOU, Con«tantin P.* (.U l'.»i!W, Asst. Prof.
of Industrial HyKieni' ft'or mail). Harvard School
of Public Health, r»,"» Shattuok St., Hottttm, and
10 Vernon Rd., IJelmont, Masw.
YATKS, <*eorfte L. (.7 l'.»8«; N la'U). Instructor,
D<M>t, Oil and (Ja« I'rocl., I'niverrity ol Pitta-
buruh, Pittsburuh, Pa., and (for mail), 1220
Jnhnntone, Karthwillo, *>kla.
YATKS, JamcH K. (M ll«?n, Mnr. (for main,
YatCH-N«iI«* & Co., 281 Tenth St., un<L4!U -10th
St., Brandon, Man., (\inad;t.
YATKS, Jamos K., Jr. \J l!«mi, Inm Kircmnn
Dealer, and (tor main, Vatos, Ni*ahfc it Co., 281
Tenth St., ami 48M«th St., Hiundon, Man,,
( 'anuda.
YATKS, Walter (Lift tftmbft: .U IWI2), Govern-
ing Uiroctor (ft»r main, Matthewtt <v Vate», Ltd..
Cyclone Works, and Purksend, Swinton, Man.,
t. (/I 1087), Kn«r. (for main,
Carrier Corp., 12 South 12th St., I'hilatMphia,
and 205 W. Ksscx Ave., Lansdownt*, Pa.
YOUN<;t Rmil O. U ll»8r»>, Pr*««. (tor mail).
Youn« KcRiilutor Co,, 4.">t)0 Kudid Ave., and
2(M(> Ku«t H8r<i St., Clrvelaiul, < >Uin,
YOUNG, Forest H., Jr. (,-l I*.«ti>, Sw'y.-Troas..
Younw IIc»at Ivtmiiuicritm ('c»., 11U North 2(Jth
St., HilUnw, Mont.
YOlfN<;f Harold J. (A/ l«.»87)t Sales Kiwr..
Youn« Radiator Co., Occidental Hotel Hl«tK.«
and (for mail), 18tVl l.aketthor<j Drive, Mu«ke«ont
Mich.
YOUNG, J. T., Jr. (^1 ltK»«>, Sriiew Kn«r, (for
nrnil). Crane Co., Box 1110 (,'W7 W, Scvond S<M,
and 287 D St., Salt Uke City, Utah.
A/ 1U2H), Pros., &U'k <:«»., 2«Il
Van Buren St., C:hi«i«o, UK
ZANGKILH, Albert J. (J I'.»87; .S' «»:«), Junior
Kn«r., Klectric Productu ('ori»,, <*W:M IVim Av<?.,
and (for nuiil). fi37 Tunrett St. ritt)5hur«t», I>u.
ZIBOLI), Clarl R. (Af IW20), Mech. Kn«rM Ht«.
and Vt«.. 18 Quidwick Kd., Went minster Kidge.
White IMalna, N, Y.
ZIEBER. William K. (.If IWJft), A»«t. Chief Kn«r.
(for mail), V<»rk Ice Machinery Corp., Koo«evelt
Ave., and 112 S. I*enn St., York, I';i.
7JKSSR* Karl L. (A liW), S*wy.-Tmw. (for mail).
Phot-nix Sprinkler & Hcutinu C<K« nr> Camp.m
Ave.( N.W., and 31JJ Hampton Ave., S*K.» Gntntl
Rapids, Mich.
ZIMMERMAN. Alexander H. (A IMO), VVntl-
lation Kn^r., Chicago Hoard of Health. Ruiulolph
and L&Saltc St., tind (for mail), M4U N* St. Louis
Ave., Chicano, III.
ZINK» David D. (A-Jf 1031), C^onnuHin* Kn«r. (f<»r
mail), 320 West 47th St., Knnwts City, and
Hicknmn Mills, Mo.
ZOKELT, C^irl <?. (W 1021), Consulting Kngr..
8810-24th Ave., «., Seattle, Wash,
ZUHLKK, William R. (Af 1928), Kxec, Kngr.,
American Radiator Co., 40 Went 40th St., N«w
York, and (for mail), M Midland Ave.,, Yonkem,
ZUROW, William (J 1»:*7), Sale* ICn«r. (for mail),
St. Joseph Railway, Li«ht, Heat and Power Co,r
Sixth and KranciB St., and 1018 Mmanie St.,
St. Joseph, Mo.
ZWALtY, Au^uBt L. (A 1037), Air Oond. ICnar.,
Interstate Electric Co,. 3(K) Spring St., and (for
mail), 008 Klrawood, Shrevcport, La.
62
HEATING
VENTILATING AIR
CONDITIONING GUIDE
1938
DISTRICT OF
GEORGIA
Brightly, F. C., Jr.
Brocha, J. F.
Manny, J. H.
Marschall, P. J.
COLUMBIA
Atlanta —
Brooke, I. E.
Martin, A. B.
Matchctt J. C.
Washington —
Bennett, C. A.
Bensinger, M.
Cover, R. R.
Cullen, A. G,
Day, I, M.
Devore, A. B.
De Witt, E. S.
Downes, H. H.
Eagleton, S. P.
Erisman, P. H., Jr.
Febrey, E. J.
Feltwell, R. H
Fife. G. D.
Fineran, E. V.
Fisher, J. T.
France, C. N.
Frankel, G.
Frederick, W. L.
Gardner, S. F.
Goddard, W. F.
Gregg, S. L.
Grimes, F, M.
Hanlein, J. H.
Hartline, W. R. .
Holmes, P. B.
Iverson, H. R.
Keplinger, W. L.
Kiczales, M. D.
Kingswell, W. E.
Leser, F. A.
Liebrecht, W. J.
Littleford W. H.
Baker, C. T.
Barnes, L. L.
Beechler, J. S.
Boyd, S. W.
Brockinton, C. E,
Clare, F. W.
Cole, C. B.
Driscoll, M. G.
Foss, E. R.
Gouedy, K. E.
Gunnell, G. T.
Hahn, R. F.
Kagey, I. B., Jr.
Kelley, R. D.
Kent, L. F.
Klein, E. W.
Krayenhof, H. G.
McCain, H. K.
McKinney, W. J,
Pounds, C. A.
Sudderth, L., Jr.
Templin, C. L.
Tucker, T» T.
Augusta —
Akerman, J. R.
Arndt, H. W.
Decatur —
• Sherman, W. P,
Savannah—
Hamlin, J. B., Jr.
Broom, B. A.
Brown, A. P.
Brown, T.
Burnam, C, M., Jr.
Casey, B. L.
Chapin, H. G.
Christman, W. F.
Christopherson, A. E.
Clegg, R. R.
Cochran, C. C.
Crone, C. E., Jr.
Crump, A. L.
Cunningham, T. M.
Cutler, J. A.
Dasing, E.
Dauber, O. W.
DeLand, C. W.
Dolson, C. N.
Dunham, C. A.
Emmert, L. D.
Ericsson, E. B.
Eskin, S. G.
Fatz, J. L.
Finan, J. L, Sr.
Fleming, J . P.
Fleming, T. F.
Frank, J. M.
Gardner, W., Jr.
Gaylord, F. H.
Getschow, R. M.
Gibbs, F. C.
Goelz, A. H.
Gossett, E. J.
Gothard, W. W.
Mathis, E. '
Mathis, H.
Mathis, J. W.
May, E. M.
May, M. F.
McCatiley, J. H.
McClellan, J. E.
McDonnell, E. N.
McDonnell, J, E.
Medow, J.
Mertz, W. A.
Miller, F. A.
Miller, R. T.
Milliken. J. H.
Mueller, H. C.
Murphy, E. T.
Murphy, W. A.
NaroweU, L. L., Jr.
Ncilcr, S. G.
Newport, C. F.
Nightingale, G. F.
Offcn, H.
Olscn, C. K.
Olson, B.
Paul, L. 0.
Peller, L.
Pickett, C. A.
Pitcher, L. J.
Pope, S. A.
Powers, F. W.
Prentice, O. J.
Pricti, C. K.
Prieater, (». B.
Lloyd, E/H.'
Lockhart, W. R.
Loughran, P. H., Jr.
Loving, W. H.
Mayette, C. E.
McDonald, A. K.
Meyers, J.
Miller, G. F.
Nelson, H. M.
Nest, R. E.
Nordine, L. F.
Nye, L. B., Jr.
Ourusofi, L.
Reinoldi, C.
Ritt, C. F.
Robinson, D. M.
Schlemmer, B. G.
Sutter, E. E.
Thomas, G.
Thompson, N. S.
Thuney, F. M.
Tuxhorn, D. B.
Urdahl T. H.
HAWAII
Gotschall, H. C.
Graham, E. W.
Graves, W. B.
Haas, S. L.
Haines, J. J.
Hale, J. F,
Hanley,T.F.,Jr.
Hart, H. M.
Hattis, R. E.
Hayden, C. F.
Hayes, J, J.
Hebley. H. F. J.
Heckcl, E. P.
Herlihy, J. J,
Hess, D. K.
Hill, E. V.
Hinckley, H. B.
Hincs, J. C.
Horncr, S. D.
Howard, F. L.
Howatt, J.
Howcll, L.
Hubbard, G. W.
Raymond, K. I.
Rcjicr, H, P.
Reid, H. P.
RieU, 1C. W.
Rottmaycr, S. I.
Runkcl, C.
RustteU, 1C. A,H
Rycrsnn, H* Is..
Scheideckar, D. B,
Schueu, C. C.
Schuler, W. B.
Schwartz, H. J.
Schwcim, H. J.
Scclig, U
Shilling U. C.
Shultz, K,
Solstud, L, L.
Sommerfield, S. S.
Spiehnan, G. I*.
Stacy, U I>.
Stannartl, J. M.
Stcrmer, C. J.
Honolulu —
Manning, C, E.
Petersen, S. E.
ILLINOIS
Alton—
Carlock, M. F.
Bloomington —
MaGirl, W. J.
Nesraith, O. E.
Scholl, H. 0.
Soper, H. A.
Whitmer, R. P.
Champaign —
Hintz, H. P.
Ransom, C. F.
Strakosh, W. C.
Walz, G. R.
Thetford, J. E.
Hustocl, A. M.
Isett, W. M.
Stokes, A.
Sutcllffe, A. C*
FLORIDA
Chicago —
Jonaon, J. S.
Swanwm, N. W.
Adams, B. P.
Johns, H. B.
Thinn, C. A.
Jacksonville—
Aeberly, J. J,
Aikman, J. M.
Johnson. C. W.
Keating, A. J,
ThomuH, R. II.
Thommen, A* A.
Allen, W. W.
Thornton, W. B.
Varner, J. L.
Ammerman, A. S., Jr.
Arenberg, M. K.
Baker, W. H., Jr.
Bamond, M. J.
Keeney, F, P,
Kehm, H. S.
King, A. C.
Knudsen, W. R.
Tobin, J* R
TornqulBt, E. L.
Trumbo, S. M.
Turner, O. G.
Miami —
Lingo, C. K.
Munro, E. A.
Pizie, S. G.
Baumgardner, C. M.
Baur,J,W.
Becker, W. A.
Beery, C. E.
Krez, L.
Kyle, W. J.
Lagodzlnski, H. J.
La Rol. G. H.* II
Van AlBbune, J. H.
Vernon, J. R.
Walter*, W. T.
Washington, L. W.
Rock, G. A.
Ward, H. H.
Miami Beach-
Benson, B. C.
Bernstrom, B.
Bishop, M. W.
Black, F. C.
Larson, C. P.
Lauterbach, H., Jr.
Leuthesser, P. W., Jr.
Lewis, S.R.
Weil, M,
Weil, M. Jt.
Welnfeld, C,
Wciimhank, T.
Friedman, D. H., Jr.
Orlando —
Boehmer, A. P.
Bolte, E. E.
Borling, T. R,
Lindsay, G.W., Jr.
Linn, H. R.
Lockhart, H, A.
Wendt, K, H.
White. K. U,
Whittington, J. A.
Lyle, E. T.
Bowles, E. N.
Luders, R. H.
Widdowfidd, A, S.
Porter, C. W.
West Palm Beach —
Boyle, J. R.
Bracken, J. H.
Braun, L. T.
Mabley, L. C.
Machen, j. T.
Malone, D. G*
WU««n, W. H.
Wolff, P. P.
Zack, H. J.
Hodeaux, W. L,
Brigham, C. M.
Malvln. R. C.
Zimmerman, A* H.
64
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
Chicago Heights—
itoyar, S. L.
Cicero -
Brown. N*. A.
Docotur —
Shoib, W. A.
Rockford—
Brasita, C. J.
Dewey, R. P.
Drake, G. F.
Merwin, G. E.
Prudcn, B.
Stewart, D. J.
Urbana—
St-Mary-of-the-
Woods—
Bisch, B. J.
Vincennes —
Wissing, C. B.
Wabash—
Shivers, P. F.
Louisville —
Danielson, W. A.
Fitch, H. M.
Grabensteder, L.
Graham, J. M.
Groot, H. W.
Hellstroni, J.
Murphy, H. C.
White, T, G., Jr.
Ea»t St. Louts —
Cover, K. B.
Bowditch, R, P.
Bn^derick, K. L.
West Lafayette-
LOUISIANA
Compton, W. E.
Hoffman, J. D.
.
KdwardsvIUe -
Fuhncstock, M. K.
Konxo, S,
IOWA
New Orleans —
Elmhurat -
KraU, A. P.
Scverna, W. H.
Ackley—
Blum, H., Jr.
Gamble, C. B.
Jon™, 1>. J.
Willard, A. C,
Wright, W, J.
Nelson, G. O.
Gammill, O. E., Jr.
Herman, N. B.
EvanHton -
Uorton. II. K.
Maronhhin, H* A.
Villa Park—
Armspach, O. W.
Ames —
Norman, R. A.
Cedar Rapids —
Kaufman, C. W.
May, G. E.
McLaren, F. S.
Moses, W. B., Jr.
Miller. J. K.
Waukogan—
Friedlinc, J. M.
Perkins, R. C.
Ktllian, T. J.
Ryan, J. D.
(irlttncot? "•
DCS Moines —
Salzer, A. R., Jr.
Honuinn. J. C.
Wi'fitern Spdnfts—
Daubert, L. L.
Seidel, G. E.
(iltm KHyn -
\VaftliinKton, G.
Klbcrt, B, F.
Shreveport —
I'anuwfl, L. IX, Jr.
Sherman, V. I*.
Winnctka—
Cloac, P. P.
Vaughn,' F.' R.
Walters, A. L,
Fitzgerald, W. E.
Zwally, A. L.
Home wood -
Killian, V. J.
Mittendorff, B. M.
SJoux City—
MAINE
\VHkin*<m, F. J»
Hagan, W. V.
Hoope»ton—
BaiiKhnmn, L. R.
Waterloo—
Banftor—
Moore, 1>. R.
Todd, M. L.
Prince, R. F.
INDIANA
Winterbottom, R. F.
Lewiston —
Bronstm, C. K.
Di< ksnn, H. H.
H.ulm.tn. J. M.
I»urm«JU K. B.
Evanavlllc—
Bulleit. C. R.
Grosaman, F. A.
KANSAS
Fowles, H. H.
Portland —
Pels, A. B.
Merrill, C. J.
Fort Leavenworth —
Foley, D. F.
Gamble, C. L.
1 ttl'ratitit'' —
Coshen—
Mitchell, C. H.
Eaton, It. K.
Shaw, B. K.
Hutchinson —
Mann, A. R.
MARYLAND
Lmko FortMtt •-
Huntltxftton—
Stevens, H. L.
RcdruivW.D,
Smith, O. W.
Lawrence —
Annapolis-
MoHn«-
Indianapolis—
Machin, D. W.
Sluas, A. H.
Gale, H. A.
Hdinic. K. H.
iohnwffl. W, G.
tMwm. H. W,
Ammermnn, C R.
Fenatermuker, S. E.
KIllo, K. B.
Neodeaha—
Bcrzelius, C. E.
Baltimore —
Collier, W. I.
Crosby, E. L.
NrUnn, R, H.
Otto, G. K.
Slwn>, U. C.
Hiigcdnn. C. H.
Hamcr«ki,F. D.1
Hiiycs, J. G.
Russell—
Danielson, E. B,
Dorsey, F. C.
Dull, E. J.
Hunt, M.
M*« V#rnon -
tUnwirtt, L. L.
HcnoUAt R* K.
Blandlng. G, H;
I''iU«critld, M. J*
Smith, R. H. ,
Uikttwriu W, J,
HUdreth, K. S,
Mutiny, E.
Nictwe, J, H.
Poehner, R. B,
Supple, G, B.
Voorheea, G* A.
Lafayette—
Voigt, R. N.
taPorte—
Salina—
Ryan, W. F.
Wichita—
Leverance, H. J.
Olson, G. E,
KENTUCKY
Anchorage-
McCormack,"D.
Page, V. a
Posey, J.
Powers, E. C.
Setter, J. E.
Shepard, J. deB.
Sklarev8ki,R.
Sraoot, T. H.
F*rk Kld*ft -
Bcvlntfton, C» H.
JCueehenberg* W. A.
Mtwre, R. K.
Spielmynn, H. J.
Itolrd, S. A*
Shrock, J. H,
Truitt, G, S.
Bechtol, J. J-
Michigan City—
Stockwcll, W. R.
Wcstphal, N. E,
Brooks, H. B.
Cold Spring-
Ward, F. J.
Fort Thomas—
Leupold, G. L.
Reik,R.C.
Stevens, W. R.
Stehl, H. V.
Vance, L. G.
Viessman, W.
Vincent, P. J.
Whiteley, S. M.
Bethesda—
Goodwin, E. W.
Stock, C. S.
Terhune, R. D.
Fox, K. L. *
Muncle—
Lexinftton—
Vaughan, J. G., Jr.
Logttn* T. Mo
Peru—
Pfrlem, P. G.
Price, C. F.
Waggoner, J* H.
Peru—
thnwh, H. A.
Bozeman, R. W.
Cabot, M. A.
May,J.W,
O'Bannon, L. S.
Wallace, W. M.f II
West, P.
Brooklyn Park—
Rodgers. J. S.
College Park—
Gifford, W. R.
65
HEATING
VENTILATING
AIR CONDITIONING
GUIDE 1938
EUicott City—
Sheffield, R. A.
Sharon —
Feinberg, E.
Tibbets, J. C.
Turner, J.
Wilkes, G. B.
Nelson, A. W.
Flink, C. H.
Ford, E. F.
Rockville—
Brunett, A. L.
Cochituate —
Ahearn, W. J.
South Hamilton —
Mandell, T. P.
Giguere, G. H.
Halleck, L. P.
Hamaker, A. C.
Silver Spring —
Black, F. M.
Dal ton —
Dakin, H. W.
South Boston—
Hilliard, C. E.
Harrigan, E. M.
Hesselschvvcrdt, A L., Jr.
Heydon, C. G.
Stack, A. E.
Dorchester —
Springfield-
Blair, H. A.
Hofian, E. L.
Hubbard, N. D.
MASSACHUSETTS
Brayman, A. I.
Goodrich, C. F.
Hosterman, C. O.
Shaer, L E.
Voye, V. J.
East Milton-
Austin, W. H.
Cross, R. E*.
Holmes, R. E.
Leland, W. B.
Murphy, W. W.
Swampscott —
Knowles, M. G.
Gates, W. A.
Hughson, H. H.
Hutzel, H. F.
Kaufman, II. J.
Keyser, H. M.
Kilncr, J. S.
Kincaide, M. C.
Kirkpatrick, A. H.
Knapp, A. 1C.
Knibb, A. 1C.
Arlington —
Shaw, N. J. H.
Arlington Heights —
Tarr, H. M.
Auburn dale— ~*
Fall River—
Watertown—
Lee, J. A.
Frederick, H. W.
Feaner, E. M.
Wiegner, H. B,
Lewis, G. M.
Linscnmcycr, F. J,
Belmont —
Spence, R. A.
Fitchburg—
Earley, T, J.
Illig, W. R.
Wellesley Hills-
Barnes, W. E.
Long, D. J.
Luty, D. J.
Maier, G. M.
Karlson, A. F.
West Roxbury—
Martcl, C. L.
Boston-
Archer, D. M.
Barron, J. T.
McKittrick, P. A.
Foxboro —
Christie, A. Y.
McCaffcrty, J. E.
McPherson, W. A.
Mawolf, K. X.
McConachte, L. L.
McCrca, J. H,
Berchtold, E. W.
Meakin, J. B.
McGaughcy, II. M.
Boyden, D. S.
Brinton, J. W.
Brissette, L. A.
Harwich Port-
Maxwell, G. W.
Woburn —
Parker, P.
McGeorge, R. H.
Mclntire, J. F.
McLean, ft.
Bryant, A. G.
Wollaston —
Metcalfc, O.
Bullock, T. A.
Cummings, C. H.
Dickson, G. P.
Holyoke—
Colby, C. W.
Hodgdon, H. A.
Worcester —
Meyer, J., Jr.
Miller, R. K.
Mil ward, R. K,
Donohoe, J. B.
Drinker, P.
Hyde Park—
Bartlett, A. C.
Wechsberg, O.
Morse, C. T.
Mor.se, L. S., Jr.
Edwards, D. J.
Foulds, P. A. L.
Ellis, F. R.
Wolf, J. C.
MICHIGAN
O'Gorman, J. W.
Old, W. II.
Franklin, R. S.
Gleason, G. H.
Lawrence —
Ann Arbor —
I*net?tt IL K.
Pttrrott* L. G.
Haahagen, J. B.
Jennings, R. A,
Jennings, W. G.
Kccfe, E. T.
Bride, W. T.
Leominster —
Kern, R. T,
Backus, T. H. L.
Bichowsky, F. R.
Emswiler, J. K.
Marin, A.
P&rtlan, J. W.
Patterson, R !L
Pavey, C. A,
Pike, W.
Kelley, J. J.
Kellogg, A.
Keyes, R. E.
Kimball, C. W.
Lynn —
Farrow, H. L.
Fechan, J. B.
Battle Creek—
Christenson, H.
Birmingham —
Purcell, fc*. C.
Randall. R. D,
Randall, W. O,
Kutwdl, W. A.
Little, D. H.
Macrow, L.
McCoy, T, F.
Merrill, F. A.
Mattapan —
Ahlbcrg, H. B.
Hadjisky, J. N.
Hyde, B, F.
Root, E, B.
Sunford, S. S.
Scheehter, J. P.
Schmidt, Kf., Jr.
Shea, M, B.
Millard, J. W.
Miller, J. F. G.
Mullen, T. J., Jr.
Milton—
Corey, G. R.
Dearborn—-
King, H. K.
Shelpy, K. IX
Smith, W. O.
Snell, K.
Nee, R, M.
Osborne, M. M.
Needham—
Detroit —
Akers, G. W.
Snycler, J. W.
Swterfl. M.
Palmer, R. T.
Plunkett, J. H.
Park, C. D.
Webb, J. S.
Annas, H. C.
Arnoldy, W. F.
Spitaley, R. L.
Spur^eon, J. II.
Rydcll, C. A.
Spoerr, F. F.
Newton Centre —
linker, R. H.
Baldwin, W. H.
Sterner, I). S.
Stitow, R,, Jr.
Stetson, L. R.
Murray, J. J.
Hurth, H. E.
Taylor. H. J.
Swaney, C. R.
Tuttle, J. F.
Waterman, J. H.
Newtonvlllc —
Emerson, R, R.
Barton, J.
liishop, K. R.
Ittackmore, K. II.
Toomlrr, C. L.
Tuttlis C,. H.
Van NouhuyH, H. O,
Whitten, H. E.
Yaglou, C* P.
Jones, W, T.
McMurrer, L. J,
Boalea, W. G.
Brown, R, K. G.
VoIbwdinK, L. A.
WaW, G, H.
Bridgewater —
Pittsfield—
Brown, W.
Burks, R, H.
Walker. J. IL
Wdncrt, K. C.
Beaulieu, A. A.
Wagner, E. A.
Clark, K. H.
Whdan, W. J.
Cambridge—
Qulncy —
Conntill, R. F,
Coon, T. K.
White, K, S.
Whitt, S, A,
Daitsh, A.
Stone, E. R.
Cummins, G. IL
Wiftl<», H. M.
Flint, C. T.
Gerrlsh, G. B.
Reading—
Darlington, A. P.
Dauch, K, (X
Winann, <r. 1>,
Haddock, I. T.
Ingalls, P. D. B.
Dcppmann, R, L,
Dowagjac -
Holt, J.
Hoyt, C. W.
Roslindale—
Dickenson, F. R.
Dubry, K.
Cunnlngluim, J. S.
Torr, T. W.
Longwell, J. S.
Larson, C. W.
Eckert, K. K.
MacDonald, B. A.
Moore, H. 6.
Peterson, C. M. F.
Roxbury —
Madden, J. J,
Kstep, L. G,
Falk, D. S.
Fccly, F. J.
Kant I^neinft -
Miller, L. O.
Peiterfittld, <:. H,
66
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
C;raiul Rapids —
liraiU'wlci, \V. W.
Hratt, H. O.
Kpptts A. H.
(Jratf, \Y. F,
Marshall, < >. D.
Morton, C. H.
( klwrKiT, T. L.
Stafford. T. l>.
Tofhl. S. \V.
\Varrtm. F. C.
\Yoithim:. S. L.
Bjerken, M. H.
Bredesen, B. P.
Hunw, K. J.
Burritt, C. G.
Campbell, R. L.
Carlson, C. O.
Comb, F. R., Jr.
Cooper, T. E.
Copperud, E. R.
dimming, F. J.
Dahlstrom, G. A.
Davidson, J. C.
Dovolis, N. J.
Doxry, H. E.
Estes, E. C.
Gausman, C. E.
Hickey, D. W,
Hyde, L. L.
Jones, E. F. ^
McNamara, W.
Mitchell, J. G.
Oberg, H. C.
Persson, N. B.
Ruff, D. C.
Sanford, A. L.
Swanstrora, A. E.
Winterer, F. C.
Pexton, F. S.
Pines, S.
Rivard, M. M.
Robb, J. E.
Sawyer, J. N.
Scarlett, W. J.
Schick, K. W.
Sheppard, F. A.
Stephenson, L. A.
Stevens, K. M.
Weiss, C. A.
White, H. S.
Wright, H. H.
Zink, D. D.
Highland Park -
Kddman. B. P.
Wunderlich, M. a-
Kirkwood —
Hurnwer, NY. C,
FerKfistad, M. L.
Forfar, D, M.
Wayzata— •
Hartwein, C. E.
Houghtott -
Francis, P. E.
Heberling, C. W.
Maplewood—
S • «ht»r R R
GauscwiU, W. II.
Droppers, C. J.
Iron Mountain -
Gcrrish, II. E.
Gordon, E. B., Jr.
MISSOURI
Siegel, W. A.
I ,';.,, In 1 r*
Gro«H, L. C.
•
Mexico —
.Ifll U , 1 «« »*.
Hall, J. H,
Clayton—
Badaracco, J. A.
JnckNon -
Hanson, L. P.
Harris, J, B.
DuBois, L. J.
Normandy —
Gcfhiird, 1). II.
Hawkinaon, C. F.
Hclstrom II, G.
Ferguson—
Dulle, W. L.
Kttlimirtzoo
Hitchcock, P. C.
Szorabathy, L. R.
Richmond Heights-
Hi inker, II . ;\.
Down*. IS, H,
IIuch,A.i
Johnson, *.*. H.
Independence-
Nelson, C. L.
M<H*oim<»r, (\ K.
M... ,.,,k.. « * t
King, R. U
Cook, B. F.
Springfield—
t 'trtfj'r, tii j.
TfMlltllt!, W. j.
KixiKdland, G. D.
Knupp. D. S.
KnowUiH, K. L.
Jefferson City-
Woodman, L. E.
iSrchmer, j". H.
Wiltwn, R. \V,
Lunninft ••
Kuchn, W. C.
I/anRC, lf. F.
Lenler, F. W.
Kansas City-
Adams, C. W.
St. Joseph—
Flynn, F. J.
Harton, A. J.
n .!.*•». R.f B.'
Lilju, 0. L.
Lund, C. K.
Allen, D. M.
Angus, F. M.
Zurow, W.
MH.ottth. 1*. F.
Miller, L. B.
Arthur, J. M., Jr.
St. Louis —
IMtflMiM. U. A.
V.in<iirlip. P. J.
\Yitmrr, (1. 8.
MillH, II. C.
Mor«Jin, G. C.
Morton, II. S.
Ball, W.
Barnes, A. R.
Barnes, H. P.
Allen, C.V.
Barry, J. G., Jr.
Bayse, H. V.
lUiley, K, l»,. Jr.
Youtttf, H. J.
Murtk^fton Heights -
RHcl, H. F,
l»o nt lac -
Ogard, N. L.
Orr, G. M.
Petenwn, C. P.
Poucher, R. 0.
Roberts, H. P.
Roberta, J. R.
Rowley, F. B.
Schud, C. A.
Schcrnbeck, F. H.
SchultsB, A, W.
Betz, H. D.
Bliss, G. L.
Caleb, D.
Cameron, W. R-
Campbell, E. K.
Campbell, E. K., Jr.
Carlson, C. V.
Case, D.V.
Cassell, W. L.
Chase, L. R-
Boester, C. F., Jr.
Bradley, E. P.
Carlson, E. E.
Carter, J. H.
Cooper, J. W.
Corrigan, J. A.
Davis, C. R.
Driemeyer, R. C.
Edwards, D. F.
Evans, B. L.
Singleton, J. H.
Seckft, K/H."
Dawson, T. L.
Fagin, D. J.
Foster, J. M.
Port Huron -
W«w«l» W. A.
Spencer, J. B.
StilK'r, K. W.
Sturm. W.
gcan, F. JM J^
Dean, M. H-
DeVilbiss,P.T.
Gilmore, L. A.
Grossmann, H. A.
Haller, A. L.
RoyuIOftk -
Hutch, I,. A.
HHnirirh* (»• H»
\Vithf*titlKtti !>• K»
Sundrtl, S. S.
Sutherland, D. L.
tmiTK!nj%"
Wttilacc, H. P., Jf-
Welter, M. A.
Willin, U L.
Disney, M. A,
Dodds, F. F.
Downes,N.W.
Farber,L.M.
Flarsheim, C. A.
Forslund, O. A-
Garnett, R^ ^
Hamig, L. L.
Hamilton, J. E.
Hester, T. J.
Hugoniot, V. E.
Irwin, R. R.
KunSfkC. "
MINNESOTA
Htyport "«
Duluth *
!'*iwt<jr, C,
Hibblttft -
MilVr. I-. I*
Albright, H. P.
AlKftn, A. H.
AwUTiwm, S. H,
Annfltrt'flfit K. W.
B*ii*iK?fl» c*. L*
It*-tt«. II. M.
Owfttonna—
Andoraon. G. A. M.
Rochester—
Adams, N. D.
Mttynard, H. K.
Piummcr, R. S.
St. Paul—
Andcreon, I>. B.
Aycrs, K. H.
Backstrom, R. E.
Barnum, C; R.
Bauer, A. L.
Bean, G. S.
Cook, G. K. ^
Cuthbertson, M. W.
Diamond, D, O.
Gould, H. E»
Haas, E., Jr.
Hallar,E.V.
Harbordt,O.E.
Kitchen, J. H.
LanR, J- <-7 Y
Maillard, A. L/.
Marston,A.IX
Matthews, J. \
Middleton, H. A.
MIlHs, L. W.
Moore, B- J-. Jr-
Natkin, B.
Nottberg, G.
Nottberg,H.
Nottberg.H., Jr.
Painter, D. H.
Pellmounter, T.
Pettit, E. N., Jr.
Langenberg, E. B.
Laufketter, F. C.
Lautz, F. A.
Malone, J. S.
Matousek, A. G.
McLarney, H. W.
McMahon, T. W.
Moon, L. W.
O'Brien, W. N.
Oonk, W. J.
RicknertC. A.
Rodenheiser, G. B.
Rosebrough, J. S.
Rosebrough, R. M.
Scherrer, L. B.
Sodemann, P.
Sodemann, W. C. B.
Stammer, E. L/.
Sydow, L. J.
67
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Tenkonohy, R. J.
Warren, J. S., Jr.
Atlantic City —
Labov, M.
Irvington —
Reinke, A. G.
Union City —
Taverim, F. F.
Weber, E. F.
White, E. A.
University City—
Falvey, J. D.
Strouse, S. B.
Asbury Park —
Strevell, R. P.
Stengel, F. J.
Jersey City —
Jones, H, L.
Ritchie, W.
Upper Montclair —
Smith, F. J.
Verona —
Webster Groves —
Harbaugh, J. W.
Myers, G. W. F.
Bayonne —
Schwartz, J.
Belleville —
Walterthum, J. J.
Lyndhurst —
Ehrlich. M. W.
Box-all, F.
Shotwell, R. \V.
West En&lewood—
Ronsick, E. H.
Thornton, T. L.
Maplewood —
Gumaer, P. W.
Steinke, B. J.
MONTANA
Bloomfield —
Clericuzio, G. P.
Faust, F. H.
Harrington, E.
McLenegan, D. W.
Tenney, D,
Bogota—
Griess, P. G.
Kepler, D. A.
Kylbers, V. C.
Woolley, J. H.
Merchantville—
Binder, C. G.
Rohlin, K. W.
Montclair —
Bcntz H.
Westfield—
Scribner, E. D.
West Orange—
Adlam, T. N.
West New York—
Stinard, R. L.
Big Timber-
Strickland, A. W.
Billings—
Cohagen, C. C.
Young, F. H., Jr.
Great Falls —
Ginn, T. M.
Camden —
Newark —
NEW YORK
NEBRASKA
Brown, W. M.
Coward, C. W.
Kappel, G. W. A.
Lanning, E. K.
Plum, L. H.
Webster, E. K.
Webster, W.
Webster, W., Jr.
Bryant, P. J.
Carey, P. C.
Holbrook, F. M.
Lcinroth, J. P.
Morehouse, H. P.
Ray, L. B.
Raymer, W. F., Jr.
Steinmetz, C. W. A.
Albany-
Bond, H. A,
Dick, A. V.
Johnson, H. S.
Lewis, H. F.
Murray, T. F.
Nelson, A, W.
darks—
Manning, W. M.
Columbus —
Ragatz, T. E.
Lincoln —
Clifton—
Hilder, F. L.
North Arlington —
Bermel, A. H*
Ryan, H. J.
Tagwart, R. C.
Darling, J, K.
Dexter, E. R.
Cliffslde Park-
Trambauerr C. W,
Tcclintf, G. A.
Weatover, W.
Hellmers, C. C., Jr.
Hennessy, W. J.
King, L. D.
Butler, P. D.
Collingswood —
North Bergen —
Constance, J. D.
Bedford Hills—
Mchttfc, O. A.
Leach, L. S.
Bolsineer, R. C.
Orange —
Waters, K. A.
Lehman, M. G.
Matthews, W. M.
Mohrfeld, H. H.
Crawford, J. H., Jr.
Bronxvll!«r—
Prawl, F. E.
Cranford —
Paterson— -
Bishop, C. R.
Ress, 0. J.
Rosenbach, R. F.
Shapiro, M. M.
Roos, E. B. J.
Dover —
Bannon, L. E.
Cox, H. F.
Pryor, F. L.
Dornhoim, G. A,
Buffalo—
Stanton, H. W.
Heddcn, W. M.
Bemtm, M. C.
Stevenson, M, J.
Perth Amboy—
Booth, C. A.
Taplcy, M. S.
Williams, D. D,
Omaha —
Anderson, J. W,
Banner, F. L. D.
Goll, W. A.
Kleinkauf, H.
East Orange—-
Atkins, T. J.
Ferguson, R. R.
Gombers, H. B.
Maddux, 0. L.
Reilly, J. H.
Settelmeycr, J. T.
Simkin, M.
Plainfteld—
Tobin, G. J.
Ridgefield Park-
Davis, A. C.
Bulkelcy, C. A.
Cherry, L. A.
Cheyney, C. C.
Currier, C» H,
Curtis, W. A.
Davis, J.
Day, H. C.
Dnikc, G. M.
Larkin, P.
Turno W *G W
Ridftewood—
Kiselt*, W, S.
Lindbcrg, A. F.
Lycan, L. K,
Wadsworth, R. H.
Fitts, J. C.
Wallace, D. R.
Furnhum, R.
Furmr, C. W.
Malcolm, B. L.
Moffitt, L. C.
Olson, M. J.
Peiser, M. B.
Rigby, R. A,
Rist, L M.
Sallander, H. A.
Elizabeth—
Cornwall, G. I.
Faulkner, G.
Lyman, S. E.
Tray nor, H. S,
Whcllcr, H. S.
Rochclle Park —
Emery, G, W.
Snavely, E. R.
GJffftrd, C. A.
(Sieves, T. R,
I larding, L. A,
Hurt, K. IX
Hawk, J. K.
Hinith. W, R.
HerUcy, I*. S,
Solzman, I. I.
Essex Fells —
Roscllo Park —
Hcxamtir, H. D,
Tracy, W. E.
White, W. R.
Scottsbluff —
Davis, O. E.
Soule, L. C.
Stacey, A. E., Jr.
Freehold —
Buck, D. T.
Kampish, N. S.
Somerville—
Van Nuys, J. C*
South Orange —
ilintchtnun. W. F.
Jackson, M. S.
Kaincr, F.
Kummnn, A. K.
tandem* J- J«
Lenihan W < )
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Hasbrouck Heights-
Krowne, A. L.
Uiehtlmri. C. H.
Goodwin, S. L.
Fcldermann, W.
Lovf», C. H*
Elkins—
Baker, R. H.
Haworth —
Sharp, J. R.
Summit —
Oaks, 0. O.
Ma<li»tm, R, D.
MaliWMjy, IX J«
M«iwngt*rt T, I.
NEW JERSEY
Hawthorne —
Teaneck—
Monhtr, <\ 11.
Rdf. A. F.
Arlington —
Adler, A. A.
Spoelstra, W. J.
Hoboken—
Heebner, W. M.
Trenton-
Reif, C, A.
Rente, H. W.
Roebuck, W., Jr.
Bock, B. A.
Munaon, J. L.
Wagner, j. a
Schafer, H. C
ROLL OF Ml
:MBERSHIP
S'limiilt, H.
New York City —
Erickson, E. V.
Johnson, W. A.
JVettv.ch, H., Jr.
Aildams, H.
Adler, J. C.
Etlinger, M. J.
Everetts, J., Jr.
Johnston, W. H.
Jordan, W. D.
(Foiest Hills, L.I.)
Faile, E. H,
Josephson, S.
Snj/ilor/J. S.
S\v«Mtt. T. 11.
Alt, H. L.
^St. Albans)
Fay, D. P.
(Richmond HiU)
(Brooklyn)
Kaczenski, C.
XW.i«rt, XV. K.
Apt, S. 11.
Fay, F. C.
(Bridgehampton,
\\V.>r, F. K.
1 Kinchins)
Feldman, A. M.
L. I.)
XXVmlt, K, K
Y,mn..l. J.
Cornlnt* -•
Ashli'y, K. K., Jr.
Hakwr, H, L., Jr.
Ballman, XV. H.
Balsam, C. P.
Fenner, N. P.
Fidelius, W. R.
(Brooklyn)
Fiedler, H. W.
Kastner, G. C.
Kelly, C. J.
Kenney, T. W.
Kern, J. F., Jr.
Bali", H. C.
(Brooklyn)
Fischer, L.
(Elmhurst)
Harbicri, P. J.
(Sayville, L. I.)
Kessler, J.
C'.roton -
Bat mini, NI. C.
FI£B. J. C.
Kimball. D. D.
1'TuMtt. J.
Ba.stodo, (». R.
Fleisher, W. L,
Knopf, C.
Iterby
(Richmond Hill)
Haum, A. L.
Frank, 0. E.
Friedman, M.
(Brooklyn)
Koehler, C. S.
Kn»i<m, XV. A.
Hftinnun, A. A.
Frimet, M.
Kuhlmann, R.
KImtra -
Hwbe. V. K. XV.
Hd«ky, G%A.
(Stapleton, S. I.)
Frit-/, C, V.
Kurth, F. J.
Landewit, C. J.
n,ivt«. H. c.
Itcnnottt K. A.
(Krceport)
(St. Albans, L. I.)
<;ion« I-'alli
Herman, L. K,
Hornhard. (i.
Galloway, J. F.
(Kew Gardens,
Lane, D. D.
(Elmhurst)
ItnlliMfr. K XX',
(Brooklyn)
L. I.)
Leventhal, B.
Hlanoulli. V. A.
Gates, R. A.
(Brooklyn)
Hamburg
liluokburn, I*:. C., Jr.
(Brooklyn)
Lewis, C. A.
Graham, (\ H.
(CkirdcnCIty.L. I.)
Gitternian, H.
(Astoria, L. I.)
Hlackman, A. ().
Cilore, E. F.
Lewis, T.
KltkFfHttftU'1 *
Hlackmore, J. J.
Goldberg, M.
Lucke, C. E.
Hr'tUmttilt K. A.
Hlat-kHhaw, J. I*.
(Brooklyn)
Lyons, M. A.
(Brooklyn)
Goldsehmidt, 0. E.
Maher, T. F., Jr.
1 1 Hi 1 2 it AY " ot \ * 11 vitinon
Gordon, P. B.
(St. Albans, L. I.)
11 14 'T' U*
(PiitchnutuO
Gornston, M. H.
Markush, E. U.
Hyde Park
Burr, tt, <',
Bloom, U
(Brooklyn)
Bodin^r, J. H.
Bolton, R. P.
(Brooklyn)
Colliding, W.
(Brooklyn)
Graber, E.
Martens, E. D.
Martin, G. W.
Matzen, H. B.
(Rockville Centre,
Xrvta&ton •
Jlitnthron, K. C.
Horak, K.
(Astoria, L. I.)
Greben, D.
L. I.)
McClintock, W.
tl.i it nil*, A. K.
Ituwlrtt* 1*.
Green, A. W.
McCloughan, C.
Hhnt'tt
Brablicts 0. W.
UtiHtmi\ J. H.
(Broi)kiyn)
Brown* I).
(Jackson Heights,
Grccnberg, I,
Grccnburtf, L.
(Brooklyn)
McEwan, E. E.
McGaughey, J. E. Jr.
McKiever, W. H.
HWHHt, XV, H,
Kuflunk *. K J..
Bt»<*mi<«l, A, C.
Burr, K.
Groves, S. A.
llamcnt, L.
McLeish, W. S.
Meinke, H. G.
,Si*<l«n. XV. M.
XXiJli4»u, j.XV.
ButUiravoH, F.
(Buwklyn)
('Hittihan, P, J.
Hamje, M. C.
(Brooklyn)
Harach, R. J,
Merle, A.
(Jackson Heights,
L, I.)
K*nUafl
Si attend, B. 1-.
(Great Kill*. S. I.)
ntmitbrtl, K. H.
(Brooklyn)
Hateau, W. M.
llechler, S.
Meyer, C. L.
(Hollis, L. I.)
Meyer, H, C,, Jr.
< an*!***** B. ('«
< tiu»ii, A, A.
(Hnmkiyn)
Carbtmc, J. 1L
(Baldwin, L. I.)
Cariti'nter, K. U.
C'harlcrtt T. J.
Hftibdl, W.
Henry, A. S,, Jr,
Hering, A.
Herktmer, H.
Hcreke, A, R.
Milener, E. D.
Miller, C. A.
Miller. J.
Montgomery, O. C.
Morse, F. W.
I,»nZHVVJ'
(Brooklyn)
Churls, L. W,
Chtisp, C*. L*
Herty, F. B.
(Brooklyn)
Him, C. R.
Moss, E.
(Brooklyn)
Munier, L. L.
I>MWiirv *•«* K*
('ortncll, H.
(Great Neck)
Murphy, J. R.
<**»yl«tf. XV. S*
(Staten Island)
i «..j4Wa If t'i
Hildreth, L. W.
Hinklc, E. C.
Mytingcr, K. L.
Neale, L. I.
l>twtflrn*<t. I).
\ rojisi, r. \».
Cuccl. V. J,
(Hempstead)
Hlnrichacn, A. F.
Offner, A, J.
Oldes, W. E.
Montgomery
'(Antoritt. L. 10
Daly, R. K.
Hobble, E. H.
Hochl, E. R.
Hoffman, C. S.
Olsen, G. E.
(Arverne, L. I.)
Olson, R. G.
f\t \KT T
Mf. Vrtt«m '
f riluii, U. K.
HtmrttyiJ* A.
f*{i!i!r*. XV.
AhtnttifU A.
I«"uil*y, XV. K
Daviaun! R*. I<.
I>Hy, J, J.
(Brooklyn)
Hi'imy, H. R.
De Smnrna, A, E.
(Brooklyn)
DclcrliniL W. C.
DtKi^P, H. A.
Uonndly. R.
Downs, C. R*
Duff, K.
Duncun, J. R.
Hollister, N. A.
(Brooklyn)
Honerkanip, F.
Hotchkfss, C. H, B.
Hyman, W. M.
d'lescrtelle, H. G.
Jacobus, D. S.
Jalonack, I. G.
(PatchoRue, L. I.)
Tames, J. W.
Janet, H. L.
( Brooklyn)
Olvany, W. J.
Pabst, C. S.
(Woodhaven, L. I.)
Patorno, S. A. S.
Pfuhler, J. L.
(W. New Brighton,
Phillips, F. W., Jr.
(Brooklyn)
Pietsch, J. A.
(New Brighton,
S. I>)
Pihlmanr A. A.
tiiannitti, M. C.
Lawbm. K. D.
Ham, H* J.
l>rryf M. C. ,
Dwyfrr, 1. If'
(Brooklyn)
Kadle. J- G.
KlHott, U
Tarcho, M. D.
W. New 'Brighton,
Si L)
Pinto, C.B.
(Lawrence, L. I.)
Place, C. R.
Pohle, K.
Wallace, C. N.
Kngle, A.
HEATING
VENTILATING AIR
CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
Pollak, R.
Vivarttas, E. A.
Snyder —
OHIO
Purdy, R. B.
(W. New Brighton,
Purinton, D. J.
John, V. Jr.
Quirk, C. H.
Vroome, A. E.
Syracuse —
Akron*- ~
Raisler, R. K.
Ramsay, J. W.
(Prince Bay, S. I.)
Wachs, L. J.
Acheson, A. R.
Ashley, C. M.
McElhaney, G. W.
Shields, C. D.
Rather, M. F.
Raynis, T.
(Brooklyn)
Wade, R. H.
Cady, E. F.
Carrier, W. H.
Cincinnati —
(Richmond Hill)
Reynolds, W. V.
Richfield, N. H.
(Laurelton, L. I.)
Waechter, H. P.
(Staten Island)
Cherne, R. E.
Day, V. S.
Dee, L. H.
Bird, C.
Itoyd, T. D.
Coombc, J.
(Floral Park, L. I.)
Riley, R. C.
Wagner, F. H., Jr.
Walker, W. K.
DCS Reis, J. F.
Driscoll, W. H.
Donelaon, W. N.
Doyle, W. J.
(Jamaica)
Ritchie, E. J.
Wallace, G. J.
(East Elmhurst)
Evans, K. C.
French, D.
Edwards, A. W.
Fenker, C. M.
(Brooklyn)
Walsh, M.
Graham, W, D.
Green, W. C.
Ritter, A.
Walton, C. W., Jr.
Grant, W. A.
Hclburn, I. B.
Rodman, R. W.
Rose, J. C.
(Brooklyn)
Rosenberg, P.
Waring, J. M. S.
Wheeler, J,, Jr.
Whitelaw, H. L.
Whittaker, W. K.
Hockensmith, F. E.
Ingels, M. M.
Jackcs, H. D.
Lewis L. L.
Houlis, L. D.
Houliaton, G. B.
Hutlepohl, L. F.
Huat, C. K.
Rosenburg, W. E.
(St. Albans, L. I.)
Lyle J. 1.
Junker, W. H.
(Locust Valley,
Rosenthal, E.
Wilder, E. L.
Willner, I.
Wilson, A.
O'Rourkc, H. D., Jr.
Perina, A. E.
Schulz, K. L.
Kiefer, C. J,
Kinnoy, A. M.
Kramig, R. E., Jr.
Ross, J. 0.
(Brooklyn)
Sheldon, N. K.
Little, K. B.
Roth, C. F,
Roy, A. C.
Rudd, D. J.
Wilson, H. B.
(Brooklyn)
Wolf, P.
Tnliaferro, R. R.
Wocsc, C. F.
Mason, G. C.
Mathewson, M. K.
Mayor, R. W.
(Babylon)
Wolin, M. W.
Tonawanda —
Mayne, W. L.
Ruggles, R. F.
(Randall Manor,
Wood, R. A.
(West New Brigh-
Karlsteen, G. H.
Mills, C. A.
Pillen, H. A.
S. L)
ton, S. I.)
Utica—
Piatler, W, C.
Salter, E. H.
Samuels, S.
Sanbern, E. N.
(Rockville Centre,
L. I.)
Sawhill, R. V.
Wrightson, W. T.
Niagara Falls—
Kessler, M. E,
North Pelham —
Knapp, J. H.
Price, K.H.
Skidmore, J. G.
Steinhorst, T. F.
White Plains —
Powers, L. G.
Richard, K. J.
Roycr, K. B.
Ruff, A. G.
Sigmund, R. W.
SilbcrKtdn, U. G.
Schermer, R.
Dome, A. G.
Bcnnitt G. E.
Smith, J. A.
(Elmhurst, L. L)
Schoepttin, P. H.
North Tarrytown —
Durkce,' M". E".
Rose A. A.
Smith, S.
Sproull, II. K.
Schulein, E. H.
Weiss, A. P.
Ruolo P 12
Sutfin, G. V,
(Forest Hills, L. L)
Schulze, B. H.
North Tonawanda —
Zibold, C. K.
Wash burn, M. J.
WinthtT, A.
Scott, A. F, H.
Conaty, B. M.
Yonkcrs —
Wright, K. A.
Scott, G. M.
Seelig, A. E.
Oswefto—
Dean, IX
Gocru 1?.
Cleveland—
Sellman, N. T.
Senior, R. L.
Shaffer, C. E.
Sherbrooke, W. A.
Mohn, H, L.
Pelham —
Crone, T. E.
Harmonay, W. L.
Hayter, B.
Hopp, H. K.
Kelly J G
Avcry, L, T.
Beach, \V. R.
Borfcal. P.
Bro/,ina, K. A.
Siebs, C. T.
Simpson, A, M.
Sklenarik, L.
Pelham Manor-
Peacock, J. K.
Raintfftr.'W, F.
Xuhlke, W. R.
Cury, K. B.
Chttetttnnn, K. W.
Cohen* H*
Smith, M. S.
Cohen, P.
Stalb, J. G,
Rochester —
NORTH CAROLINA
Conner, R* M.
(Brooklyn)
Andrescn, G. C.
Curtta. H. K,
Steeneck, K, C.
Betlem, H. T.
Kvclcth, C. K.
(Bellairc, L. I.)
Cook, R. P.
Charlotte —
Friedman, A.
Stellwagen, F, G.
Eschenbach, S. P.
Arden, I. L.
(Woodhaven)
Hakca, L. M,
Brandt, E. H., Jr.
(rotlwald* C«
Sternberg, E.
Hewett, J. B.
Campbell, A. Q,, Jr.
Gray, K. W.'
Sterne, C. M.
Hutchins, W. H.
Hill, H. H.
Grecntatf, R. P.
(Long Island City)
Lee, R. T.
Leonhard, L. W,
Hodge, W. B.
MuirheJd, J. G.
Harris, J. G.
Harvey, L. C.
Stravitsch,' J. J.
(Ozone Park, L. I.)
Strock, C.
Stacy, S. C.
Treadway, J. 0.
Vidalc, R.
Shirley, W. B.
Durham—
H<?tot«rkamp, H, W.
Jones, J. P.
Ku«rcher, C* M. H.
Stnmin, J.
Syska, A. G.
Taze, E. H.
Rome —
Lynch, W. L.
Cooke, T. C.
Greensboro —
Kain, K. M.
Kalinsky, A. G.
Kitchen, K, A.
Thomson, T. N.
/Huntington, L. I.)
Timmis,' W. W.
Scarsdalc —
Cumming, R. W.
Ullman, H. G.
Harding, K. R.
Small, H. R,
Hifch Point—
Klie, W.
Kofoed, V, B.
Levy, M. I.
Mnruttftp J. A.
Torrance, H.
Tucker, F. N.
Schenectady —
Gray, W. E.
Martinka. P. D.
Maurcr, If, J.
(Frceport, L. I.)
Tusch, W.
Danielson, L. C,
Hunziker, C. E.
Raleigh —
Rice, R. B,
McKccman, C. A.
(Brooklyn)
Tyler, R. D.
Vervoort, E. L.
(Rockville Centre,
L. I.)
Seely, L R.
Vogcl, A.
Welch, L. A., Jr.
Schodack Landing, —
Wl ns ton -Salem—
Balmson, F. F.
Brown, M. D.
Cornwall, C. C.
Moore,r\V/R.
PogaUt't), L. H.
Repko, J. J.
Rhoton, W. R.
Rowe, W. M.
Vetlesen, G. U.
Freaa, R, B.
Page, A.
Schurman, J, A.
ROLL or M:
EMBERSHIP
Simon, A.
Lakewood —
Oklahoma City—
Clearfield—
Smith, W. IX
Kubasta, R. W.
Carnahan, J. H.
Gault, G. W.
Southmayd, R, T.
LonRCoy, G. B.
Dolan, R. G.
Tu«*t I). L.
Tuvf, tr. U
Yuml«»rlm»rf. A. L.
Tanker, G. E.
Teckmyer, K. C., Jr.
Wilson, R, A.
Dugger, E. R.
Earl, W.
Gray, E. W.
Dunbar —
Sherwood, L. T.
\VaIki-r. J. K.
\VcMthethy. K. P., Jr.
Mlddletown—
Holyfield, E. F.
Hoppe, A. A.
Elizabethtown —
W«'bb, K. (\
Hyrd, T.
Howlett, I. G.
Dibble, S. E.
WrWjr. L. O.
Muior, A. H.
Loeffler, F. X.
\\ViMl, H. K.
Wilhi'lm, J. K.
Wootan, <'. <*.
Stitt, A, B,
Newark —
Simison, A. L.
Slayter, G.
Loeffler, L., Jr.
Meinholtz, H. W.
Middleton, D. K.
Mideke, J. M.
Miller, B. R.
Patton, R. L.
Erie-
Joyce, H. B.
McDowell, B. W.
Preece, L. W.
Sahlmann, F. L.
IXvvitt R« { »•
Norwood —
Rathbun, P. W.
Richmond, J.
Braun, J, J.
Motz, O. W.
Rolland, S. L.
Spencer, D.
Etna —
Park, H. E.
stwiinVt J, <»„ Jr.
Oberlin—
Tiller, L.
Glenside—
ColunibuH -
Riea, L. S.
Tulsa—
Werner, J. G.
Alltmior, H. R.
liivncmun, R. H.
Brown. A, t,
Ou»lirr. W; H.
Painesvllle—
Hobba, J. C.
Parma —
Dean, C. H.
Holmes, A. D.
Jones, E.
Jordan, R. C.
Pauling, R. E.
Greensburg —
Burkhart, E. M.
Dwtfar, j. R,
Kiinmclf, I*. M.
Mylcr, W. M.t Jr,
Kajuk, A. E.
Piqua —
Scherrer, K. C.
Shoemaker, F. F.
Harrlsburg —
Eicher. H. C.
Geiger, I. H.
Sli**nu!in, R. A,
Lange, R. T.
OREGON
Haverford —
sjfiwfii i**. \v
\Vhit<s *K "l>, '
\VilH.MiiHf A. W.
\Vy,iit. I>. H.
Rathke, A. C.
Shafcor Heights-
Corvallis—
Wllley, E. C.
Black, E. N., Ill
Hershey —
Snavely, A. B.
(Uxynho&a P&Utt -
Humphrey. IX K,
Ji'IUllIHV!. H. K..
Harvey, R. A.
South Park-
Barney, W. E.
Portland —
Kroeker, J. D.
Taylor, T. E.
Johnstown —
Huettner, H. F.
Hunter, L. N.
Dayton •
Springftcld-
PENNSYLVANIA
Kuowles, F. R.
Novotney, T. A.
Itaktr* I. < 4
Hauck, K. L.
JWK^iv A Ir
' iitij.iUittii, v v , /v»» jr.
n.uke, JF. ci.
fvilrtmntt, M. J., Jr.
Toledo-
Baker, H. C.
Herein, J. R.
Uainm, 1>. A.
TitrtPH S
Abington—
Park, N. W.
Allentown—
Kingston —
Macdonald, D. B.
Lancaster —
Chenoweth, D. M.
llulU H! W. ",
Hut* hint:*. R.I«
jiHiv'n, *»•
Mc<rick, W. D.
Hersh, F, C.
Korn, C. B.
Jones, A.
Lloyd, E. C.
Riii'titi^i* »>• *«
Myers, K. !'•
Watkina, G. B.
Ambler—
Lansdowne —
McElgln, J. W.
Hicks, H. K.
lIvar.'A.'lC
Mtu'MUUm, A. R*
Waverly—
Armbruster, F. T. W.
Ardmore—
Haynes, C. V.
James, H. R-
Lauer, R. F.
Mawby, P.
X«M«*/.I. I*.
Wilmington—
Marconctt, V. G.
Ardsley—
Lemont —
SwKVK
Sapp, C* L.
Tucker, L. A.
Henszey, W. P.
WtUhmn, R H.
Worthington—
Bala-Cynwyd —
Manhelm —
wr^ilitm/il
Sleinmona, J. D.
Patrick, H. M.
Whitney, C. W.
Weited, C. B.
Weitzel, P. H.
\Vyhl, R. ».
Youngfttown —
Boucherle, H. N.
Beaver Falls-
McKeesport —
<;<.U/,* K. W.
Montgomery, J. R.
Van Alen, W. T.
Dugan, T. M.
M orr to, F. H.
*»,»,{,, tf Vf
OKLAHOMA
Bethlehem—
McKees Rocks—
IHOlll »» * •• *v* •
Stufle, w7icr
Mcrt<ncr» K* !'*«
Klyrla •
MuynnrtI* J. K.
Hamilton •-
AlTa—
Husky, S. T.
Bartlesville —
Yatea, G. L.
Norman —
Adamu, B. C., Jr.
Bornstein, W.
Murnin, E. A., Jr.
Stuart, M. C.
Bradford —
Cleveland, C. C.
Paterson, F. C.? Jr.
Presdee, C. W.
Turner, P. K.
Rodgers, F. E.
Middletown —
Locke, R. A.
Midland—
Crichton, H. C.
Narberth—
K«llctt, T. t.
Daw»on, E. F.
Giles, J. C.
Sonney, K. J.
Brookline—
Donnelly, M. A.
Dever, H. F.
Searle, W. J., Jr.
71
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
New Castle —
Rettew, H. F.
Tennant, R. J. J.
York—
Andrews, G. H.
Sonneborn, C.
New Kensington —
Rhea, C. A.
Roberts, H. L.
Rugart, K.
Sabin, E. R.
Schneider, C. H.
Tower, E. S.
Waters, G. G.
Weddell, G. O.
Zangrilli, A. J.
Barnum, W. E., Jr.
Clippinger, J. V.
Hertzler, J. R,
Kartorie, V. T.
Edwards, J. D.
Shanklin, A. P.
Sheffler, M.
Pottsville —
Walsh, E. R., Jr.
Zieber, W. E.
Norristown —
Skagerberg, R.
Marty, E. O.
Hucker, J. H.
Smith, D. K.
Smith, W. F.
Smith, J. D.
PHILIPPINE
Speckman, C. H.
Primes-
ISLANDS
Oxford —
Stewart, J. P.
Hall, M. S.
—
Ware, J. H.f III
Stokes, A. D.
Timmis, P.
Johnson, A. J.
Manila—
Philadelphia-
Adams, B.
Touton, R. D.
Traugott, M.
Trump, C. C.
Radnor —
Davidson, P. L.
Hausman, L. M.
Macrae, R. B.
Ahlff, A, A.
Arnold, R. S.
Tuckerman, G. E.
Wegmann, A.
Reading—
RHODE ISLAND
Bachman, F.
Wiley, D. C.
Luck, A. W.
Barnard, M. E.
Wilrnot, C. S.
Nicely, J. E.
Bartlett, C. E.
Wiltberger, C. F.
Providence —
Black, H. G.
Woolston, A. H.
Rutlcdgc —
Colemun, J. B.
Blankin, M. F.
Yerkes, W. L.
Jones N. R«
Gibbs, 1C. W.
Bogaty, H. S.
Hartwcli, J. C.
Bornemann, W. A.
Burke, J.
Caldwell, A. C.
Call, J,
Pittsburgh—
Beighel, H. A.
Biber, H. A.
Scran ton —
Mahon, B. B.
Shaver, H. H,
McCarthy, J. J.
McLaughlin, J. D.
Moulder, A. W.
Cassell, J. D.
Clodfelter, J. L.
Blackmore, G. C.
Brauer, R,
Springfield —
SOUTH CAROLINA
Cody, H. C.
Bushncll, C. D.
Grossman, H. E.
Culbert, W. P.
Carr M L
Payne, R. E.
Dambly, A. E.
Davidson, L. C.
Collins, J. F. S,, Jr.
Comstock, G. M.
State College-
Clemson College —
Shenk. D. H.
Dietz, C. F.
Donovan, W. J.
Dorfan, M. I.
Edwards. P. A.
Queer, E. R,
Columbia —
Elliot, E.
Erickson, H. H,
Evleth, E. B.
Faltenbacher, H. J.
Familctti, A, R.
Eils, L. C.
Ellis, G. P.
Frisse, J. L.
Giles, A, F.
Goodman, D. J.
Stroudsburg —
Kiefer, E, J., Jr.
Swarthmore —
Hartin, W. R,, Jr.
Kcrr, W. K.
Mercer, C. K.
Reamer, W. S., Jr.
Galligan, A. B.
Gant, H. P. ,
Gillctt, M. C.
Gilman, F. W.
Greiner, G. E., Jr.
Griest, K.
Hecht, F. H.
ETeilmtin R. H.
Hobbs, W. S.
Robinson, A. S.
Thorn, G. B.
SOUTH DAKOTA
Guler, G. D.
Hackett, H. B.
Hance, W. W.
Houghten, F. C.
Humphreys, C. M.
Hyde, E. H.
Tarentum —
Orr.L.
Load—
Pullen, R. R.
Hedges, H. B.
Hibbs, F. C.
Hunger, R. F,
Hynes, L. P.
Kennedy, 0. A.
Kennedy, P. V.
Landos, B. D.
Loucks, D. W.
Uniontown —
Marks, A. A.
Sioux Falls-—
Monick, F. R.
IckeringUl, J,
Jopson, J. M.
Kelble, F. R.
Maehling, L. S.
Majrfnn, P. F.
Mahon, F. B.
Upper Darby—
Aughcnbaugh, H. E.
TENNESSEE
Kriebel, A. E.
Marshall, A. W.
Beitzell, A. E.
Chattanooga—
Landau, M.
Leopold, C. S.
Lyon, P. S.
MacDade, A. H.
Mack, L.
Martocello, J. A.
McGonagle, A.
McGuigan, L. A.
Mclntosh, F. C.
McLean, J. E.
Miller, R. A.
Moore, H L.
Blackmore, J, S.
Currie, F. J.
Eastman, C* B.
Kipe, J. M.
McCUiin, C. H.
Campbell, G. S.
EHzabethton—
Torok, K.
Mather, H. H.
McClintock, A., Jr.
McCullough, H. G.
Mcllvaine, J. H.
Mellon, J, T, J,
Meloney, E. J.
Mensing, F. D.
Mueller, J, E.
Nass, A. F.
Neis, W. A,
Nicholls, P.
Parks, C. E.
Proie, J.
Reed I G
Villanova —
Barrr G. W.
Carey, J. A.
Washington —
KnoxviUe~-
Oakley, L. W.
Memphis —
Fllnn, C. S.
Hothall. R. H.
Millhara, F. B.
Moody, L. E.
Morgan, R. C.
Morris, A. M.
Munro, G. A.
Reed, V. A., Jr.
Riesrneyer, E. H., Jr.
Rockwell, T. F.
Rodgers, W. C.
Frazier, J. E.
Wilklnsburg —
Campbell, T. F.
Murfreesboro —
Armifitcad. W. C.
Moore, H. W,
Murdoch, J. P., Jr.
Rose, H. J.
Scanlon, E. S.
Williamsport —
Nashville—
Hrnwm 1?
Nesbitt,A.J,
Nesbitt,J.f.
Newcomb, L. B.
Nusbaum, L.
Plewea, S. E.
Pryibil, P. L.
Selig, E. T., Jr.
Srayers, E. C.
Speller, F, N.
Stanger, R. B.
Axeman, J. E.
Wormlcysb urg—
MUler, T. G.
JDroWu, JP.
TEXAS
Rank, A, I.
Steggall, H. B.
Amarillo—
Redstone, A. L.
Stevenson, W. W.
Wyncote—
Burnett. K. S.
Reilly, C. E.
Strauch, P. C.
Buck,L.
Houska, A. D.
72
ROLL OF
MEMBERSHIP
Bryan —
Grie-sspr. C. E.
Row.'"** R. C.
Somerville —
Barton. D. II.
May, C. W.
Morse, R. D.
Musgrave, M. N.
O'Connell, P. M.
Madison —
Dean, C. L.
Feirn, W, H.
Hall G.
UTAH
Peterson, S. D.
Larson, G. L.
College Station —
Pollard, A. L.
Nelson, D. W.
Salt Lake City-
Sparks, J. D.
Twist, C. F.
Ward, J. J.
Seymour, J. E.
White, J. C.
Hines, G. M.
JLomt, XV. K.
Richardson, H. G,
Watt,' R. D.
Weber, E. L.
Milwaukee —
Smith. K. G.
Wesley, R. O.
Allan, W.
Tfftl. B. T*
VERMONT
Zokelt, C. G.
Banks, J. B.
Dallas—
.
Spokane —
Berghoefer, V. A.
Bernert, L. A.
Anfjtucher, T. H.
tttH'k. I. I.
Burlington —
Russell. W. B.
Boden, W. F.
Bowers, A. F.
ttorm'fi, K. R.
Ctmnt.mt, K. S.
Lanou, J. E.
Raine, J. J.
Tacoma —
Brown, W. H.
Cook, H. R.
Dnrninx, K. U,
Gitriinftr, C*. R.
Gilbert, L. S.
Jelinrk,/. R.
North Ferrisburfc—
Breckenridge, L. P.
Foote, E. E.
Spofforth, W.
Yaklma—
Davis, K. T.
Elliott, N. B.
Ellis, H. W.
Errath, E. O.
Frentzel, H. C.
L:iml,Iu<*r, I*. U
Martyii, H. J*
VIRGINIA
Leichnitz, R. W.
McCune, B, V.
Goldsmith, F. W.
Gregg, S. H.
Mchl. 0, H.
••—
Hanley.E. V.
Motor. XV. H.
Kfnroif. K. P«
Arlington—
WEST VIRGINIA
Hays, C. A.
Hessler, L. W.
Schmidt, H. I.
Sctmcany, t>, W.
Strlfwfellow. J. C.
Turner, II. S,, Jr.
Ferrurini, J.
Marshall, W. D.
Rudio, H. M.
Welsh, H. A.
Charleston—
Hughey, T. M.
Jackson, C. H.
Jepertinger, R. C.
Jones, E. A.
Hit Hi, A. H,
Rothtnann, S. C.
Jung, J. S.
XVitnifr, «*. K.
Blacksburfc—
Johnston, R. M.
Shanklin, J. A.
Wright, M. B.
Ketter, J. W.
Knab, E. A.
Koch, R. G.
Rmlj*rT«» ^- A-
Charlottcavlllc —
Fairmont —
Krenz, A. S.
Lofte, J. A.
Fort Worth- -
Sfctonrr. H. W.
Werner, K, K.
Peebles, J, K., Jr.
Lynchburft—
Doering, F, L.
Tonry, R. C.
Wright, C. E.
Huntinftton—
Johnson, L. O.
Miller, C. W.
Mueller, H. P.
Noll. W. F.
Page. H. W.
Randolph, C. H.
Reinke, L. F.
Huff.J. M.
Norfolk—
Capps, K* U
Nowluky, H. S,
Webster, W. H.. Ji
Larftent—
Donnelly, J. A.
r- Wheeling—
Rice, C. J. w
Schreiber, H. W.
Shawlin. W. C.
Shodron, J. G.
Sickert, G. D.
Spence, M« K.
Jtincflt A« I*.
Houston —
Portsmouth —
Stubb», W. C.
HItt, J. C,
Steinkellner, E. J-
Swisher, S. G., Jr.
Szekely, E.
rhftttwcKxl, W. H*
Richmond—
WISCONSIN
Trostel, 0. A.
Volk, J. H.
t 'ot'iifSift* XV, K»
r*n»ti**r« D. S.
Kicking, J. A.
Kurt/, R. W.%
HeMiAK. H. H.
Carle, W. B.
Johnuton, J. A.
Pclouze, U. L., H
Beloit—
McKinley, C. B.
Wagner, A. M.
Weimer, F. G.
Winkler, R. A.
K^'wJrrf:,1'
TayU?r7 K. V/
Schulz, H. I.
WASHINGTON
CHntonviUc—
Quail, C, O.
Neenah —
Angermeyer, A. H.
Eiss, R. M.
Watnh, J, A.
Stiegler, A. J.
•
Cuba City—
Irrlnfc~-
Kent—
Kcllner, D. C,
Racine—
Wilfton, J* W,
Boyker, R. 0.
port Orchard—
Green Bay—
Haus, I. J.
Dixon, A. G.
Menden, P. J-
Kit tittminn, W. M.
Pratt, F. J.
South Milwaukee—
Kohlor— •
I»orr Arthur—
Seattle —
Hvoslef , F. W.
Ouweneel, W. A.
Shaw, C. O.
Be*?florfLE'
Kohler, W. J., Jr.
Superior —
Sftn Antonio—
Caae, R/K.
La Crosse—
Waite, H.
lilm/M " 1«
Kbctt. XV. A*
Kutaccbu* R. w.
Monter, K. A. J.
Cox, W. W.
Daly, C. P.
Eastwood, E.O.
Granaton, R. 0.
Hauan, M. J.
Macl-eod, K. F,
Mallia, W.
Anderegg, R. H,
Bledsoe, R. P.
Miller, M.W.
Rowe, W. A.
Thomas, JN. A,
Trane, R. N.
West Allis—
Erickson. M. E.
Spence, R.T.
Wieriman, W, J.
73
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
CANADA
Dupuis, J. R.
Dykes, J. B.
Forrester, N. J.
Freeman, E. M.
Friedman, F. J.
«. Garneau, L.
Gendron, H.
Gittleson H,
Three Rivers, Que.—
Germain, O.
Timmins, Ont. —
Smith, R. J.
Toronto, Ont. —
Moore, H. S.
Oke, W. C.
O'Neill, J. W.
Paul, D. T.
Philip, W.
PlayTair, G. A.
Price, D. O.
Ritchie, A. G.
Brandon, Man. —
Yates, J. E.
Yates, J. E., Jr.
Calgary, Alberta—
Hamlet, A.
Alexander, S. W.
Roth, H. R.
Vissac, G. A.
Hughes, W. U.
Johnson, C. W.
Allcut, E. A.
Allsop, R. P.
Shears, M. W.
Sheppard, W. G. F.
Edmonton, Alberta —
Mould, D. E.
Laffoley, L. H.
Lamontagne, A. F.
Lin ton, J. P.
Angus, H. H.
Anthes, L.
Arrowsmith, J. O.
Stott, F. W.
Taskcr, C.
Thomas, M. F.
FHn Flon, Man. —
Madely, F. J.
Marshall, A. G.
Baker, G. R.
Baker, L. P.
Walclon, C. D.
Wardell, A.
Foster, P, H.
Martin, L.
Blackball, L. C.
Watson, M. B.
Martin, R.
Blackball, W. R.
Whittall, E. T.
Fort Garry, Man. —
Morris, J. A.
Boddington, W. P,
Wilier, M. D.
Davis, G. C.
Murray, H. G. S.
Nickle, A. J.
Bowerman, E. L.
Cairns, J. H.
Woollard, M. S.
World, H. P.
Freeman, Ont. —
Goodram, W. E,
Osborne, G. H.
Peart, A, M.
Perras, G. E.
Carter, A. W.
Chambers), F. W.
Church, H. J.
Vancouver, B. C. —
Dawson, G. S.
Gait, Ont. —
Phipps, F. G.
Robertson, J. A. M.
Cole, G. E.
Cornish, D. F.
Hale, F. J.
Johnston, R. E.
Sheldon, W, D., Jr.
Roche, I. F.
Davenport, R. F.
Leek, W.
Ross, J. D.
Dickey, A. J.
McCrecry, II. J.
Hamilton, Ont. —
Timmins, W. W.
Dion, A. M.
Turland, C. H.
Barnes, H.
Tolhurst, G. C.
Dowler, E. A.
Best, M. W,
Twizell, E. W.
Duncan, W. A,
Victoria, B. C.—
Charters, W. A.
Dickenson, M. E.
Watts, A. E,
Wiggs, G. L.
Eaton, W. G. M.
Ellis, F. E.
Sheret, A.
Moffat, O. G.
Islington, Ont. —
Wilkinson, A.
Wilson, A.
Worthington, T. H.
Ewens, F. G.
Fitzsimons, J. P.
Forrester, C. M.
Wellington, Ont.—
Johnston, H. IX
Wilson, G. T.
Ottawa, Ont. —
Fox, E.
Fox, J. H.
Westmount, Quo, —
Kirkland Lake,
Ont. —
Calver, R. W.
Kitchener, Ont.—
Allen, A. W.
Colclough, 0. T.
Gray, G. A.
McGrail, T. E,
Pennock, W. B.
Gauley, E. R.
Givin, A. W,
Gordon, W. D.
Gurney, E. H.
Gurney, K. R,
Harrington, C.
Colfonl, J.
Pratt, J. C.
Windsor, Ont.—
Aitkcn, J.
Hare, W. A,
Beavers, G. R.
Preston, Ont. —
Heard, R. G.
Honion 11 D
Winnipeg, Man. —
Pollock, C. A.
Everest, R. H.
Hills, A. H.
Argu^, Fv. J.
Lindsay, Ont. —
Quebec, Quo. —
Hopper, G, H.
Hughes. L. K.
Cuntlffe, J. A.
Kad«s H. H.
McCrae, G. W.
La Rocquc, P. E.
Jeffrey, T. G.
Jenney, II. B.
GlUHH, W.
Jom**, B. C*.
London, Ont. —
PaQuet, J. M.
Roy L
Jennings, S. A.
Kent, K. L.
Dobic, T. K.
O'Flaherty, J. G.
Rlgaud, Quo. —
Jones, A. T.
Kelly, W. 0.
Lawlor, J. J.
Kipp, T,
Mlchlo, I>, F.
Miller, K. K.
Montreal, P. Q .—
Fogarty, O. A,
Leclgctt, V. D,
Twitch, A. S.
Mimn, K. R
Stecta. J. H.
Allaire, L.
St. Catherines,
Ubby, R. S.
Summers, K. T.
Ballantyne, G. L.
Barnsley, F. R.
Darling, A. B.
Ont.—
Palmason, J. H.
Lower, H. C.
MacDonald, D. J.
Marriner, J. M. S.
Thompson, K.
Watson, H. D.
Worton, W,
Dewar, W. G.
Dixon, M. F.
St. Lambert, Que.—
Maxwell, R, S.
McCrimmon, A. M*
Woodstock, Ont. • •
Dufault, F. H.
Lefebvre, E. J,
McDonald, T.
Karg(% A.
AUSTRALIA
BELGIUM
Shanghai —
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
{ . .. .-
Bradford, G* G.
Chen, S. T.
Praha—
Melbourne —
Atherton, A. E.
TO/M30 T)
MauLsch, R.
BRAZIL
Doughty, C. J,
Gangc, K. B.
Hart-Baker, H. W,
Kwan, I. K.
T Ah "NT c;
Bru8tr 0,
DENMARK
JLvOSS, K.
Rio de Janeiro —
JUOCt, J.N, O.
Morrison, C. B.
Rachal, J. M.
Copenhagen^
Reck, W. E.
Sydney—
Botelho, N. T.
Darby, M. H.
Waung', T. F.
DUTCH
Davey, G. I.
Hunt, N. P.
Moloncy R R
CHINA
CUBA
EAST INDIES
JAVA
Picot, J/W.
Robinson, J. A.
Nanking-
Havana —
Socrabala —
Sands, C. C.
Loo, P. Y.
Edwards, H. B.
Thornbur«, H. A.
74
ROLL, or MEMBERSHIP
KNCiLAND
Birmingham' -
Hint, c;t 1.. H.
CftU'rham •
Cheshire
Dart ford -
Den ton •
XXVbb, J. XV.
Jrniiiiir., H, II.
London -
Huilc-y. XV, M.
itpnluim, (\ S. K.
Hutt. K. K. W.
Chert <T, T,
Kiln'i, O.
JTaniT, J. J.
<»twiiliin«l( S. K.
H.ul*nf 0. N,
timing. K.
Kniwiniky, V,
I.itu'KuiHli, J, K.
NnblH. XV. XV.
I'rykr, J, K, M.
KM«'t*»ll, J. X.
uiu *!•;. i'1, ''
Sutttm
CuHlirnl, H. XV, H.
Yal<% XV,
Trowttriitgtr -
Hiutcn, XXf. N.
Wolv«r Hampton - -
Ty;.'.n,W. II,
PKANCK
IHjwn -
Hut, J. K. C,
Alabama H
Arl/ona 2
Lille—
Neu, H. J. E.
Lyon —
Paris—
Bcaurrienno, A.
Hodmer, K,
Downe, H. S.
Ghilurdi, R
Ivlodiund, R.
Nesju, A.
Schmutz, J.
GERMANY
Hamburg —
Unindi, C). H.
Stuttgart —
Klein, A. R.
INDIA
Bombay —
Wilson, B. D.
New Delhi -
Heard, J. A. E.
IRELAND
Cork-
Barry, 1>. I.
Dublin-
Leonard, L. C. G.
ITALY
Milan -
Ciinij A.
HauHBf C. F.
Torino —
Haldi, (r.
JAPAN
Tokyo—
Kitaura, S.
Kozu, T.
Saito, S.
Sekido, K.
MANCHOUKUO
Johannesb urg, —
Carrier, E. G.
Ehlers, J.
Overton, S. H.
vonChristierson, C. A.
SPAIN
Hslking—
Kawase, S.
MEXICO
Madrid—
Alfageme, B.
Jimenez, J. G.
STRAITS
SETTLEMENTS
Mexico, D. F.
Gilfrin, G. F.
Martinez, J. J.
NETHERLANDS
Arnhom —
Tanger, 0. C. F.
NEW ZEALAND
Singapore —
Faxon, H, C.
Hill, C. F.
SWEDEN
Lidingo —
Rosell. A. F.
Stockholm—
Chris tchurch—
Taylor, E. M.
Vale. H. A. L.
Dunedin —
Davics, G. W.
NORWAY
Gille, H.
Ostrom, E. W.
Theorell, H. G. T.
TRINIDAD
Port of Spain —
Cox, T. M., Jr,
TURKEY
Oslo—
Alfsen, N.
Tjersland, A.
SCOTLAND
Istanbul —
Karakash, T. J.
U.S.S.R.
Anj£us —
Knox, J, R.
SOUTH AFRICA
Moscow —
Dunne, R. V.
VENEZUELA
Osaka—
Fukui. K.
UNITED STATES AND
Indiana 31
Durban —
Kothe, F. H,
ISLAND TERRITORIES
Nebraska 36
Caracas —
Bias, R. J,
South Dakota ... 2
Tennessee 8
Texas 57
Iowa 10
Kansas 11
New Hampshire. 1
New Jersey 98
Colorado H
Kentucky 19
Louisiana 14
Maine $
New York 442
North Carolina.. 16
Ohio 179
Utah 2
Vermont 3
Virginia 16
Maryland 32
Oklahoma 32
Washington 30
West Virginia... 8
Wisconsin 77
ttlt. or Columbia 56
Florida 1 2
Massachusetts.. 115
Michigan 154
Orefton 3
Pennsylvania — 251
Philliplnels 2
Rhode Island.... 6
South Carolina. . 5
Minxu'HOta 105
2427
182
Hawaii 2
Missouri 132
iliiftoffi > 271
Montana 4
DOM1N)
AuMfniHa 8
FOREIGN COUNTRIES
France 10 Mexico,.... 2
Sweden 4
Hrft'/H ,. "/.',!!.'!! 2
China 11
Germany..,, — 2
India 2
Ireland 2
Netherlands i
New Zealand.... 3
Norway 2
Trinidad 1
Turkey 1
U. S. S. R 1
Italy 3
Japan 5
Java • • *
Scotland 1
South Africa 5
Spain 2
* 103
*«1 XvT.nWkKAVAllJM '>71'>
Kniland 26
Manchouko 1
Str't. Segments. 2
75
PAST OFFICERS
AMERICAN SOCIETY of HEATING and VENTILATING ENGINEERS
1894
1897
President
1st Vice-President
8nd Vice-President
Srd Vice-President
Treasurer
Secretary..^
Edward P. Bates
.Wm, M. Mackay
,Wiltsie F. Wolfe
.Chas. S. Onderdonk
1.™... Judson A. Goodrich
L. H. Hart
Board of Managers
Chairman, Fred P, Smith
Henry Adams A, A, Gary
Hugh J. Barren James A. Harding
Edward P. Bates, Pres. L, H. Hart, Secy.
Council
Chairman, R. C. Carpenter
Albert A. Cryer Chas. W. Newton
F, W. Foster Ulysses G. Scollay, Secy.
President »
.Wm. M. Mackay
1st Vice-President
Bnd Vice-President
Srd Vice-President
Treasurer
,_ H. D. Crane
.„ Henry Adams
A. E. Kcnrick
....Judson A. Goodrich
Secretary
, H. M. Swetland
Board of Managers
Chairman, R, C. Carpenter
Edward P. Bates Stewart A. >llctt
W. S. Hadaway, Jr, Wiltaie F. Wolfe
Wm. M. Mackay, Pres. H. M. Swetland, Secy.
Council
Chairman, Albert A. Cryer
John A. Fish James Mackay
Wm. McMannis B. F. Stangland
President
1st Vice-President...,
Snd Vice-President..
Srd Vice-President...
Treasurer .....
Secretary..*
1895
1898
Stewart A, Jcllctt
, .Wm. M. Mackay
.....Chas, S, Onderdonk
D, M, Quay
Judson A, Goodrich
JL H. Hart
Board of Managers
Chairman, James A. Harding
Geo. B. Cobb Ulysses G, Scollay
Wm. McMannis B, F. Stangland
Stewart A, Jellett, Pres. L, H, Hart, Secy.
Council
Chairman, R. C. Carpenter
Henry Adams T. J. Waters
Edward P. Bates Albert A. Cryer, Secy.
President ^*
1st Vice-President
£nd Vice-President ....
Srd Vice-President
Treasurer...
Secretary,*** ,
Wlltsfc F, Wolfe
„ J. H. Kintaly
A. K. Kenrick
John A. Hi«h
Judaon A, Gcxxlrich
, Stewart A. Jdlett
Board of Manager*
Chairman, Wm, M. Mackay
Thomas Barwick A, C. Mott
John A. Connolly Francis A* Williams
Wilteie F. Wolfe, Pres. Stewart A. Jcllctt. A
Council
Chairman, R. C. Carpenter
Henry Adams W, S. Hadaway, Jr.
Albert A. Cryer Wm. McMannii
Wiltsie F. Wolfe, Pres. Stewart A, J<*Ilett, ,V
1896
1899
President
1st Vicc-PresidtnL.*
&nd Vice-PresidenL
Srd Vice-president.,.
Treasurer
Secretary ~
,...R, C. Carpenter
,..D. M. Quay
..:«.Edward P. Bates
F, W- Foster
.Jtidson A. Goodrich
L, H. Hart
Board of Managers
Chairman, Wm. M, Mackay
Hugh J. Barron Stewart A, Jellett
W. S. Hadaway, Jr. Wlltale F. Wolfe
R. C. Carpenter, Pres. L. H. Hart, Secy.
Council
Chairman, A, A, Gary
Albert A, Cryer B. F. Stangland
Wm, McMannis J, J. Blackmore, Secy,
President
1st Vice-president,,
M Vice-President.,
Srd Vice-President..,
Trtaswer ,
Secretary,
- Henry Arlami
I). M. Quay
A, E. Ktnrick
,„ Frnncte A. Williami
Juduon A, Goodrich
Wm, M, Mackay
Board of Manager!
Chairman, Stewart A, Jellett
B. H* Carpenter Wm, Kent
A. A, Gary Wiltrfe F. Wolfo
Henry Adams, Pr&. Wm. M, Mackay, Secy.
Council
Chairman, R. C. Carpenter
John Gormly Wm. McManni*
W, S. Hadaway, Jr. B. F. Stanjland
Henry Adams, Pres, Wm, M, Mackay, Secy,
76
ROLL OF MEMBERSHIP
President
1900
_ D. M. Quay
1905
President
Wm Kent
1st V *M -President...
£W rtte-Prcsidtnt...
Treasurer
Sftrfiary
A. E. Kenrick
1st V ice-President
R. P. Bolton
Francis A. Williams
«. Judson A. Goodrich
..Win. M. Mackay
&nd Vice-President
C. B. J. Snyder
Treasurer . ..
Secretary
„ Ulysses G. Scollay
....Wm. M. Macfcay
Board of Governors
Chairman, D. M. Quay
Win, K>nt, Vitf*Chm. D. M. Neabit
R. C. Carpenter C. B. J. Snyder
John <ittrmly Wm, M. Mackay, Secy.
Board of Governors
Chairman, Wm. Kent
R. P. Bolton James Mackay
C. B. J. Snyder B. F. Stangland
B. H. Carpenter J. C. F. Trachsel
A. B. Franklin Wm. M. Mackay, Secy.
1901
President J. H, Kinealy
1st Vhe*Prc*idenl A. E. Kenrick
tend rfar-Prtsidfni „.. „ Andrew Harvey
TrfMurtv Judnon A. Goodrich
Jfittrrtory „ Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman J. H. Kinealy
Wm, Kent, VitfChm. John Gorraly
R. C. C;ia*ntcr C. B. J. Snyder
H. K Holton Wm. M, Mackay, Secy.
1906
President
1st Vice-President
2nd Vice-President
Treasurer,.
Secretary^.
.C. B. J. Snyder
.T. J. Waters
_,es G. Scollay
'm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, John Gormly
C. B. J. Snyder, Vice-Chm. James Mackay
R. C. Carpenter B. F. Stangland
Frank K. Chew T. J. Waters
A. B. Franklin Wm. M. Mackay, Secy.
1902
President ,„ A, E. Kenrick
jfxf rM<«7*r««fr»f,., ,.„,. Andrew Harvey
Vitt*Prt*id€nt Robert C. Ckrkson
, Jutlaon A. Goodrich
. ,..».« Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman. A. K. Kenrick
John <*ormly, ViVr-C/im. J. H. Kinealy
R, C. Catrttrntcr C. B. J. Snyder
Wni, K*M Wm, M. Macfcay, Seey.
1907
President
1st Vice-President
2nd Vice-President
Treasurer
Secretary.
_C. B. J. Snyder
James Mackay
_Wm. G. Snow
...Ulysses G. Scollay
...Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, C. B. J. Snyder
James Mackay, Vice-Chm. Frank K. Chew
R. E, Atkinson A. B. Franklin
R. C. Carpenter Wm. G. Snow
Edmund F. Capron Wm. M. Mackay, Secy.
1903
Prctident ........ ! ....................... . ............... II. D. Crane
1 1/ ViwPraMfnt .......... . ............................ Wm. Kent
#«*( Viet-Praidftit ................................. K. P. Bolton
7Vr0f«iw ........ , .......................... Judson A. Goodrich
. ...... ~ ............. .Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, H. I). Crane
* Vw-Chm. A. E. Kenrick
<}fo. Mohring
Wm. M. Mackay, Secy.
1908
C. H, J,
H, C.
J«»hn <
—
£nd Vice-President-
Treasttrer
Secretary
James Mackay
Jas. D. Hoffman
., B. F. Stangland
Ulysses G. Scollay
...Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, James Mackay
Jas.D.Hoffman.P'V^CAm. John F. Hale
k F. Stangland August Kehm
R. C. Carpenter C. B. J. Snyder
Frank K. Chew Wm. M. Mackay. Seey.
1904
Pnxident , ...Andrew Harvey
l*t Vifr*t*mid«nt.,., John Gormly
*nd VitfPrfudfnt,., Robert C. Clarkson
Trtasuffr Ulyssea G. Sco lay
$«treiury Vvm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, Andrew Harvey
U. D. Crane
A* K. Kenrick
]; J | ; liUtf kmore C . B. J; Snyder
tt, C Cftrimicer Wm. M. Muckay, Secy.
1909
President ~.
1st Vice-President....
$nd Vice-President...
Treasttrer
Secretary —
Wra. G. Snow
August Kehm
B. S. Harrison
..Ulysses G. Scollay
....Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, Wm. G. Snow
August Kehm, Vicc-Chm. Samuel R. Lewis
John R. Allen James Mackay
R C Carpenter B. F. Stangland
B.' S. Harrison Wm. M. Mackay. Secy.
77
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
President
1st Vice-President
2nd Vice-President.^.
1910
....-Jas. D. Hoffman
R. p. Bolton
Samuel R. Lewis
Treasurer Ulysses G. Scollay
Secretary Wm. M. Mackay
Board of Governors
Chairman, Jaa. D. Hoffman
R. P. Bolton, Vice-Chm. John F. Hale
Geo. W. Barr Samuel R. Lewis
R. C. Carpenter James Mackay
Judson A. Goodrich Wm, M. Mackay, Secy.
1911
President R. P. Bolton
1st Vice-President _ John R. Allen
2nd Vice-President A. B. Franklin
Treasurer Ulysses G. Scollay
Secretary Wm. W. Macon
Board of Governors
Chairman, R. P. Bolton
John R. Allen, Vice-Chm. A. B. Franklin
John T. Bradley Jas. D. Hoffman
R. C. Carpenter August Kehm
James H. Davis Wm. W, Macon, Secy.
1912
President .. „ John R. Allen
1st V ice-President John F. Hale
2nd Vice-president Edmund F. Capron
Treasurer. James A. Donnelly
Secretary .Wm. W. Macon
Board of Governors
Chairman, John R. Allen
John F. Hale, Vice-Chm. Dwight D. Kimball
Edmund F. Capron Samuel R. Lewis
R. P. Bolton Wm. M. Mackay
Jas. D. Hoffman Wm. W, Macon, Secy.
1913
President „ John F. Hale
1st Vice-President „ A. B. Franklin
&nd Vice-President ...Edmund F. Capron
Treasurer.* „ Jamee A, Donnelly
Secretary. — Edwin A. Scott
Board of Governors
Chairman, John F. Hale
A. B. Franklin, Vice-Chm. James A. Donnelly
John R. Allen Dwight D. Kimball
Edmund F. Capron Wm. W. Macon
R. P. Bolton James M. Stannard
Frank T. Chapman Theodore Weinshank
Ralph Collamore Edwin A. Scott, Secy.
1914
President Samuel R. Lewis
1st Vice-Prcsident Edmund F. Capron
£nd Vice-President Dwight D, Kimball
Treasurer. James A. Donnelly
Secretary J, J. Blackmore
Council
Chairman, Samuel R. Lewis
E. F. Capron, Vice-Chm. ~ '
E. F. Capron, Vice-C
Dwight D. Kimball
John R. Allen
Frank T. Chapman
Frank I. Cooper
James A. Donnelly
John F. Hale
Harry M. Hart
Frank G. McCann
Wm, W. Macon
James M. Stannard
J. J. Blackmore, Secy.
1915
President Dwiftht D. Kimball
1st Vice-President _ Harry M. Hart
2nd Vice-President. Frank T. Chapman
Treasurer.^ Homer Addams
Secretary J. J. Blackmore
Council
Chairman, Dwight D. Kimball
Harry M. Hart, Vice-Chm. Samuel R. Lewis
Homer Addams Frank G. McCann
Frank T. Chapman J. T. J. Mellon
Frank I. Cooper Henry C, Meyer, Jr.
E. Vernon Hill Arthur K. Ohmes
Wm. M. Kingsbury J. J. Blackmore, Secy.
1916
President Harry M. Hart
1st Vice-President Frank T. Chapman
Snd Vice-President Arthur K. Olmuifl
Treasurer.^ Homer Addams
Secretary Casin W. Obert
Council
Chairman, Harry M. Hart
F. T. Chapman, Vice-Chm. Dwight D. Kimball
Homer Addams Henry C. Meyer, Jr.
Charles R. Bishop Arthur K. Ohmes
Frank I. Cooper Fred R. Still
Milton W, Franklin Walter S. Timmis
E. Vernon Hill Caain W. Obert, Secy.
1917
President J. Irvine Lyle
1st Vice-President , ..Arthur K. Ohxnea
Snd Vice-President Krcd R. Still
Treasurer.*...* ...,,. .Homer Acldurau
Secretary Casln \V. Ob«rt
Council
Chairman, J. Irvine Lyle
A. K. Ohmes, Vice»Chm. Harry M. Hurt
Homer Addarua K. Vernon Hilt
Davis S. Boydcn James M. Stannard
Bert C. Davis Fred R. Still
Milton W. Krunklin Walter S. Timmia
Charles A. Fuller Caain \V, Ohm, Stey.
191ft
President Kr<*el R. Still
1st Vice-president Walter 8. Timmia
2nd Vice-President...- K. Vcrnon Hill
Treasurer.* ., Homer Adtlaius
Secretary Caain W* Ohert
Council
Chairman, Krcd K. Still
W. S. Timmis, Vice-Chm* J. trvin« Lyle
Homer Addams K. Vernon Hill
William II. Driscoll Frank G* I'heglcy
Howard II. Fielding Fred, W. Powers
H. P. Gant Champlant L. Riley
C. W. Kimball Casin W. Obert, .SVcy.
1919
President ........ ......................... Walter S. Timmis
1st Vice-President ......................... K. Vernon Hill
8nd Vice-President ..... ..... .......... Milton W. Krunklin
Treasurer.,.,... ....................... . ......... .Homer AcUIuinn
Secretary ................................... ......... Casin W.
Council
Chairman, Walter S, TJ minis
E. Vernon Hill, Viee-Chm. Frank O. Phcgley
Homer Addams Krcd. W. Poweru
Howard H. Kidding Robt. W. !>ryor, Jr.
Milton W. Franklin Ckimplnin L, Ritey
Harry E. Gerrish Fred K, Still
George B. Nichols Caiin W, Obort, Stc
78
ROLL or MEMBERSHIP
1920
President. ... E. Vernon Hill
1st Vicf*Prfstdent Champlain L. Riley
2nd V ice-President Jay R. McColl
Treasurer Homer Addaras
Secretary Casin W. Obert
Council
Chairman, K. Vernon Hill
C. L. Uilcy. r*re-O*m. Jay R. McColl
Humor Addams George B. Nichols
Jos. A. Cutler Roht. W. Pryor, Jr.
Win. H, DriHcolI VV. S. Timmis
A. C. Kd&ir Perry West
A If ml K>HOKK Casin W. Obert, Secy.
1921
Prudent Champlain L. Riley
/*{ I'lft.Prrsidfnl Jay R, McColl
iind rhf-Prfiidtnt H. P. Gant
Treasurer , Homer Addams
tiffrctary Casin W. Obcrt
Council
Chairman, Champluin L. Riley
Jay R. McColl, Vice-Chm. E. S, Hallett
limner Acldam* K. Vernon Hill
JOB, A. Cutler Alfred Kellogg
Samuel K. Dibble K, E. McNair
Win. II. I)riflcnll Perry West
H. P. ( ;.mt Cuein W. Obert, Secy.
1922
Prrxidfrt ...................................... Jay R. McColl
/t< VitfPrcsidfnt ................................... H. P. Gant
Jttd \'it.t*Frf<tidtnt ................ Samuel E. Dibble
TrsuMfr .......................... ..... Homer Addams
.................................. CaainW. Obert
Council
Chairman, Jay R. McColl
II, 1*. (5;mt» rice-C/im* L. A. Harding
Hointkr Atldaiiw K. K. McNair
Jn». A. Cutter II. J.Meyer
Samuel K, UlbMc C. L. Rilcy
Win, H, HriHmll Perry West
K. S. Hallett Caain W. Obert, 5«y.
1923
, H. P. Gant
Homer Addams
i/ E. E. McNair
Win. H.DriacoU
Xttsttory C, W, Obert
Council
Chairman, H, P. Cant
Hi miff AtUlHtnn, Vict-Chm. E. S. Hallett
W, U. Currier Alfred Kellogg
, A. (lutter Thornton Lewis
\ K. DihMv E. E. McNair
Witt, H. Driscoll Perry West
Caain W. Obert, Secy,
jfu
IW
J,
S,
1924
., Homer Addams
1st Vit'f-Prfxittftit •£• E. Dibble
Hnd Vitr*PrrsMrnt William H. Driscoll
'/>r«A«r**r Perry West
", , F. C. Houghten
Council
Chairman, Homer Addams
S, K, Dibble, Vi'wr-CViw, W. B. GUlham
K. Piiul Anclert^m L. A. Harding
W. H. <:arrit*r Alfred Kellogg
J. A. Cutler Thornton Lewis
William II. Drltxtoll Perry West
H . 1*, Citint K. C. Houghtcn* Secy.
President
1st Vice-President
2nd Vice-President
Treasurer.
Secretary
1925
S. E. Dibble
......Wm. H. Driscoll
F. Paul Anderson
Perry West
F. C, Houghten
Council
Chairman, S. E. Dibble
Wm. H. Driscoll, Vice-Chm. W. T. Jones
Homer Addams Thornton Lewis
F. Paul Anderson J. H. Walker
W. H. Carrier Perry West
~. A. Cutler A. C. Willard
". E. Gillham F. C. Houghten, Secy.
fc:
President...
1st Vice-president
£nd Vice-President,
Treasurer.*
Secretary.^.
1926
....-W. H. Driscoll
..F. Paul Anderson
A. C. Willard
.W. E. Gillham
..A. V. Hutchinson
Council
Chairman, W. H. Driscoll
F. Paul Anderson, Vice-Chm. C. V. Haynes
W. H. Carrier W. T. Jones
J. A. Cutler E. B. Langenbeig
S. E. Dibble Thornton Lewis
W. E. Gillham J. F. Mclntire
A. C. Willard
President
1st Vice-President
%nl Vice-President ..
Treasurer.
Secretary
1927
....F. Paul Anderson
..A. C. Wilkud
Thornton Lewis
_W. E. Gillham
A. V. Hutchinsou
Council
Chairman, F. Paul Anderson
A. C. Willard, Vice-Chm. John Howatt
H. H. Angus W. T. Jones
W. H. Carrier J. J. Kissick
W. H. Driscoll E. B. Langenber«
Roswell Farnham Thornton Lewis
H. H. Fielding J. F. Mclntire
W. E. Gillham H. Lee Moore
C. V. Haynes F. B. Rowley
President
1st Vice-President
Snd Vice-President
1928
Secretary.,.
A. C. Willard
Thornton Lewis
L. A. Harding
.W. E. Gillham
A. V. Hutchinson
Council
Chairman, A. C. Willard
Thornton Lewis, Vice-Chm. C. V. Haynes
F. Paul Anderson John Howatt
H. H. Angus W. T. Jones
W. H. Carrier J. J. Kissick
N. W. Downes E. B. LangenberK
Roswell Farnham J. F. Mclntire
W. E. Gillham H. Lee Moore
F. B. Rowley
1929
President _
1st Vice-President....,
Snd Vice-President
Treasurer.,
Secretary.^
Technical Secretary
.....Thornton Lewis
L. A. Harding
.W. H. Carrier
......W. E. GiUham
A. V. Hutchinson
....P. D. Close
Council
Chairman, Thornton Lewis
L. A. Harding, Vice-Chm. John Howatt
H. H, Angus W. T. Jones
W. H. Carrier E. B. Langenberg
N. W. Downes G. L. Larson
Roswell Farnham F. C. Mclntosh
W E. Gillham W. A. Rowe
CV.Hayaes
79
HEATING VENTILATING AIR CONDITIONING GUIDE 1938
1930
President
, L. A. Harding
W. H. Carrier
F. B. Rowley
st Vice-President
£ nd Vice-Presides
Treasurer C. W. Farrar
Secretary " A" V. Hutchinson
Technical Secretary^ Jl P. D. Close
Council
Chairman, L. A. Harding
W. H. Carrier, Vice-Chm. John Howatt
H. H. Angus W. T. Jones
D. S. Boyden E. B. Langenberg
R. H. Carpenter G. L. Larson
J. D. Cassell Thornton Lewis
N. W. Downcs F. C. Mclntosh
Roswell Farnham W. A. Rowe
C. W. Farrar F. B. Rowley
1934
President „ C. V. Hayncs
1st Vice-President „ John Howatt
Snd Vice-President G. L. Larson
Treasurer.^ D. S. Boyden
Secretary A. V. Hutchinaon
Council
Chairman, C. V. Haynes
John Howatt, Vice-Chm, W. T, Jones
M, C. Beman G. L. Larson
D. S. Boyden J. F. Mclntire
Albert Buenger F. C. Mclntosh
R. H. Carpenter L. Walter Moon
J. D. Cassell O. W. Ott
F. E. Giesocke W. A. Russell
E. H. Gurney W. E, Stark
1931
President _ W. H. Carrier
1st Vice-President J..".,F. B, Rowley
£nd Vice-President „ W. T. Jones
Treasurer. . . „ F. D, Mcnsing
Secretary..- A. V. Hutchinson
Technical Secretary P. D. Close
Council
Chairman, W. H. Carrier
F. B. Rowley, Vice-Chm. L. A. Harding
D, S. Boyden John Howatt
E, K. Campbell W. T. Jones
R. H. Carpenter E. B. Langcnberg
J. D. Cassell G. L. Larson
E. O. Eastwood F, C. Mclntosh
Roswell Farnham F. D. Mensing
E. H. Gurney W. A. Rowe
1935
President ...John Howatt
1st Vice-President G. L, Larson
£nd Vice-President. D, S. Hoy<ien
Treasurer i\. J. Offncr
Secretary — A* V. Hutchinton
Council
Chairman, John Howatt
G. L. Larson, Vice-Chm. C, V. Hayntv
M. C. Beman J. Is Mdntir*
D. S. Boyck'n K. C. Mclntosh
Albert Bupnwr L. Walter Moon
R. H. Carm'nter A. J. Offnor
J.D. Caaaell O. W. Ott
F. E. Gitsecke VV. A, KusaHl
E. H. Gurney W. K. Stark
1932
President „
1st Vice-President.^.
2nd Vice-President.,
Treasurer^
Secretary.
Technical Secretary
Council
. B. Rowley
.....W. T. Jones
....C. V. Hayncs
F. D. Monsing
..A. V. Hutchinson
P. D. Close
,,r * Chairman, F. B. Rowley
W. T. Jones, Vice-Chm. F. E. Gicsecke
D. S. Boyden E, H. Gurney
E. K. Campbell C. V. Hayncs
R. H. Carpenter John Hoxvatt
W. H. Carrier G. L, Larson
John D. Cassell J. F. Mclntlre
E. O. Eastwood k D. Mensing
Roswell Farnham W. E. Stark
1936
President. .„ ..............................
1st Vtce-Prfsidtni... .............. ....
2nd Vicc-Prfsidcnt ...... . ......... .
Treasurer
Secretary. ............................... „ ..,
........... <}, I,, Uinwn
, . , D, s, Noy<|pfi
,. , , K, H, <r»rm»y
A. J. Otfrwr
. A. V. HutctunMtn
Council
Chairman, G. L.
D. S, Hoyden, Vitc-Chm.
M, C. Heman
R. C. Bolntafttr
A»«;rt Bueiiwr
S. H. Down*
W, L. Ktalihcr
F. E. Glmckc
E, H. Gurnfty
J4,»hn Howatt
C. M. !!umnhrt*ys
L, Walter .\fm»n
J. K. Mrlntirr
A, L C)lfn«»r
O. W, Ott
W. A. Ktr.^ll
W, JC. Stark
1933
President
1st Vice-President.. ..1V.VZ
Sna Vice-President.,.,
Treasurer „..
Secretary.*
W. T. J<mt»s
C. V, Haymra
John Howatt
D* S. Hoyden
.....A. V, Hutehnwon
Council
Chairman, W. T. Jones
C. V. Haynes, Vice-Chm. E, H. Crurney
D. S. Boyden John Howatt
E. K. Campbell G, L, Ur«on
R. H. Carpenter T. F, Mclntirc
iD.Cassell F.C.Mclnto«U
E. 0. Eastwood L. W, Moon
R. Farnham F. B* Rowlcv
F. E. Giesecke W. E, Stork
W7
President .................................... f>, s,
Istyiu-PrtMdfnt ........................... H. Holt fiitrmy
£nd Vtcc-l>rtsidt*i ......... .„,„, ............ J, \t. Mrlntiri
Ireasurcr ....................... , .......... . .......... A. j, otfner
Secretary. „ ............................. . .......... A. V. Uutrhinaoa
Council
Chairman, D. vS.
K, H. Ourwy, Vtt+Ckm.
J. J. Aelxjrly
M. C. &»rmtn
?• C. Kolsinger
Albert , Buengcr
a H. Downt
W* E. Stork
ft. (X r<tt*twrK>d
w. l» KlfiilMT
R K. CHmckc
C. M. Humphmyf
<>, L, Uim>n
W A. Kuwel!
80
LIST OF MEMBERS
Geographically Arranged
UNITED STATES
and
ISLAND TERRITORIES
ALABAMA
Lo* Angles —
San Francisco-
Fairfield—
Andmraniu C, S.
Ames, C. S.
Osborn, W. J.
lUiMttlcr, K. (r»
Anaya, M.
** v?
Hi*rKlunri, N» W.
Houcy, A,*J.
Glenbrook —
HI*!' u!v*
<;,i«' r. H, r,
Hliiincrith;il, M. I.
Bullw;k, H. H,
Otwby* K, U
Cochran, L. H.
Cockina, W. W.
Conrad, R.
Wahrenbrock, 0. K.
Greenwich —
nVhtv* r', i»*.
M tit t'h w, K, 1.,
Tuwick, ), <;.
(1im\ K. A.
( "txw «»r A W
rratwtim/W/E., Jr.
Coolcy, E, C.
Corrao, J.
Keyge, H.
Haley, H. S.
Jones, A. L.
Opperman, E. F,
Hartford—
MuhUr
i)!mnS!UH. it.
Higdon, H. S.
Krintzman, H.
KM*, M. I,.
t)owiu% A. II,
Hill, J. A,
Holland, R. B,
Hook, F, W.
Middlebtuy—
Lincoln, R. L.
ARI/.ONA
iWk, W. J.
Hcndtickatm, H, M.
Hudson, R, A,
Kindorf, H. L.
Kooistra, J, F.
New Britain—
Leupold, H. W.
'TISL, Nrai i,,
HULK/M!
Hoitu«. W. M.
Krucger, J. I.
Leland, W. E.
New Haven —
Blakeley, H. J,
ifcf i
IIut)Kt*rf()fd Lt
Marshall, T. A.
Rodee E, J.
litimmrl <», W.
ARKANSAS
Uulr Kork
Krmlalt. K. H.
Kilpatriric, W, S.
Uwr, 11. B.
UHli'lu R, K.
M1IK (r.
Motiurty, J. M.
O'Connor, G. P.
Peterson, N. H.
Simonson, G. M.
Ward, E. B.
Wayland, C, E.
Wethered, W.
White, T. J.
Seeleyi L.' E.
Teasdale, L. A.
Williams, G. S.
Winslow, C.-E. A.
New London —
Chapin, C. G.
Plitr Waft -
C t r**'i \V ti
NTrZwin. K. L.
Niw, W. H. C,
Oil, C). W.
t»,ru r v
Santa Monica—
Coghlan, S. F.
Forsberg, W.
Hopson, W, T.
South Norwalk—
KH,»mSprteft»
1 tit K, J • I**
IMiilHiM R. B.
IVutl^mutn, L-. H.
Sausalito—
Howe, W. W.
Adams, H. E.
Harvey, A. D.
jttttrftt f >• K«
Sciirchttt, J. K*
Sccli**ldi !*• C*,
South Pasadena-
Jennings, I. C.
Lyons, C. J,
CAM FORM A
WaWiiw. K. S,
WcfcM*. K. J.
Warren, H. L.
West Los Angdes—
Mead, E. A.
Wylie, H. M.
Alhany
Oakland-
Fabling, W. D.
Lchmann, M.
Stamford —
Hoyt, L. W.
K«itip« K» t jfi
('umitilnMH, 0* J«
Jehle, F.
Uttkcrnfi^lt!
Mffara, L. A,
COLORADO
Jessup, B. H.
lUlrt( U, S.
Ortxufe' -
Colorado Sprinfts—
Torrington —
!li»rk «I
Harrison, CJ. 0+
Jardine, D. C.
Doster, A,
ttrntiry. <?. K,
< limy. \\ l\.
Pacific Palisades—
Denver-
Davis, A. F.
Wallingford—
Bums, J. R.
t<*\#it '«, K
W***K H. M
Palo Alto—
McNevin, J* E.
McQuaid, D. J.
O'Rear, L, R.
Pierce, E. D.
Waterbury—
Simpson, W. K.
Stewart, C. W.
Ward O G-
Tttn*tMUIf A.
Panadcna»«
VValU, V« VT.
DELAWARE
Culvtr City
Giffuri, K, L,
Curtice, J. M.
Wilmington-
( fw*»« j I >
i« i t —
Belt, N. 0.
Pulforifm -
(»aym»r, J.
CONNECTICUT
Gawthrop, F, H.
Hayman, A. E., Jr.
Miln, C. N,
Sacramento—
Bridgeport—
Earle, F. E,
Kershaw, M. G.
Lownsbery, B. F.
tflt*tidnlttr *'
Krwman, J. C,
Smak, J, R.
Ponsell, F. L
Mmm, K I«
Of f;if, At (r,
San Diego-*
East Hartford—
Robinson, G. L.
Schoenijahn, R. P.
siorm^, K* M'
Sadlfir, C, B*
Pritchard,W.J.
Shepherd, C. B.
Live Music
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9/11